The Project Gutenberg eBook of Latin for Beginners, by Benjamin Leonard D’Ooge This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook. Title: Latin for Beginners Author: Benjamin Leonard D’Ooge Release Date: April 25, 2006 [eBook #18251] [Most recently updated: January 24, 2021] Language: English Produced by: Louise Hope, Dave Maddock and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team *** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LATIN FOR BEGINNERS *** LATIN FOR BEGINNERS BY BENJAMIN L. D’OOGE, Ph.D. Professor in the Michigan State Normal College Ginn and Company Boston · New York · Chicago · London Copyright, 1909, 1911 by Benjamin L. D’Ooge Entered at Stationers’ Hall All Rights Reserved 013.4 The Athenæum Press Ginn and Company · Proprietors · Boston · U.S.A. * * * * * CONTENTS Lesson Page Preface TO THE STUDENT--By way of Introduction 1-4 PART I. THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN ALPHABET, SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS, SYLLABLES, QUANTITY, ACCENT, HOW TO READ LATIN 5-11 PART II. WORDS AND FORMS I-VI. FIRST PRINCIPLES--_Subject and Predicate, Inflection, Number, Nominative Subject, Possessive Genitive, Agreement of Verb, Direct Object, Indirect Object, etc._--DIALOGUE 12-24 VII-VIII. FIRST OR _Ā_-DECLENSION--_Gender, Agreement of Adjectives, Word Order_ 25-30 IX-X. SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION--GENERAL RULES FOR DECLENSION--_Predicate Noun, Apposition_--DIALOGUE 31-35 XI. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 36-37 XII. NOUNS IN «-ius» AND «-ium»--GERMĀNIA 38-39 XIII. SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_)--Nouns in «-er» and «-ir»--ITALIA--DIALOGUE 39-41 XIV. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS 42-43 XV. ABLATIVE DENOTING WITH--_Cause, Means, Accompaniment, Manner_--THE ROMANS PREPARE FOR WAR 44-46 XVI. THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES 46-47 XVII. THE DEMONSTRATIVE «is, ea, id»--DIALOGUE 48-50 XVIII. CONJUGATION--Present, Imperfect, and Future of «sum»-- DIALOGUE 51-53 XIX. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amō» AND «moneō» 54-56 XX. IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amō» AND «moneō»-- _Meaning of the Imperfect_--NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN 56-57 XXI. FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «amō» AND «moneō»-- NIOBE AND HER CHILDREN (_Concluded_) 58-59 XXII. REVIEW OF VERBS--_The Dative with Adjectives_-- CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS 59-61 XXIII. PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō»-- CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (_Concluded_) 61-63 XXIV. IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō»-- _The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs_ 63-65 XXV. FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō» 65-66 XXVI. VERBS IN «-iō»--Present, Imperfect, and Future Active Indicative of «capiō»--_The Imperative_ 66-68 XXVII. PASSIVE VOICE--Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative of «amō» and «moneō»--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA 68-71 XXVIII. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF «regō» AND «audiō»--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) 72-73 XXIX. PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF «-iō» VERBS--PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE 73-75 XXX. SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS--THE ABLATIVE DENOTING FROM--_Place from Which, Separation, Personal Agent_ 75-78 XXXI. PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF «sum»-- DIALOGUE 79-81 XXXII. PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS--_Meanings of the Perfect_--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) 81-83 XXXIII. PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE-- PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE 84-85 XXXIV. REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE--PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Concluded_) 86-87 XXXV. PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE--PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE 88-90 XXXVI. REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS--_Prepositions, Yes-or-No Questions_ 90-93 XXXVII. CONJUGATION OF «possum»--_The Infinitive used as in English_--_Accusative Subject of an Infinitive_-- THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA 93-96 XXXVIII. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN-- _Agreement of the Relative_--THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (_Concluded_) 97-101 XXXIX-XLI. THE THIRD DECLENSION--Consonant Stems 101-106 XLII. REVIEW LESSON--TERROR CIMBRICUS 107 XLIII. THIRD DECLENSION--_I_-Stems 108-110 XLIV. IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION-- GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION--THE FIRST BRIDGE OVER THE RHINE 111-112 XLV. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION--THE ROMANS INVADE THE ENEMY’S COUNTRY 113-115 XLVI. THE FOURTH OR _U_-DECLENSION 116-117 XLVII. EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE--_Place to Which, Place from Which, Place at or in Which, the Locative_-- Declension of «domus»--DÆDALUS AND ICARUS 117-121 XLVIII. THE FIFTH OR _Ē_-DECLENSION--_Ablative of Time_ --DÆDALUS AND ICARUS (_Continued_) 121-123 XLIX. PRONOUNS--Personal and Reflexive Pronouns--DÆDALUS AND ICARUS (_Concluded_) 123-126 L. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN «ipse» AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE «īdem»--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE 126-127 LI. THE DEMONSTRATIVES «hic», «iste», «ille»--A GERMAN CHIEFTAIN ADDRESSES HIS FOLLOWERS--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Continued_) 128-130 LII. THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS--HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Concluded_) 130-132 LIII. REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 133-135 LIV. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES--_Ablative with Comparatives_ 135-136 LV. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Continued_)-- Declension of «plūs» 137-138 LVI. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Concluded_)-- _Ablative of the Measure of Difference_ 138-139 LVII. FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 140-142 LVIII. NUMERALS--_Partitive Genitive_ 142-144 LIX. NUMERALS (_Continued_)--_Accusative of Extent_-- CÆSAR IN GAUL 144-146 LX. DEPONENT VERBS--_Prepositions with the Accusative_ 146-147 PART III. CONSTRUCTIONS LXI. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD--Inflection of the Present-- _Indicative and Subjunctive Compared_ 148-152 LXII. THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE 152-153 LXIII. INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--_Sequence of Tenses_ 153-155 LXIV. INFLECTION OF THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE--_Substantive Clauses of Purpose_ 156-159 LXV. SUBJUNCTIVE OF «possum»--_Verbs of Fearing_ 160-161 LXVI. THE PARTICIPLES--Tenses and Declension 161-164 LXVII. THE IRREGULAR VERBS «volō», «nōlō», «mālō»-- _Ablative Absolute_ 164-166 LXVIII. THE IRREGULAR VERB «fīō»--_Subjunctive of Result_ 167-168 LXIX. SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC--_Predicate Accusative_ 169-171 LXX. CONSTRUCTIONS WITH «cum»--_Ablative of Specification_ 171-173 LXXI. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Gerund and Gerundive_-- _Predicate Genitive_ 173-177 LXXII. THE IRREGULAR VERB «eō»--_Indirect Statements_ 177-180 LXXIII. VOCABULARY REVIEW--THE IRREGULAR VERB «ferō»-- _Dative with Compounds_ 181-183 LXXIV. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Subjunctive in Indirect Questions_ 183-185 LXXV. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Dative of Purpose or End for Which_ 185-186 LXXVI. VOCABULARY REVIEW--_Genitive and Ablative of Quality or Description_ 186-188 LXXVII. REVIEW OF AGREEMENT--_Review of the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative_ 189-190 LXXVIII. REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE 191-192 LXXIX. REVIEW OF THE SYNTAX OF VERBS 192-193 READING MATTER INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS 194-195 THE LABORS OF HERCULES 196-203 P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS: THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY 204-215 APPENDIXES AND VOCABULARIES APPENDIX I. TABLES OF DECLENSIONS, CONJUGATIONS, NUMERALS, ETC. 226-260 APPENDIX II. RULES OF SYNTAX 261-264 APPENDIX III. REVIEWS 265-282 SPECIAL VOCABULARIES 283-298 LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY 299-331 ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY 332-343 INDEX 344-348 Display Problems PREFACE To make the course preparatory to Cæsar at the same time systematic, thorough, clear, and interesting is the purpose of this series of lessons. The first pages are devoted to a brief discussion of the Latin language, its history, and its educational value. The body of the book, consisting of seventy-nine lessons, is divided into three parts. Part I is devoted to pronunciation, quantity, accent, and kindred introductory essentials. Part II carries the work through the first sixty lessons, and is devoted to the study of forms and vocabulary, together with some elementary constructions, a knowledge of which is necessary for the translation of the exercises and reading matter. The first few lessons have been made unusually simple, to meet the wants of pupils not well grounded in English grammar. Part III contains nineteen lessons, and is concerned primarily with the study of syntax and of subjunctive and irregular verb forms. The last three of these lessons constitute a review of all the constructions presented in the book. There is abundant easy reading matter; and, in order to secure proper concentration of effort upon syntax and translation, no new vocabularies are introduced, but the vocabularies in Part II are reviewed. It is hoped that the following features will commend themselves to teachers: The forms are presented in their natural sequence, and are given, for the most part, in the body of the book as well as in a grammatical appendix. The work on the verb is intensive in character, work in other directions being reduced to a minimum while this is going on. The forms of the subjunctive are studied in correlation with the subjunctive constructions. The vocabulary has been selected with the greatest care, using Lodge’s “Dictionary of Secondary Latin” and Browne’s “Latin Word List” as a basis. There are about six hundred words, exclusive of proper names, in the special vocabularies, and these are among the simplest and commonest words in the language. More than ninety-five per cent of those chosen are Cæsarian, and of these more than ninety per cent are used in Cæsar five or more times. The few words not Cæsarian are of such frequent occurrence in Cicero, Vergil, and other authors as to justify their appearance here. But teachers desiring to confine word study to Cæsar can easily do so, as the Cæsarian words are printed in the vocabularies in distinctive type. Concrete nouns have been preferred to abstract, root words to compounds and derivatives, even when the latter were of more frequent occurrence in Cæsar. To assist the memory, related English words are added in each special vocabulary. To insure more careful preparation, the special vocabularies have been removed from their respective lessons and placed by themselves. The general vocabulary contains about twelve hundred words, and of these above eighty-five per cent are found in Cæsar. The syntax has been limited to those essentials which recent investigations, such as those of Dr. Lee Byrne and his collaborators, have shown to belong properly to the work of the first year. The constructions are presented, as far as possible, from the standpoint of English, the English usage being given first and the Latin compared or contrasted with it. Special attention has been given to the constructions of participles, the gerund and gerundive, and the infinitive in indirect statements. Constructions having a logical connection are not separated but are treated together. Exercises for translation occur throughout, those for translation into Latin being, as a rule, only half as long as those for translation into English. In Part III a few of the commoner idioms in Cæsar are introduced and the sentences are drawn mainly from that author. From first to last a consistent effort is made to instill a proper regard for Latin word order, the first principles of which are laid down early in the course. Selections for reading are unusually abundant and are introduced from the earliest possible moment. These increase in number and length as the book progresses, and, for the most part, are made an integral part of the lessons instead of being massed at the end of the book. This arrangement insures a more constant and thorough drill in forms and vocabulary, promotes reading power, and affords a breathing spell between succeeding subjects. The material is drawn from historical and mythological sources, and the vocabulary employed includes but few words not already learned. The book closes with a continued story which recounts the chief incidents in the life of a Roman boy. The last chapters record his experiences in Cæsar’s army, and contain much information that will facilitate the interpretation of the Commentaries. The early emphasis placed on word order and sentence structure, the simplicity of the syntax, and the familiarity of the vocabulary, make the reading selections especially useful for work in sight translation. Reviews are called for at frequent intervals, and to facilitate this branch of the work an Appendix of Reviews has been prepared, covering both the vocabulary and the grammar. The illustrations are numerous, and will, it is hoped, do much to stimulate interest in the ancient world and to create true and lasting impressions of Roman life and times. A consistent effort has been made to use simple language and clear explanation throughout. As an aid to teachers using this book a “Teacher’s Manual” has been prepared, which contains, in addition to general suggestions, notes on each lesson. The author wishes to express his gratitude to the numerous teachers who tested the advance pages in their classes, and, as a result of their experience, have given much valuable aid by criticism and suggestion. Particular acknowledgments are due to Miss A. Susan Jones of the Central High School, Grand Rapids, Michigan; to Miss Clara Allison of the High School at Hastings, Michigan; and to Miss Helen B. Muir and Mr. Orland O. Norris, teachers of Latin in this institution. BENJAMIN L. D’OOGE MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL COLLEGE LATIN FOR BEGINNERS TO THE STUDENT--BY WAY OF INTRODUCTION «What is Latin?» If you will look at the map of Italy on the opposite page, you will find near the middle of the peninsula and facing the west coast a district called Latium,[1] and Rome its capital. The Latin language, meaning the language of Latium, was spoken by the ancient Romans and other inhabitants of Latium, and Latin was the name applied to it after the armies of Rome had carried the knowledge of her language far beyond its original boundaries. As the English of to-day is not quite the same as that spoken two or three hundred years ago, so Latin was not always the same at all times, but changed more or less in the course of centuries. The sort of Latin you are going to learn was in use about two thousand years ago. And that period has been selected because the language was then at its best and the greatest works of Roman literature were being produced. This period, because of its supreme excellence, is called the Golden Age of Roman letters. [Footnote 1: Pronounce _Lā´shĭ-ŭm_.] «The Spread of Latin.» For some centuries after Rome was founded, the Romans were a feeble and insignificant people, their territory was limited to Latium, and their existence constantly threatened by warlike neighbors. But after the third century before Christ, Rome’s power grew rapidly. She conquered all Italy, then reached out for the lands across the sea and beyond the Alps, and finally ruled over the whole ancient world. The empire thus established lasted for more than four hundred years. The importance of Latin increased with the growth of Roman power, and what had been a dialect spoken by a single tribe became the universal language. Gradually the language changed somewhat, developing differently in different countries. In Italy it has become Italian, in Spain Spanish, and in France French. All these nations, therefore, are speaking a modernized form of Latin. «The Romans and the Greeks.» In their career of conquest the Romans came into conflict with the Greeks. The Greeks were inferior to the Romans in military power, but far superior to them in culture. They excelled in art, literature, music, science, and philosophy. Of all these pursuits the Romans were ignorant until contact with Greece revealed to them the value of education and filled them with the thirst for knowledge. And so it came about that while Rome conquered Greece by force of arms, Greece conquered Rome by force of her intellectual superiority and became her schoolmaster. It was soon the established custom for young Romans to go to Athens and to other centers of Greek learning to finish their training, and the knowledge of the Greek language among the educated classes became universal. At the same time many cultured Greeks--poets, artists, orators, and philosophers--flocked to Rome, opened schools, and taught their arts. Indeed, the preëminence of Greek culture became so great that Rome almost lost her ambition to be original, and her writers vied with each other in their efforts to reproduce in Latin what was choicest in Greek literature. As a consequence of all this, the civilization and national life of Rome became largely Grecian, and to Greece she owed her literature and her art. «Rome and the Modern World.» After conquering the world, Rome impressed her language, laws, customs of living, and modes of thinking upon the subject nations, and they became Roman; and the world has remained largely Roman ever since. Latin continued to live, and the knowledge of Latin was the only light of learning that burned steadily through the dark ages that followed the downfall of the Roman Empire. Latin was the common language of scholars and remained so even down to the days of Shakespeare. Even yet it is more nearly than any other tongue the universal language of the learned. The life of to-day is much nearer the life of ancient Rome than the lapse of centuries would lead one to suppose. You and I are Romans still in many ways, and if Cæsar and Cicero should appear among us, we should not find them, except for dress and language, much unlike men of to-day. «Latin and English.» Do you know that more than half of the words in the English dictionary are Latin, and that you are speaking more or less Latin every day? How has this come about? In the year 1066 William the Conqueror invaded England with an army of Normans. The Normans spoke French--which, you remember, is descended from Latin--and spread their language to a considerable extent over England, and so Norman-French played an important part in the formation of English and forms a large proportion of our vocabulary. Furthermore, great numbers of almost pure Latin words have been brought into English through the writings of scholars, and every new scientific discovery is marked by the addition of new terms of Latin derivation. Hence, while the simpler and commoner words of our mother tongue are Anglo-Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon forms the staple of our colloquial language, yet in the realms of literature, and especially in poetry, words of Latin derivation are very abundant. Also in the learned professions, as in law, medicine, and engineering, a knowledge of Latin is necessary for the successful interpretation of technical and scientific terms. «Why study Latin?» The foregoing paragraphs make it clear why Latin forms so important a part of modern education. We have seen that our civilization rests upon that of Greece and Rome, and that we must look to the past if we would understand the present. It is obvious, too, that the knowledge of Latin not only leads to a more exact and effective use of our own language, but that it is of vital importance and of great practical value to any one preparing for a literary or professional career. To this it may be added that the study of Latin throws a flood of light upon the structure of language in general and lays an excellent foundation for all grammatical study. Finally, it has been abundantly proved that there is no more effective means of strengthening the mind than by the earnest pursuit of this branch of learning. «Review Questions.» Whence does Latin get its name? Where is Latium? Where is Rome? Was Latin always the same? What sort of Latin are we to study? Describe the growth of Rome’s power and the spread of Latin. What can you say of the origin of Italian, French, and Spanish? How did the ancient Greeks and Romans compare? How did Greece influence Rome? How did Rome influence the world? In what sense are we Romans still? What did Latin have to do with the formation of English? What proportion of English words are of Latin origin, and what kind of words are they? Why should we study Latin? PART I THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN THE ALPHABET «1.» The Latin alphabet contains the same letters as the English except that it has no _w_ and no _j_. «2.» The vowels, as in English, are _a, e, i, o, u, y_. The other letters are consonants. «3.» _I_ is used both as a vowel and as a consonant. Before a vowel in the same syllable it has the value of a consonant and is called _I consonant_. Thus in Iū-li-us the first _i_ is a consonant, the second a vowel. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS[1] [Footnote 1: N.B. The sounds of the letters are best learned by hearing them correctly pronounced. The matter in this section is, therefore, intended for reference rather than for assignment as a lesson. As a first step it is suggested that the teacher pronounce the examples in class, the pupils following.] «4.» Latin was not pronounced like English. The Romans at the beginning of the Christian era pronounced their language substantially as described below. «5.» The vowels have the following sounds: VOWELS[2] LATIN EXAMPLES ā as in _father_ hāc, stās ă like the first _a_ in _aha´_, never as in _hat_ ă´-măt, că-nās ē as in _they_ tē´-lă, mē´-tă ĕ as in _met_ tĕ´-nĕt, mĕr´-cēs ī as in _machine_ sĕr´-tī, prā´-tī ĭ as in _bit_ sĭ´-tĭs, bĭ´-bī ō as in _holy_ Rō´-mă, ō´-rĭs ŏ as in _wholly_, never as in _hot_ mŏ´-dŏ, bŏ´-nōs ū as in _rude_, or as _oo_ in _boot_ ū´-mŏr, tū´-bĕr ŭ as in _full_, or as _oo_ in _foot_ ŭt, tū´-tŭs NOTE. It is to be observed that there is a decided difference in sound, except in the case of _a_, between the long and the short vowels. It is not merely a matter of _quantity_ but also of _quality_. [Footnote 2: Long vowels are marked ¯, short ones ˘.] «6.» In «diphthongs» (two-vowel sounds) both vowels are heard in a single syllable. DIPHTHONGS LATIN EXAMPLES «ae» as _ai_ in _aisle_ tae´-dae «au» as _ou_ in _out_ gau´-dĕt «ei» as _ei_ in _eight_ dein´-dĕ «eu» as _ĕ´o͝o_ (a short _e_ followed by a short _u_ in one syllable) seu «oe» like _oi_ in _toil_ foe´-dŭs «ui» like _o͝o´ĭ_ (a short _u_ followed by a short _i_ in one syllable. Cf. English _we_) cui, huic NOTE. Give all the vowels and diphthongs their proper sounds and do not slur over them in unaccented syllables, as is done in English. «7.» «Consonants» are pronounced as in English, except that CONSONANTS LATIN EXAMPLES «c» is always like _c_ in _cat_, never as in _cent_ că´-dō, cĭ´-bŭs, cē´-nă «g» is always like _g_ in _get_, never as in _gem_ gĕ´-mō, gĭg´-nō «i consonant» is always like _y_ in _yes_ iăm, iŏ´-cŭs «n» before _c, qu_, or _g_ is like _ng_ in _sing_ (compare the sound of _n_ in _anchor_) ăn´-cŏ-ră (ang´-ko-ra) «qu», «gu», and sometimes «su» before a vowel have the sound of _qw, gw_, and _sw_. Here _u_ has the value of consonant _v_ and is not counted a vowel ĭn´-quĭt, quī, lĭn´-guă, săn´-guĭs, suā´-dĕ-ō «s» is like _s_ in _sea_, never as in _ease_ rŏ´-să, ĭs «t» is always like _t_ in _native_, never as in _nation_ ră´-tĭ-ō, nā´-tĭ-ō «v» is like _w_ in _wine_, never as in _vine_ «vī´-nŭm», «vĭr» «x» has the value of two consonants (_cs_ or _gs_) and is like _x_ in _extract_, not as in _exact_ «ĕx´-trā», «ĕx-āc´-tŭs» «bs» is like _ps_ and «bt» like _pt_ «ŭrbs», «ŏb-tĭ´-nĕ-ō» «ch», «ph», and «th» are like _c_, _p_, _t_ «pŭl´-chĕr», «Phoe´-bē», «thĕ-ā´-trŭm» _a._ In combinations of consonants give each its distinct sound. Doubled consonants should be pronounced with a slight pause between the two sounds. Thus pronounce _tt_ as in _rat-trap_, not as in _rattle_; _pp_ as in _hop-pole_, not as in _upper_. Examples, «mĭt´-tō», «Ăp´pĭ-ŭs», «bĕl´-lŭm.» SYLLABLES «8.» A Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs. Thus «aes-tā´-tĕ» has three syllables, «au-dĭ-ĕn´-dŭs» has four. _a._ Two vowels with a consonant between them never make one syllable, as is so often the case in English. Compare English _inside_ with Latin īn-sī´-dĕ. «9.» Words are divided into syllables as follows: 1. A single consonant between two vowels goes with the second. Thus «ă-mā´-bĭ-lĭs», «mĕ-mŏ´-rĭ-ă», «ĭn-tĕ´-rĕ-ā», «ă´-bĕst», «pĕ-rē´-gĭt».[3] [Footnote 3: In writing and printing it is customary to divide the parts of a compound, as «inter-eā», «ab-est», «sub-āctus», «per-ēgit», contrary to the correct phonetic rule.] 2. Combinations of two or more consonants: _a._ A consonant followed by _l_ or _r_ goes with the _l_ or _r_. Thus «pū´-blĭ-cŭs», «ă´-grī». EXCEPTION. Prepositional compounds of this nature, as also _ll_ and _rr_, follow rule _b_. Thus «ăb´-lŭ-ō», «ăb-rŭm´-pō», «ĭl´-lĕ», «fĕr´-rŭm». _b._ In all other combinations of consonants the first consonant goes with the preceding vowel.[4] Thus «măg´-nŭs», «ĕ-gĕs´-tās», «vĭc-tō´-rĭ-ă», «hŏs´-pĕs», «ăn´-nŭs», «sŭ-bāc´-tŭs». [Footnote 4: The combination nct is divided nc-t, as fūnc-tŭs, sānc-tŭs.] 3. The last syllable of a word is called the _ul´-ti-ma_; the one next to the last, the _pe-nult´_; the one before the penult, the _an´-te-pe-nult´_. «10.» EXERCISE Divide the words in the following passage into syllables and pronounce them, placing the accent as indicated: Vā́dĕ ăd fŏrmī́căm, Ō pĭ́gĕr, ĕt cōnsī́dĕrā vĭ́ās ĕ́iŭs ĕt dĭ́scĕ săpĭĕ́ntĭăm: quae cŭm nōn hắbĕăt dŭ́cĕm nĕc praecĕptṓrĕm nĕc prī́ncĭpĕm, pắrăt ĭn aestā́tĕ cĭ́bŭm sĭ́bĭ ĕt cŏ́ngrĕgăt ĭn mĕ́ssĕ quŏd cŏ́mĕdăt. [[Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise: which, having no guide, overseer, or ruler, provideth her meat in the summer and gathereth her food in the harvest.]] QUANTITY «11.» The quantity of a vowel or a syllable is the time it takes to pronounce it. Correct pronunciation and accent depend upon the proper observance of quantity. «12.» «Quantity of Vowels.» Vowels are either long (¯) or short (˘). In this book the long vowels are marked. Unmarked vowels are to be considered short. 1. A vowel is short before another vowel or _h_; as «pŏ-ē´-ta», «tră´-hō». 2. A vowel is short before _nt_ and _nd_, before final _m_ or _t_, and, except in words of one syllable, before final _l_ or _r_. Thus «a´-mănt», «a-măn´-dus», «a-mā´-băm», «a-mā´-băt», «a´-ni-măl», «a´-mŏr». 3. A vowel is long before _nf_, _ns_, _nx_, and _nct_. Thus «īn´-fe-rō», «re´-gēns», «sān´-xī», «sānc´-tus». 4. Diphthongs are always long, and are not marked. «13.» «Quantity of Syllables.» Syllables are either long or short, and their quantity must be carefully distinguished from that of vowels. 1. «A syllable is short», _a._ If it ends in a short vowel; as «ă´-mō», «pĭ´-grĭ». NOTE. In final syllables the short vowel may be followed by a final consonant. Thus the word «mĕ-mŏ´-rĭ-ăm» contains four short syllables. In the first three a short vowel ends the syllable, in the last the short vowel is followed by a final consonant. 2. «A syllable is long», _a._ If it contains a long vowel or a diphthong, as «cū´-rō», «poe´-nae», «aes-tā´-te». _b._ If it ends in a consonant which is followed by another consonant, as «cor´-pus», «mag´-nus». NOTE. The vowel in a long syllable may be either long or short, and should be pronounced accordingly. Thus in «ter´-ra», «in´-ter», the first syllable is long, but the vowel in each case is short and should be given the short sound. In words like «saxum» the first syllable is long because _x_ has the value of two consonants (_cs_ or _gs_). 3. In determining quantity _h_ is not counted a consonant. NOTE. Give about twice as much time to the long syllables as to the short ones. It takes about as long to pronounce a short vowel plus a consonant as it does to pronounce a long vowel or a diphthong, and so these quantities are considered equally long. For example, it takes about as long to say «cŭr´-rō» as it does «cū´-rō», and so each of these first syllables is long. Compare «mŏl´-lis» and «mō´-lis», «ā-mĭs´-sī» and «ā-mi´-sī». ACCENT «14.» Words of two syllables are accented on the first, as «mēn´-sa», «Cae´-sar». «15.» Words of more than two syllables are accented on the penult if the penult is long. If the penult is short, accent the antepenult. Thus «mo-nē´-mus», «re´-gi-tur», «a-gri´-co-la», «a-man´-dus». NOTE. Observe that the position of the accent is determined by the length of the _syllable_ and not by the length of the vowel in the syllable. (Cf. §13.2, Note.) «16.» Certain little words called _enclit´ics_[5] which have no separate existence, are added to and pronounced with a preceding word. The most common are «-que», _and_; «-ve», _or_; and «-ne», the question sign. The syllable before an enclitic takes the accent, regardless of its quantity. Thus «populus´que», «dea´que», «rēgna´ve», «audit´ne». [Footnote 5: Enclitic means _leaning back_, and that is, as you see, just what these little words do. They cannot stand alone and so they lean back for support upon the preceding word.] HOW TO READ LATIN «17.» To read Latin well is not so difficult, if you begin right. Correct habits of reading should be formed now. Notice the quantities carefully, especially the quantity of the penult, to insure your getting the accent on the right syllable. (Cf. §15.) Give every vowel its proper sound and every syllable its proper length. Then bear in mind that we should read Latin as we read English, in phrases rather than in separate words. Group together words that are closely connected in thought. No good reader halts at the end of each word. «18.» Read the stanzas of the following poem by Longfellow, one at a time, first the English and then the Latin version. The syllables inclosed in parentheses are to be slurred or omitted to secure smoothness of meter. EXCELSIOR [[HIGHER]]! [6] The shades of night were falling fast, As through an Alpine village passed A youth, who bore, ’mid snow and ice, A banner with the strange device, Excelsior! Cadēbant noctis umbrae, dum Ibat per vīcum Alpicum Gelū nivequ(e) adolēscēns, Vēxillum cum signō ferēns, Excelsior! His brow was sad; his eye beneath, Flashed like a falchion from its sheath, And like a silver clarion rung The accents of that unknown tongue, Excelsior! Frōns trīstis, micat oculus Velut ē vāgīnā gladius; Sonantque similēs tubae Accentūs lingu(ae) incognitae, Excelsior! In happy homes he saw the light Of household fires gleam warm and bright; Above, the spectral glaciers shone, And from his lips escaped a groan, Excelsior! In domibus videt clārās Focōrum lūcēs calidās; Relucet glaciēs ācris, Et rumpit gemitūs labrīs, Excelsior! “Try not the Pass!” the old man said; “Dark lowers the tempest overhead, The roaring torrent is deep and wide!” And loud that clarion voice replied, Excelsior! Dīcit senex, “Nē trānseās! Suprā nigrēscit tempestās; Lātus et altus est torrēns.” Clāra vēnit vōx respondēns, Excelsior! At break of day, as heavenward The pious monks of Saint Bernard Uttered the oft-repeated prayer, A voice cried through the startled air, Excelsior! Iam lūcēscēbat, et frātrēs Sānctī Bernardī vigilēs Ōrābant precēs solitās, Cum vōx clāmāvit per aurās, Excelsior! A traveler, by the faithful hound, Half-buried in the snow was found, Still grasping in his hand of ice That banner with the strange device, Excelsior! Sēmi-sepultus viātor Can(e) ā fīdō reperītur, Comprēndēns pugnō gelidō Illud vēxillum cum signō, Excelsior! There in the twilight cold and gray, Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay, And from the sky, serene and far, A voice fell, like a falling star, Excelsior! Iacet corpus exanimum Sed lūce frīgidā pulchrum; Et caelō procul exiēns Cadit vōx, ut Stella cadēns, Excelsior! [Footnote 6: Translation by C. W. Goodchild in _Praeco Latinus_, October, 1898.] PART II WORDS AND FORMS LESSON I FIRST PRINCIPLES «19.» «Subject and Predicate.» 1. Latin, like English, expresses thoughts by means of sentences. A sentence is a combination of words that expresses a thought, and in its simplest form is the statement of a single fact. Thus, _Galba is a farmer_ «Galba est agricola» _The sailor fights_ «Nauta pugnat» In each of these sentences there are two parts: SUBJECT PREDICATE _Galba_ _is a farmer_ «Galba» _The sailor_ _fights_ «Nauta» «pugnat» 2. The subject is that person, place, or thing about which something is said, and is therefore a _noun_ or some word which can serve the same purpose. _a._ Pronouns, as their name implies (_pro_, “instead of,” and _noun_), often take the place of nouns, usually to save repeating the same noun, as, _Galba is a farmer; «he» is a sturdy fellow_. 3. The predicate is that which is said about the subject, and consists of a verb with or without modifiers. _a._ A verb is a word which asserts something (usually an act) concerning a person, place, or thing. «20.» «The Object.» In the two sentences, _The boy hit the ball_ and _The ball hit the boy_, the same words are used, but the meaning is different, and depends upon the order of the words. The «doer» of the act, that about which something is said, is, as we have seen above, the «subject». «That to which something is done» is the «direct object» of the verb. _The boy hit the ball_ is therefore analyzed as follows: SUBJECT PREDICATE /-----------\ _The boy_ _hit the ball_ (verb) (direct object) _a._ A verb whose action passes over to the object directly, as in the sentence above, is called a «transitive verb». A verb which does not admit of a direct object is called «intransitive», as, _I walk_, _he comes_. «21.» «The Copula.» The verb _to be_ in its different forms--_are_, _is_, _was_, etc.--does not tell us anything about the subject; neither does it govern an object. It simply connects the subject with the word or words in the predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence it is called the «copula», that is, _the joiner_ or _link_. «22.» In the following sentences pronounce the Latin and name the _nouns, verbs, subjects, objects, predicates, copulas_: 1. «America est patria mea» _America is fatherland my_ 2. «Agricola fīliam amat» _(The) farmer (his) daughter loves_ 3. «Fīlia est Iūlia» _(His) daughter is Julia_ 4. «Iūlia et agricola sunt in īnsulā» _Julia and (the) farmer are on (the) island_ 5. «Iūlia aquam portat» _Julia water carries_ 6. «Rosam in comīs habet» _(A) rose in (her) hair (she) has_ 7. «Iūlia est puella pulchra» _Julia is (a) girl pretty_ 8. «Domina fīliam pulchram habet» _(The) lady (a) daughter beautiful has_ _a._ The sentences above show that Latin does not express some words which are necessary in English. First of all, _Latin has no article «the» or «a»_; thus _«agricola»_ may mean _the farmer, a farmer_, or simply _farmer_. Then, too, the personal pronouns, _I, you, he, she_, etc., and the possessive pronouns, _my, your, his, her_, etc., are not expressed if the meaning of the sentence is clear without them. LESSON II FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) «23.» «Inflection.» Words may change their forms to indicate some change in sense or use, as, _is, are_; _was, were; who, whose, whom; farmer, farmer’s; woman, women_. This is called «inflection». The inflection of a noun, adjective, or pronoun is called its «declension», that of a verb its «conjugation». «24.» «Number.» Latin, like English, has two numbers, singular and plural. In English we usually form the plural by adding _-s_ or _-es_ to the singular. So Latin changes the singular to the plural by changing the ending of the word. Compare «Naut-a pugnat» _The sailor fights_ «Naut-ae pugnant» _The sailors fight_ «25.» RULE. _Nouns that end in «-a» in the singular end in «-ae» in the plural_. «26.» Learn the following nouns so that you can give the English for the Latin or the Latin for the English. Write the plural of each. «agri´cola», _farmer_ (agriculture)[1] «aqua», _water_ (aquarium) «causa», _cause, reason_ «do´mina», _lady of the house, mistress_ (dominate) «filia», _daughter_ (filial) «fortū´na», _fortune_ «fuga», _flight_ (fugitive) «iniū´ria», _wrong, injury_ «lūna», _moon_ (lunar) «nauta», _sailor_ (nautical) «puel´la», _girl_ «silva», forest (silvan) «terra», _land_ (terrace) [Footnote 1: The words in parentheses are English words related to the Latin. When the words are practically identical, as «causa», _cause_, no comparison is needed.] «27.» Compare again the sentences «Nauta pugna-t» _The sailor fights_ «Nautae pugna-nt» _The sailors fight_ In the first sentence the verb «pugna-t» is in the third person singular, in the second sentence «pugna-nt» is in the third person plural. «28.» RULE. «Agreement of Verb.» _A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject._ «29.» RULE. _In the conjugation of the Latin verb the third person singular active ends in «-t», the third person plural in «-nt». The endings which show the person and number of the verb are called «personal endings»._ «30.» Learn the following verbs and write the plural of each. The personal pronouns _he_, _she_, _it_, etc., which are necessary in the inflection of the English verb, are not needed in the Latin, because the personal endings take their place. Of course, if the verb’s subject is expressed we do not translate the personal ending by a pronoun; thus «nauta pugnat» is translated _the sailor fights_, not _the sailor he fights_. «ama-t» _he (she, it) loves, is loving, does love_ (amity, amiable) «labō´ra-t» “ “ “ _labors, is laboring, does labor_ «nūntia-t»[2] “ “ “ _announces, is announcing, does announce_ «porta-t» “ “ “ _carries, is carrying, does carry_ (porter) «pugna-t» “ “ “ _fights, is fighting, does fight_ (pugnacious) [Footnote 2: The _u_ in «nūntiō» is long by exception. (Cf. §12.2.)] «31.» EXERCISES I. 1. The daughter loves, the daughters love. 2. The sailor is carrying, the sailors carry. 3. The farmer does labor, the farmers labor. 4. The girl is announcing, the girls do announce. 5. The ladies are carrying, the lady carries. II. 1. Nauta pugnat, nautae pugnant. 2. Puella amat, puellae amant. 3. Agricola portat, agricolae portant. 4. Fīlia labōrat, fīliae labōrant. 5. Nauta nūntiat, nautae nūntiant. 6. Dominae amant, domina amat. [Illustration: DOMINA] LESSON III FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) «32.» «Declension of Nouns.» We learned above (§§19, 20) the difference between the subject and object, and that in English they may be distinguished by the order of the words. Sometimes, however, the order is such that we are left in doubt. For example, the sentence _The lady her daughter loves_ might mean either that the lady loves her daughter, or that the daughter loves the lady. 1. If the sentence were in Latin, no doubt could arise, because the subject and the object are distinguished, not by the order of the words, but by the endings of the words themselves. Compare the following sentences: «Domina fīliam amat» «Fīliam domina amat» «Amat fīliam domina» «Domina amat fīliam» _The lady loves her daughter_ «Fīlia dominam amat» «Dominam fīlia amat» «Amat dominam fīlia» «Fīlia amat dominam» _The daughter loves the lady_ _a._ Observe that in each case the subject of the sentence ends in «-a» and the object in «-am». The _form_ of the noun shows how it is used in the sentence, and the order of the words has no effect on the essential meaning. 2. As stated above (§23), this change of ending is called «declension», and each different ending produces what is called a «case». When we decline a noun, we give all its different cases, or changes of endings. In English we have three cases,--nominative, possessive, and objective; but, in nouns, the nominative and objective have the same form, and only the possessive case shows a change of ending, by adding _’s_ or the apostrophe. The interrogative pronoun, however, has the fuller declension, _who?_ _whose?_ _whom?_ «33.» The following table shows a comparison between English and Latin declension forms, and should be thoroughly memorized: ENGLISH CASES LATIN CASES +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Declension | Name of case | Declension of | Name of case | | | of _who?_ | and use | «domina» | and use | | | | | and translation | | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Who? | Nominative-- | «do´min-a» | Nominative-- | | S | | case of the | _the lady_ | case of the | | I | | subject | | subject | | N | | | | | | G | Whose? | Possessive-- | «domin-ae» | Genitive-- | | U | | case of the | _the lady’s_ | case of the | | L | | possessor | _of the lady_ | possessor | | A | | | | | | R | Whom? | Objective-- | «domin-am» | Accusative-- | | | | case of the | _the lady_ | case of the | | | | object | | direct object | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ | | Who? | Nominative-- | «domin-ae» | Nominative-- | | | | case of the | _the ladies_ | case of the | | P | | subject | | subject | | L | | | | | | U | Whose? | Possessive-- | «domin-ā´rum» | Genitive-- | | R | | case of the | _the ladies’_ | case of the | | A | | possessor | _of the ladies_ | possessor | | L | | | | | | | Whom? | Objective-- | «domin-ās» | Accusative-- | | | | case of the | _the ladies_ | case of the | | | | object | | direct object | +---+-------------+--------------+------------------+----------------+ When the nominative singular of a noun ends in «-a», observe that _a._ The nominative plural ends in «-ae». _b._ The genitive singular ends in «-ae» and the genitive plural in «-ārum». _c._ The accusative singular ends in «-am» and the accusative plural in «-ās». _d._ The genitive singular and the nominative plural have the same ending. «34.» EXERCISE Pronounce the following words and give their general meaning. Then give the number and case, and the use of each form. Where the same form stands for more than one case, give all the possible cases and uses. 1. Silva, silvās, silvam. 2. Fugam, fugae, fuga. 3. Terrārum, terrae, terrās. 4. Aquās, causam, lūnās. 5. Fīliae, fortūnae, lūnae. 6. Iniūriās, agricolārum, aquārum. 7. Iniūriārum, agricolae, puellās. 8. Nautam, agricolās, nautās. 9. Agricolam, puellam, silvārum. LESSON IV FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] [See Transcriber’s Note at beginning of text.] NOUNS «dea», _goddess_ (deity) Diā´na, _Diana_ «fera», _a wild beast_ (fierce) Lātō´na, _Latona_ «sagit´ta», _arrow_ VERBS «est», _he (she, it) is_; «sunt», _they are_ «necat», _he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill_ CONJUNCTION[A] «et», _and_ PRONOUNS «quis», interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., _who?_ «cuius» (pronounced _co͝oi´yo͝os_, two syllables), interrog. pronoun, gen. sing., _whose?_ [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.] «35.» We learned from the table (§33) that the Latin nominative, genitive, and accusative correspond, in general, to the nominative, possessive, and objective in English, and that they are used in the same way. This will be made even clearer by the following sentence: «Fīlia agricolae nautam amat», _the farmer’s daughter_ (or _the daughter of the farmer_) _loves the sailor_ What is the subject? the direct object? What case is used for the subject? for the direct object? What word denotes the possessor? In what case is it? «36.» RULE. «Nominative Subject.» _The subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative and answers the question Who? or What?_ «37.» RULE. «Accusative Object.» _The direct object of a transitive verb is in the Accusative and answers the question Whom? or What?_ «38.» RULE. «Genitive of the Possessor.» _The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the Genitive and answers the question Whose?_ [Illustration: DIANA SAGITTAS PORTAT ET FERAS NECAT] «39.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. I. 1. Diāna est dea. 2. Lātōna est dea. 3. Diāna et Lātōna sunt deae. 4. Diāna est dea lūnae. 5. Diāna est fīlia Lātōnae. 6. Lātōna Diānam amat. 7. Diāna est dea silvārum. 8. Diāna silvam amat. 9. Diāna sagittās portat. 10. Diāna ferās silvae necat. 11. Ferae terrārum pugnant. For the order of words imitate the Latin above. II. 1. The daughter of Latona does love the forests. 2. Latona’s daughter carries arrows. 3. The farmers’ daughters do labor. 4. The farmer’s daughter loves the waters of the forest. 5. The sailor is announcing the girls’ flight. 6. The girls announce the sailors’ wrongs. 7. The farmer’s daughter labors. 8. Diana’s arrows are killing the wild beasts of the land. «40.» CONVERSATION Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. The answers may be found in the exercises preceding. 1. Quis est Diāna? 2. Cuius fīlia est Diāna? 3. Quis Diānam amat? 4. Quis silvam amat? 5. Quis sagittās portat? 6. Cuius fīliae labōrant? LESSON V FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «corō´na», _wreath, garland, crown_ fā´bula, _story_ (fable) «pecū´nia», _money_ (pecuniary) «pugna», _battle_ (pugnacious) «victō´ria», _victory_ VERBS «dat», _he (she, it) gives_ nārrat, _he (she, it) tells_ (narrate) CONJUNCTION[A] «quia» or «quod», _because_ «cui» (pronounced _co͝oi_, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat. sing., _to whom?_ _for whom?_ [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.] «41.» «The Dative Case.» In addition to the relationships between words expressed by the nominative, genitive (possessive), and accusative (objective) cases, there are other relationships, to express which in English we use such words as _from_, _with_, _by_, _to_, _for_, _in_, _at_.[1] [Footnote 1: Words like _to_, _for_, _by_, _from_, _in_, etc., which define the relationship between words, are called «prepositions».] Latin, too, makes frequent use of such prepositions; but often it expresses these relations without them by means of case forms which English does not possess. One of the cases found in the Latin declension and lacking in English is called the _dative_. «42.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the dative singular ends in «-ae» and the dative plural in «-īs». NOTE. Observe that the _genitive singular_, the _dative singular_, and the _nominative plural_ all have the same ending, «-ae»; but the uses of the three cases are entirely different. The general meaning of the sentence usually makes clear which case is intended. _a._ Form the dative singular and plural of the following nouns: «fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola», «nauta», «domina». «43.» «The Dative Relation.» The dative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _to_, _towards_, _for_. These prepositions are often used in English in expressions of motion, such as _She went to town_, _He ran towards the horse_, _Columbus sailed for America_. In such cases the dative is not used in Latin, as _motion through space_ is foreign to the dative relation. But the dative is used to denote that _to_ or _towards which_ a benefit, injury, purpose, feeling, or quality is directed, or that _for which_ something serves or exists. _a._ What dative relations do you discover in the following? The teacher gave a prize to John because he replied so promptly to all her questions--a good example for the rest of us. It is a pleasure to us to hear him recite. Latin is easy for him, but it is very hard for me. Some are fitted for one thing and others for another. «44.» «The Indirect Object.» Examine the sentence «Nauta fugam nūntiat», _the sailor announces the flight_ Here the verb, «nūntiat», governs the direct object, «fugam», in the accusative case. If, however, we wish to mention the persons «to whom» the sailor announces the flight, as, _The sailor announces the flight «to the farmers»_, the verb will have two objects: 1. Its direct object, _flight_ («fugam») 2. Its indirect object, _farmers_ According to the preceding section, _to the farmers_ is a relation covered by the dative case, and we are prepared for the following rule: «45.» RULE. «Dative Indirect Object.» _The indirect object of a verb is in the Dative._ _a._ The indirect object usually stands before the direct object. «46.» We may now complete the translation of the sentence _The sailor announces the flight to the farmers_, and we have «Nauta agricolīs fugam nūntiat» «47.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. _Point out the direct and indirect objects and the genitive of the possessor._ I. 1. Quis nautīs pecūniam dat? 2. Fīliae agricolae nautīs pecūniam dant. 3. Quis fortūnam pugnae nūntiat? 4. Galba agricolīs fortunam pugnae nūntiat. 5. Cui domina fābulam nārrat? 6. Fīliae agricolae domina fābulam nārrat. 7. Quis Diānae corōnam dat? 8. Puella Diānae corōnam dat quia Diānam amat. 9. Dea lūnae sagittās portat et ferās silvārum necat. 10. Cuius victōriam Galba nūntiat? 11. Nautae victōriam Galba nūntiat. Imitate the word order of the preceding exercise. II. 1. To whom do the girls give a wreath? 2. The girls give a wreath to Julia, because Julia loves wreaths. 3. The sailors tell the ladies[2] a story, because the ladies love stories. 4. The farmer gives his (§22.a) daughter water. 5. Galba announces the cause of the battle to the sailor. 6. The goddess of the moon loves the waters of the forest. 7. Whose wreath is Latona carrying? Diana’s. [Footnote 2: Observe that in English the indirect object often stands without a preposition _to_ to mark it, especially when it precedes the direct object.] LESSON VI FIRST PRINCIPLES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] ADJECTIVES «bona», _good_ «grāta», _pleasing_ «magna», _large, great_ «mala», _bad, wicked_ «parva», _small, little_ «pulchra», _beautiful, pretty_ «sōla», _alone_ NOUNS ancil´la, _maidservant_ Iūlia, _Julia_ ADVERBS[A] «cūr», _why_ «nōn», _not_ PRONOUNS «mea», _my_; «tua», _thy, your_ (possesives) «quid», interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., _what?_ «-ne», the question sign, an enclitic (§16) added to the first word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as «amat», _he loves_, but «amat´ne»? _does he love?_ «est», _he is_; «estne»? _is he?_ Of course «-ne» is not used when the sentence contains «quis», «cūr», or some other interrogative word. [Footnote A: An _adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings _sweetly_; she is _very_ talented; she began to sing _very early_.] «48.» «The Ablative Case.» Another case, lacking in English but found in the fuller Latin declension, is the _ab´la-tive._ «49.» When the nominative singular ends in «-a», the ablative singular ends in «-ā» and the ablative plural in «-īs». _a._ Observe that the final -ă of the nominative is short, while the final -ā of the ablative is long, as, _Nom._ fīliă _Abl._ fīliā _b._ Observe that the ablative plural is like the dative plural. _c._ Form the ablative singular and plural of the following nouns: «fuga», «causa», «fortūna», «terra», «aqua», «puella», «agricola», «nauta», «domina». «50.» «The Ablative Relation.» The ablative case is used to express the relations conveyed in English by the prepositions _from_, _with_, _by_, _at_, _in_. It denotes 1. That from which something is separated, from which it starts, or of which it is deprived--generally translated by _from_. 2. That with which something is associated or by means of which it is done--translated by _with_ or _by_. 3. The place where or the time when something happens--translated by _in_ or _at_. _a._ What ablative relations do you discover in the following? In our class there are twenty boys and girls. Daily at eight o’clock they come from home with their books, and while they are at school they read with ease the books written by the Romans. By patience and perseverance all things in this world can be overcome. «51.» «Prepositions.» While, as stated above (§41), many relations expressed in English by prepositions are in Latin expressed by case forms, still prepositions are of frequent occurrence, but only with the accusative or ablative. «52.» RULE. «Object of a Preposition.» _A noun governed by a preposition must be in the Accusative or Ablative case._ «53.» Prepositions denoting the ablative relations _from, with, in, on_, are naturally followed by the ablative case. Among these are «ā»[1] or «ab», _from, away from_ «dē», _from, down from_ «ē»[1] or «ex», _from, out from, out of_ «cum», _with_ «in», _in, on_ [Footnote 1: «ā» and «ē» are used only before words beginning with a consonant; «ab» and «ex» are used before either vowels or consonants.] 1. _Translate into Latin, using prepositions._ In the water, on the land, down from the forest, with the fortune, out of the forests, from the victory, out of the waters, with the sailors, down from the moon. «54.» «Adjectives.» Examine the sentence «Puella parva bonam deam amat», _the little girl loves the good goddess_ In this sentence «parva» (_little_) and «bonam» (_good_) are not nouns, but are descriptive words expressing quality. Such words are called _adjectives_,[2] and they are said to belong to the noun which they describe. [Footnote 2: _Pick out the adjectives in the following:_ “When I was a little boy, I remember that one cold winter’s morning I was accosted by a smiling man with an ax on his shoulder. ‘My pretty boy,’ said he, ‘has your father a grindstone?’ ‘Yes, sir,’ said I. ‘You are a fine little fellow,’ said he. ‘Will you let me grind my ax on it?’”] You can tell by its ending to which noun an adjective belongs. The ending of «parva» shows that it belongs to «puella», and the ending of «bonam» that it belongs to «deam». Words that belong together are said to agree, and the belonging-together is called _agreement_. Observe that _the adjective and its noun agree in number and case_. «55.» Examine the sentences «Puella est parva», _the girl is little_ «Puella parva bonam deam amat», _the little girl loves the good goddess_ In the first sentence the adjective «parva» is separated from its noun by the verb and stands in the predicate. It is therefore called a _predicate adjective_. In the second sentence the adjectives «parva» and «bonam» are closely attached to the nouns «puella» and «deam» respectively, and are called _attributive adjectives._ _a._ Pick out the attributive and the predicate adjectives in the following: Do you think Latin is hard? Hard studies make strong brains. Lazy students dislike hard studies. We are not lazy. «56.» DIALOGUE JULIA AND GALBA First learn the special vocabulary, p. 283. I. Quis, Galba, est Diāna? G. Diāna, Iūlia, est pulchra dea lūnae et silvārum. I. Cuius fīlia, Galba, est Diāna? G. Lātōnae fīlia, Iūlia, est Diāna. I. Quid Diāna portat? G. Sagittās Diāna portat. I. Cūr Diāna sagittās portat? G. Diāna sagittās portat, Iūlia, quod malās ferās silvae magnae necat. I. Amatne Lātōna fīliam? G. Amat, et fīlia Lātōnam amat. I. Quid fīlia tua parva portat? G. Corōnās pulchrās fīlia mea parva portat. I. Cui fīlia tua corōnās pulchrās dat? G. Diānae corōnās dat. I. Quis est cum fīliā tuā? Estne sōla? G. Sōla nōn est; fīlia mea parva est cum ancillā meā. _a._ When a person is called or addressed, the case used is called the _voc´ative_ (Latin _vocāre_, “to call”). _In form the vocative is regularly like the nominative_. In English the name of the person addressed usually stands first in the sentence. _The Latin vocative rarely stands first_. Point out five examples of the vocative in this dialogue. _b._ Observe that questions answered by _yes_ or _no_ in English are answered in Latin by repeating the verb. Thus, if you wished to answer in Latin the question _Is the sailor fighting?_ «Pugnatne nauta?» you would say «Pugnat», _he is fighting_, or «Nōn pugnat», _he is not fighting._ LESSON VII THE FIRST OR _Ā_-DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «casa, -ae», f., _cottage_ cēna, -ae, f., _dinner_ «gallī´na, -ae», f., _hen, chicken_ «īn´sula, ae», f., _island_ (pen-insula) ADVERBS «de-in´de», _then, in the next place_ «ubi», _where_ PREPOSITION «ad», _to_, with acc. to express motion toward PRONOUN «quem», interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., _whom?_ VERBS ha´bitat, _he (she, it) lives, is living, does live_ (inhabit) «laudat», _he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise_ (laud) «parat», _he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare_ «vocat», _he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites, is inviting, does invite_ (vocation) «57.» In the preceding lessons we have now gone over all the cases, singular and plural, of nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a». All Latin nouns whose nominative singular ends in «-a» belong to the First Declension. It is also called the _Ā_-Declension because of the prominent part which the vowel «a» plays in the formation of the cases. We have also learned what relations are expressed by each case. These results are summarized in the following table: +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | CASE | NOUN | TRANSLATION | USE AND GENERAL MEANING | | | | | OF EACH CASE | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | | | SINGULAR | | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | _Nom._ | do´min-a | _the lady_ | The subject | | | | | | | _Gen._ | domin-ae | _of the lady_, | The possessor | | | | or _the lady’s_ | of something | | | | | | | _Dat._ | domin-ae | _to_ or _for | Expressing the relation | | | | the lady_ | _to_ or _for_, | | | | | especially the | | | | | indirect object | | | | | | | _Acc._ | domin-am | _the lady_ | The direct object | | | | | | | _Abl._ | domin-ā | _from, with, by, | Separation (_from_), | | | | in, the lady_ | association or means | | | | | (_with, by_), place | | | | | where or time when | | | | | (_in, at_) | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | | | PLURAL | | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ | _Nom._ | domin-ae | _the ladies_ | | | | | | | | _Gen._ | domin-ā´rum | _of the ladies_, | | | | | or _the ladies’_ | | | | | | | | _Dat._ | domin-īs | _to_ or _for | The same as | | | | the ladies_ | the singular | | | | | | | _Acc._ | domin-ās | _the ladies_ | | | | | | | | _Abl._ | domin-īs | _from, with, by_, | | | | | _in, the ladies_ | | +--------+----------------+-------------------+-------------------------+ «58.» «The Base.» That part of a word which remains unchanged in inflection and to which the terminations are added is called the «base». Thus, in the declension above, «domin-» is the base and «-a» is the termination of the nominative singular. «59.» Write the declension of the following nouns, separating the base from the termination by a hyphen. Also give them orally. «pugna», «terra», «lūna», «ancil´la», «corō´na», «īn´sula», «silva» «60.» «Gender.» In English, names of living beings are either masculine or feminine, and names of things without life are neuter. This is called «natural gender». Yet in English there are some names of things to which we refer as if they were feminine; as, “Have you seen my yacht? _She_ is a beauty.” And there are some names of living beings to which we refer as if they were neuter; as, “Is the baby here? No, the nurse has taken _it_ home.” Some words, then, have a gender quite apart from sex or real gender, and this is called «grammatical gender». Latin, like English, has three genders. Names of males are usually masculine and of females feminine, but _names of things have grammatical gender and may be either masculine, feminine, or neuter_. Thus we have in Latin the three words, «lapis», _a stone_; «rūpēs», _a cliff_; and «saxum», _a rock_. «Lapis» is _masculine_, «rūpēs» _feminine_, and «saxum» _neuter_. The gender can usually be determined by the ending of the word, and _must always be learned_, for without knowing the gender it is impossible to write correct Latin. «61.» «Gender of First-Declension Nouns.» Nouns of the first declension are feminine unless they denote males. Thus «silva» is feminine, but «nauta», _sailor_, and «agricola», _farmer_, are masculine. «62.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284. I. 1. Agricola cum fīliā in casā habitat. 2. Bona fīlia agricolae cēnam parat. 3. Cēna est grāta agricolae[1] et agricola bonam fīliam laudat. 4. Deinde fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam vocat. 5. Gallīnae fīliam agricolae amant. 6. Malae fīliae bonās cēnās nōn parant. 7. Fīlia agricolae est grāta dominae. 8. Domina in īnsulā magnā habitat. 9. Domina bonae puellae parvae pecūniam dat. II. 1. Where does the farmer live? 2. The farmer lives in the small cottage. 3. Who lives with the farmer? 4. (His) little daughter lives with the farmer. 5. (His) daughter is getting («parat») a good dinner for the farmer. 6. The farmer praises the good dinner. 7. The daughter’s good dinner is pleasing to the farmer. [Footnote 1: Note that the relation expressed by the dative case covers that _to which a feeling is directed._ (Cf. §43.)] [Illustration] What Latin words are suggested by this picture? «63.» CONVERSATION Answer the questions in Latin. 1. Quis cum agricolā in casā habitat? 2. Quid bona fīlia agricolae parat? 3. Quem agricola laudat? 4. Vocatne fīlia agricolae gallīnās ad cēnam? 5. Cuius fīlia est grāta dominae? 6. Cui domina pecūniam dat? LESSON VIII FIRST DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «Italia, -ae», f., _Italy_ Sicilia, -ae, f., _Sicily_ «tuba, -ae», f., _trumpet_ (tube) «via, -ae», f., _way, road, street_ (viaduct) ADJECTIVES «alta», _high, deep_ (altitude) «clāra», _clear, bright; famous_ «lāta», _wide_ (latitude) «longa», _long_ (longitude) «nova», _new_ (novelty) «64.» We have for some time now been using adjectives and nouns together and you have noticed an agreement between them in _case_ and in _number_ (§54). They agree also in _gender_. In the phrase «silva magna», we have a feminine adjective in «-a» agreeing with a feminine noun in «-a». «65.» RULE. «Agreement of Adjectives.» _Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case._ «66.» Feminine adjectives in «-a» are declined like feminine nouns in «-a», and you should learn to decline them together as follows: NOUN ADJECTIVE «domina» (base «domin-»), «bona» (base «bon-»), f., _lady_ _good_ SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ do´mina bona -a _Gen._ dominae bonae -ae _Dat._ dominae bonae -ae _Acc._ dominam bonam -am _Abl._ dominā bonā -ā PLURAL _Nom._ dominae bonae -ae _Gen._ dominā´rum bonā´rum -ārum _Dat._ dominīs bonīs -īs _Acc._ dominās bonās -ās _Abl._ dominīs bonīs -īs _a._ In the same way decline together «puella mala», _the bad girl_; «ancil´la parva», _the little maid_; «fortū´na magna», _great fortune._ «67.» The words «dea», _goddess_, and «fīlia», _daughter_, take the ending «-ābus» instead of «-īs» in the _dative and ablative plural._ Note the _dative and ablative plural_ in the following declension: «dea bona» (bases «de-» «bon-») SINGULAR PLURAL _Nom._ dea bona deae bonae _Gen._ deae bonae deā´rum bonā´rum _Dat._ deae bonae deā´bus bonīs _Acc._ deam bonam deās bonās _Abl._ deā bonā dea´bus bonīs _a._ In the same way decline together «fīlīa parva». «68.» «Latin Word Order.» The order of words in English and in Latin sentences is not the same. In English we arrange words in a fairly fixed order. Thus, in the sentence _My daughter is getting dinner for the farmers_, we cannot alter the order of the words without spoiling the sentence. We can, however, throw emphasis on different words by speaking them with more force. Try the effect of reading the sentence by putting special force on _my, daughter, dinner, farmers_. In Latin, where the office of the word in the sentence is shown by its _ending_ (cf. §32.1), and not by its _position_, the order of words is more free, and position is used to secure the same effect that in English is secured by emphasis of voice. To a limited extent we can alter the order of words in English, too, for the same purpose. Compare the sentences _I saw a game of football at Chicago last November_ (normal order) _«Last November» I saw a game of football at Chicago_ _At Chicago, last November, I saw a game of «football»_ 1. In a Latin sentence the most emphatic place is the _first_; next in importance is the _last_; the weakest point is the _middle_. Generally the _subject_ is the most important word, and is placed _first_; usually the _verb_ is the next in importance, and is placed _last_. The other words of the sentence stand between these two in the order of their importance. Hence the normal order of words--that is, where no unusual emphasis is expressed--is as follows: _subject_--_modifiers of the subject_--_indirect object_-- _direct object_--_adverb_--_verb_ Changes from the normal order are frequent, and are due to the desire for throwing emphasis upon some word or phrase. _Notice the order of the Latin words when you are translating, and imitate it when you are turning English into Latin._ 2. Possessive pronouns and modifying genitives normally stand after their nouns. When placed before their nouns they are emphatic, as «fīlia mea», _my daughter_; «mea fīlia», _«my» daughter_; «casa Galbae», _Galba’s cottage_; «Galbae casa», _«Galba’s» cottage_. Notice the variety of emphasis produced by writing the following sentence in different ways: «Fīlia mea agricolīs cēnam parat» (normal order) «Mea fīlia agricolīs parat cēnam» («mea» and «cēnam» emphatic) «Agricolīs fīlia mea cēnam parat» («agricolīs» emphatic) 3. An adjective placed before its noun is more emphatic than when it follows. When great emphasis is desired, the adjective is separated from its noun by other words. «Fīlia mea casam parvam nōn amat» («parvam» not emphatic) «Fīlia mea parvam casam nōn amat» («parvam» more emphatic) «Parvam fīlia mea casam nōn amat» («parvam» very emphatic) 4. Interrogative words usually stand first, the same as in English. 5. The copula (as «est», «sunt») is of so little importance that it frequently does not stand last, but may be placed wherever it sounds well. «69.» EXERCISE First learn the special vocabulary, p. 284. _Note the order of the words in these sentences and pick out those that are emphatic._ 1. Longae nōn sunt tuae viae. 2. Suntne tubae novae in meā casā? Nōn sunt. 3. Quis lātā in silvā habitat? Diāna, lūnae clārae pulchra dea, lātā in silvā habitat. 4. Nautae altās et lātās amant aquās. 5. Quid ancilla tua portat? Ancilla mea tubam novam portat. 6. Ubi sunt Lesbia et Iūlia? In tuā casa est Lesbia et Iūlia est in meā. 7. Estne Italia lāta terra? Longa est Italia, nōn lāta. 8. Cui Galba agricola fābulam novam nārrat? Fīliābus dominae clārae fābulam novam nārrat. 9. Clāra est īnsula Sicilia. 10. Quem laudat Lātōna? Lātōna laudat fīliam. * * * * * «First Review of Vocabulary and Grammar, §§502-505» * * * * * LESSON IX THE SECOND OR _O_-DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «bellum, -ī», n., _war_ (re-bel) «cōnstantia, -ae», f., _firmness, constancy, steadiness_ dominus, -ī, m., _master, lord_ (dominate) «equus, -ī», m., _horse_ (equine) «frūmentum, -ī», n., _grain_ «lēgātus, -ī», m., _lieutenant, ambassador_ (legate) «Mārcus, -ī», m., _Marcus, Mark_ «mūrus, -ī», m., _wall_ (mural) «oppidānus, -ī», m., _townsman_ «oppidum, -ī», n., _town_ «pīlum, -ī», n., _spear_ (pile driver) «servus, -ī», m., _slave, servant_ Sextus, -ī, m., _Sextus_ VERBS «cūrat», _he (she, it) cares for_, with acc. «properat», _he (she, it) hastens_ «70.» Latin nouns are divided into five declensions. The declension to which a noun belongs is shown by the ending of the genitive singular. This should always be learned along with the nominative and the gender. «71.» The nominative singular of nouns of the Second or _O_-Declension ends in «-us», «-er», «-ir», or «-um». The genitive singular ends in «-ī». «72.» «Gender.» Nouns in «-um» are neuter. The others are regularly masculine. «73.» «Declension of nouns in -_us_ and -_um_.» Masculines in «-us» and neuters in «-um» are declined as follows: «dominus» (base «domin-»), «pīlum» (base «pīl-»), m., _master_ n., _spear_ TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS SINGULAR _Nom._ do´minus[1] -us pīlum -um _Gen._ dominī -ī pīlī -ī _Dat._ dominō -ō pīlō -ō _Acc._ dominum -um pīlum -um _Abl._ dominō -ō pīlō -ō _Voc._ domine -e pīlum -um PLURAL _Nom._ dominī -ī pīla -a _Gen._ dominō´rum -ōrum pīlō´rum -ōrum _Dat._ dominīs -īs pīlīs -īs _Acc._ dominōs -ōs pīla -a _Abl._ dominīs -īs pīlīs -īs [Footnote 1: Compare the declension of «domina» and of «dominus».] _a._ Observe that the masculines and the neuters have the same terminations excepting in the nominative singular and the nominative and accusative plural. _b._ The vocative singular of words of the second declension in «-us» ends in «-ĕ», as «domine», _O master_; «serve», _O slave_. This is the most important exception to the rule in §56.a. «74.» Write side by side the declension of «domina», «dominus», and «pīlum». A comparison of the forms will lead to the following rules, which are of great importance because they apply to all five declensions: _a._ The vocative, with a single exception (see §73.b), is like the nominative. That is, the vocative singular is like the nominative singular, and the vocative plural is like the nominative plural. _b._ The nominative, accusative, and vocative of neuter nouns are alike, and in the plural end in «-a». _c._ The accusative singular of masculines and feminines ends in «-m» and the accusative plural in «-s». _d._ The dative and ablative plural are always alike. _e._ Final «-i» and «-o» are always _long_; final «-a» is _short_, except in the ablative singular of the first declension. «75.» Observe the sentences «Lesbia est bona», _Lesbia is good_ «Lesbia est ancilla», _Lesbia is a maidservant_ We have learned (§55) that «bona», when used, as here, in the predicate to describe the subject, is called a _predicate adjective_. Similarly a _noun_, as «ancilla», used in the _predicate_ to define the subject is called a «predicate noun». «76.» RULE. «Predicate Noun.» _A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb._ [Illustration: PILA] «77.» DIALOGUE GALBA AND MARCUS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. G. Quis, Mārce, est lēgātus cum pīlō et tubā? M. Lēgātus, Galba, est Sextus. G. Ubi Sextus habitat?[2] M. In oppidō Sextus cum fīliābus habitat. G. Amantne oppidānī Sextum? M. Amant oppidānī Sextum et laudant, quod magnā cum cōnstantiā pugnat. G. Ubi, Mārce, est ancilla tua? Cūr nōn cēnam parat? M. Ancilla mea, Galba, equō lēgātī aquam et frūmentum dat. G. Cūr nōn servus Sextī equum dominī cūrat? M. Sextus et servus ad mūrum oppidī properant. Oppidānī bellum parant.[3] [Footnote 2: «habitat» is here translated _does live_. Note the _three_ possible translations of the Latin present tense: «habitat» _he lives_ _he is living_ _he does live_ Always choose the translation which makes the best sense.] [Footnote 3: Observe that the verb «parō» means not only _to prepare_ but also _to prepare for_, and governs the accusative case.] [Illustration: LEGATUS CUM PILO ET TUBA] «78.» CONVERSATION Translate the questions and answer them in Latin. 1. Ubi fīliae Sextī habitant? 2. Quem oppidānī amant et laudant? 3. Quid ancilla equō lēgātī dat? 4. Cuius equum ancilla cūrat? 5. Quis ad mūrum cum Sextō properat? 6. Quid oppidānī parant? LESSON X SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «amīcus, -ī», m., _friend_ (amicable) «Germānia, -ae», f., _Germany_ «patria, -ae», f., _fatherland_ «populus, -ī», m., _people_ «Rhēnus, -ī», m., _the Rhine_ «vīcus, -ī», m., _village_ «79.» We have been freely using feminine adjectives, like «bona», in agreement with feminine nouns of the first declension and declined like them. _Masculine_ adjectives of this class are declined like «dominus», and _neuters_ like pīlum. The adjective and noun, masculine and neuter, are therefore declined as follows: MASCULINE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE NEUTER NOUN AND ADJECTIVE «dominus bonus», _the good master_ «pīlum bonum», _the good spear_ BASES domin- bon- BASES pīl- bon- TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS SINGULAR _Nom._ do´minus bonus -us pīlum bonum -um _Gen._ dominī bonī -ī pīlī bonī -ī _Dat._ dominō bonō -ō pīlō bonō -ō _Acc._ dominum bonum -um pīlum bonum -um _Abl._ dominō bonō -ō pīlō bonō -ō _Voc._ domine bone -e pīlum bonum -um PLURAL _Nom._ dominī bonī -ī īla bona -a _Gen._ dominō´rum bonō´rum -ōrum īlō´rum bonō´rum -ōrum _Dat._ dominīs bonīs -is īlīs bonīs -īs _Acc._ dominōs bonōs -ōs īla bona -a _Abl._ dominīs bonīs -īs īlīs bonīs -īs Decline together «bellum longum», «equus parvus», «servus malus», «mūrus altus», «frūmentum novum». «80.» Observe the sentences «Lesbia ancilla est bona», _Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_ «Fīlia Lesbiae ancillae est bona», _the daughter of Lesbia, the maidservant, is good_ «Servus Lesbiam ancillam amat», _the slave loves Lesbia, the maidservant_ In these sentences «ancilla», «ancillae», and «ancillam» denote the class of persons to which _Lesbia_ belongs and explain who she is. Nouns so related that the second is only another name for the first and explains it are said to be in apposition, and are always in the same case. «81.» RULE. «Apposition.» _An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains._ «82.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Patria servī bonī, vīcus servōrum bonōrum, bone popule. 2. Populus oppidī magnī, in oppidō magnō, in oppidīs magnīs. 3. Cum pīlīs longīs, ad pīla longa, ad mūrōs lātōs. 4. Lēgāte male, amīcī legātī malī, cēna grāta dominō bonō. 5. Frūmentum equōrum parvōrum, domine bone, ad lēgātōs clārōs. 6. Rhēnus est in Germāniā, patriā meā. 7. Sextus lēgātus pīlum longum portat. 8. Oppidānī bonī Sextō lēgātō clārā pecūniam dant. 9. Malī servī equum bonum Mārcī dominī necant. 10. Galba agricola et Iūlia fīlia bona labōrant. 11. Mārcus nauta in īnsulā Siciliā habitat. II. 1. Wicked slave, who is your friend? Why does he not praise Galba, your master? 2. My friend is from («ex») a village of Germany, my fatherland. 3. My friend does not love the people of Italy. 4. Who is caring for[1] the good horse of Galba, the farmer? 5. Mark, where is Lesbia, the maidservant? 6. She is hastening[1] to the little cottage[2] of Julia, the farmer’s daughter. [Footnote 1: See footnote 1, p. 33. Remember that «cūrat» is transitive and governs a direct object.] [Footnote 2: Not the dative. (Cf. §43.)] LESSON XI ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «arma, armōrum», n., plur., _arms_, especially defensive weapons «fāma, -ae», f., _rumor; reputation, fame_ «galea, -ae», f., _helmet_ «praeda, -ae», f., _booty, spoils_ (predatory) «tēlum, -ī», n., _weapon of offense, spear_ ADJECTIVES «dūrus, -a, -um», _hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome_ (durable) «Rōmānus, -a, -um», _Roman_. As a noun, «Rōmānus, -ī», m., _a Roman_ «83.» Adjectives of the first and second declensions are declined in the three genders as follows: MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTER SINGULAR _Nom._ bonus bona bonum _Gen._ bonī bonae bonī _Dat._ bonō bonae bonō _Acc._ bonum bonam bonum _Abl._ bonō bonā bonō _Voc._ bone bona bonum PLURAL _Nom._ bonī bonae bona _Gen._ bonōrum bonārum bonōrum _Dat._ bonīs bonīs bonīs _Acc._ bonōs bonās bona _Abl._ bonīs bonīs bonīs _a._ Write the declension and give it orally _across the page_, thus giving the three genders for each case. _b._ Decline «grātus, -a, -um»; «malus, -a, -um»; «altus, -a, -um»; «parvus, -a, -um». «84.» Thus far the adjectives have had the same terminations as the nouns. However, the agreement between the adjective and its noun does _not_ mean that they must have the same termination. If the adjective and the noun belong to different declensions, the terminations will, in many cases, not be the same. For example, «nauta», _sailor_, is masculine and belongs to the first declension. The masculine form of the adjective «bonus» is of the second declension. Consequently, _a good sailor_ is «nauta bonus». So, _the wicked farmer_ is «agricola malus». Learn the following declensions: «85.» «nauta bonus» (bases naut- bon-), m., _the good sailor_ SINGULAR _Nom._ nauta bonus _Gen._ nautae bonī _Dat._ nautae bonō _Acc._ nautam bonum _Abl._ nautā bonō _Voc._ nauta bone PLURAL _Nom._ nautae bonī _Gen._ nautārum bonōrum _Dat._ nautīs bonīs _Acc._ nautās bonōs _Abl._ nautīs bonīs _Voc._ nautae bonī «86.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Est[1] in vīcō nauta bonus. 2. Sextus est amīcus nautae bonī. 3. Sextus nautae bonō galeam dat. 4. Populus Rōmānus nautam bonum laudat. 5. Sextus cum nautā bonō praedam portat. 6. Ubi, nauta bone, sunt arma et tēla lēgātī Rōmānī? 7. Nautae bonī ad bellum properant. 8. Fāma nautārum bonōrum est clāra. 9. Pugnae sunt grātae nautīs bonīs. 10. Oppidānī nautās bonōs cūrant. 11. Cūr, nautae bonī, malī agricolae ad Rhēnum properant? 12. Malī agricolae cum bonīs nautīs pugnant. II. 1. The wicked farmer is hastening to the village with (his) booty. 2. The reputation of the wicked farmer is not good. 3. Why does Galba’s daughter give arms and weapons to the wicked farmer? 4. Lesbia invites the good sailor to dinner. 5. Why is Lesbia with the good sailor hastening from the cottage? 6. Sextus, where is my helmet? 7. The good sailors are hastening to the toilsome battle. 8. The horses of the wicked farmers are small. 9. The Roman people give money to the good sailors. 10. Friends care for the good sailors. 11. Whose friends are fighting with the wicked farmers? [Footnote 1: «Est», beginning a declarative sentence, _there is._] [Illustration: GALEAE] LESSON XII NOUNS IN _-IUS_ AND _-IUM_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «fīlius, fīlī», m., _son_ (filial) fluvius, fluvī, m., _river_ (fluent) «gladius, gladī», m., _sword_ (gladiator) «praesidium, praesi´dī», n., _garrison, guard, protection_ «proelium, proelī», n., _battle_ ADJECTIVES «fīnitimus, -a, -um», _bordering upon, neighboring, near to_. As a noun, «fīnitimī, -ōrum», m., plur., _neighbors_ «Germānus, -a, -um», _German_. As a noun, «Germānus, -ī», m., _a German_ «multus, -a, -um», _much_; plur., _many_ ADVERB «saepe», _often_ «87.» Nouns of the second declension in «-ius» and «-ium» end in «-ī» in the genitive singular, _not_ in «-iī», and the accent rests on the penult; as, «fīlī» from «fīlius» (_son_), «praesi´dī» from «praesi´dium» (_garrison_). «88.» Proper names of persons in «-ius», and «fīlius», end in «-ī» in the vocative singular, _not_ in «-ĕ», and the accent rests on the penult; as, «Vergi´lī», _O Vergil_; «fīlī», _O son._ _a._ Observe that in these words the vocative and the genitive are alike. «89.» «praesidium» (base praesidi-), «fīlius» (base fīli-), n., _garrison_ m., _son_ SINGULAR _Nom._ praesidium fīlius _Gen._ praesi´dī fīlī _Dat._ praesidiō fīliō _Acc._ praesidium fīlium _Abl._ praesidiō fīliō _Voc._ praesidium fīlī The plural is regular. Note that the «-i-» of the base is lost only in the genitive singular, and in the vocative of words like «fīlius». Decline together «praesidium parvum»; «fīlius bonus»; «fluvius longus», _the long river_; «proelium clārum», _the famous battle._ «90.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 285. I. 1. Frūmentum bonae terrae, gladī malī, bellī longī. 2. Cōnstantia magna, praesidia magna, clāre Vergi´lī. 3. Male serve, Ō clārum oppidum, male fīlī, fīliī malī, fīlī malī. 4. Fluvī longī, fluviī longī, fluviōrum longōrum, fāma praesi´dī magnī. 5. Cum gladiīs parvīs, cum deābus clārīs, ad nautās clārōs. 6. Multōrum proeliōrum, praedae magnae, ad proelia dūra. GERMĀNIA II. Germānia, patria Germānōrum, est clāra terra. In Germāniā sunt fluviī multī. Rhēnus magnus et lātus fluvius Germāniae est. In silvīs lātīs Germāniae sunt ferae multae. Multi Germānii in oppidīs magnis et in vīcīs parvīs habitant et multī sunt agricolae bonī. Bella Germānōrum sunt magna et clāra. Populus Germāniae bellum et proelia amat et saepe cum finitimīs pugnat. Fluvius Rhēnus est fīnitimus oppidīs[1] multīs et clārīs. [Footnote 1: Dative with «fīnitimus». (See §43.)] LESSON XIII SECOND DECLENSION (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «ager, agrī», m., _field_ (acre) «cōpia, -ae», f., _plenty, abundance_ (copious); plur., _troops, forces_ «Cornēlius, Cornē´lī», m., _Cornelius_ «lōrī´ca, -ae», f., _coat of mail, corselet_ «praemium, praemī», n., _reward, prize_ (premium) «puer, puerī», m., _boy_ (puerile) «Rōma, -ae», f., _Rome_ «scūtum, -ī», n., _shield_ (escutcheon) «vir, virī», m., _man, hero_ (virile) ADJECTIVES «legiōnārius, -a, -um»,[A] _legionary, belonging to the legion_. As a noun, «legiōnāriī, -ōrum», m., plur., _legionary soldiers_ «līber, lībera, līberum», _free_ (liberty) As a noun. «līberī, -ōrum», m., plur., _children_ (lit. _the freeborn_) «pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum», _pretty, beautiful_ PREPOSITION «apud», _among_, with acc. CONJUNCTION «sed», _but_ [Footnote A: The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in «-ius» ends in «-iī» and the vocative in «-ie»; not in «-ī», as in nouns.] «91.» «Declension of Nouns in _-er_ and _-ir_.» In early Latin all the masculine nouns of the second declension ended in «-os». This «-os» later became «-us» in words like «servus», and was dropped entirely in words with bases ending in «-r», like «puer», _boy_; «ager», _field_; and «vir», _man_. These words are therefore declined as follows: «92.» «puer», m., _boy_ «ager», m., _field_ «vir», m., _man_ BASE «puer-» BASE «agr-» BASE «vir-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ puer ager vir ---- _Gen._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Dat._ puerō agrō virō -ō _Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um _Abl._ puerō agrō virō -ō PLURAL _Nom._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Gen._ puerōrum agrōrum virōrum -ōrum _Dat._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs _Acc._ puerōs agrōs virōs -ōs _Abl._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs _a._ The vocative case of these words is like the nominative, following the general rule (§74.a). _b._ The declension differs from that of «servus» only in the nominative and vocative singular. _c._ Note that in «puer» the «e» remains all the way through, while in «ager» it is present only in the nominative. In «puer» the «e» belongs to the base, but in «ager» (base «agr-») it does not, and was inserted in the nominative to make it easier to pronounce. Most words in «-er» are declined like «ager». _The genitive shows whether you are to follow_ «puer» _or_ «ager». «93.» Masculine adjectives in «-er» of the second declension are declined like nouns in «-er». A few of them are declined like «puer», but most of them like «ager». The feminine and neuter nominatives show which form to follow, thus, MASC. FEM. NEUT. līber lībera līberum (_free_) is like «puer» pulcher pulchra pulchrum (_pretty_) is like «ager» For the full declension in the three genders, see §469._b._ _c._ «94.» Decline together the words «vir līber», «terra lībera», «frūmentum līberum», «puer pulcher», «puella pulchra», «oppidum pulchrum» «95.» ITALIA[1] First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. Magna est Italiae fāma, patriae Rōmānōrum, et clāra est Rōma, domina orbis terrārum.[2] Tiberim,[3] fluvium Rōmānum, quis nōn laudat et pulchrōs fluviō fīnitimōs agrōs? Altōs mūrōs, longa et dūra bella, clārās victōriās quis nōn laudat? Pulchra est terra Italia. Agrī bonī agricolīs praemia dant magna, et equī agricolārum cōpiam frūmentī ad oppida et vīcōs portant. In agrīs populī Rōmānī labōrant multī servī. Viae Italiae sunt longae et lātae. Fīnitima Italiae est īnsula Sicilia. [Footnote 1: In this selection note especially the emphasis as shown by the order of the words.] [Footnote 2: «orbis terrārum», _of the world_.] [Footnote 3: «Tiberim», _the Tiber_, accusative case.] «96.» DIALOGUE MARCUS AND CORNELIUS C. Ubi est, Mārce, fīlius tuus? Estne in pulchrā terrā Italiā? M. Nōn est, Cornēlī, in Italiā. Ad fluvium Rhēnum properat cum cōpiīs Rōmānīs quia est[4] fāma Novī bellī cum Germānīs. Līber Germāniae populus Rōmānōs Nōn amat. C. Estne fīlius tuus copiārum Rōmānārum lēgātus? M. Lēgātus nōn est, sed est apud legiōnāriōs. C. Quae[5] arma portat[6]? M. Scūtum magnum et lōrīcam dūram et galeam pulchram portat. C. Quae tēla portat? M. Gladium et pīlum longum portat. C. Amatne lēgātus fīlium tuum? M. Amat, et saepe fīliō meō praemia pulchra et praedam multam dat. C. Ubi est terra Germānōrum? M. Terra Germānōrum, Cornēlī est fīnitima Rhēnō, fluviō magnō et altō. [Footnote 4: «est», before its subject, _there is_; so «sunt», _there are._] [Footnote 5: «Quae», _what kind of_, an interrogative adjective pronoun.] [Footnote 6: What are the three possible translations of the present tense?] [Illustration: LEGIONARIUS] LESSON XIV THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «auxilium, auxi´lī», n., _help, aid_ (auxiliary) «castrum, -ī», n., _fort_ (castle); plur., _camp_ (lit. _forts_) «cibus, -ī», m., _food_ «cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī», n., _plan_ (counsel) «dīligentia, -ae», f.. _diligence, industry_ magister, magistrī, m., _master, teacher_[A] ADJECTIVES «aeger, aegra, aegrum», _sick_ «crēber, crēbra, crēbrum», _frequent_ «miser, misera, miserum», _wretched, unfortunate_ (miser) [Footnote A: Observe that «dominus», as distinguished from «magister», means _master_ in the sense of _owner_.] «97.» Observe the sentences _This is my shield_ _This shield is mine_ In the first sentence _my_ is a possessive adjective; in the second _mine_ is a possessive pronoun, for it takes the place of a noun, _this shield is mine_ being equivalent to _this shield is my shield_. Similarly, in Latin the possessives are sometimes _adjectives_ and sometimes _pronouns_. «98.» The possessives _my, mine, your, yours_, etc. are declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions. SINGULAR _1st Pers._ meus, mea, meum _my, mine_ _2d Pers._ tuus, tua, tuum _your, yours_ _3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _his (own), her (own), its (own)_ PLURAL _1st Pers._ noster, nostra, nostrum _our, ours_ _2d Pers._ vester, vestra, vestrum _your, yours_ _3d Pers._ suus, sua, suum _their (own), theirs_ NOTE. «Meus» has the irregular vocative singular masculine «mī», as «mī fīlī», _O my son_. _a._ The possessives agree with the name of the _thing possessed_ in gender, number, and case. Compare the English and Latin in _Sextus is calling «his» boy_ «Sextus» } «suum puerum vocat» _Julia is calling «her» boy_ «Iūlia» } Observe that «suum» agrees with «puerum», and is unaffected by the gender of Sextus or Julia. _b._ When _your, yours_, refers to _one_ person, use «tuus»; when to _more than one_, «vester»; as, _Lesbia, your wreaths are pretty_ «Corōnae tuae, Lesbia, sunt pulchrae» _Girls, your wreaths are pretty_ «Corōnae vestrae, puellae, sunt pulchrae» _c._ «Suus» is a _reflexive_ possessive, that is, it usually stands in the predicate and regularly refers back to the _subject_. Thus, «Vir suōs servōs vocat» means _The man calls his (own) slaves._ Here _his_ («suōs») refers to _man_ («vir»), and could not refer to any one else. _d._ Possessives are used much less frequently than in English, being omitted whenever the meaning is clear without them. (Cf. §22.a.) This is especially true of «suus, -a, -um», which, when inserted, is more or less emphatic, like our _his own, her own_, etc. «99.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. I. 1. Mārcus amīcō Sextō cōnsilium suum nūntiat 2. Est cōpia frūmentī in agrīs nostrīs. 3. Amīcī meī bonam cēnam ancillae vestrae laudant 4. Tua lōrīca, mī fīlī, est dūra. 5. Scūta nostra et tēla, mī amīce, in castrls Rōmānīs sunt. 6. Suntne virī patriae tuae līberī? Sunt. 7. Ubi, Cornēlī, est tua galea pulchra? 8. Mea galea, Sexte, est in casā meā. 9. Pīlum longum est tuum, sed gladius est meus. 10. Iūlia gallīnās suās pulchrās amat et gallīnae dominam suam amant. 11. Nostra castra sunt vestra. 12. Est cōpia praedae in castrīs vestrīs. 13. Amīcī tuī miserīs et aegrīs cibum et pecūniam saepe dant. II. 1. Our teacher praises Mark’s industry. 2. My son Sextus is carrying his booty to the Roman camp.[1] 3. Your good girls are giving aid to the sick and wretched.[2] 4. There are [3] frequent battles in our villages. 5. My son, where is the lieutenant’s food? 6. The camp is mine, but the weapons are yours. [Footnote 1: Not the dative. Why?] [Footnote 2: Here the adjectives _sick_ and _wretched_ are used like nouns.] [Footnote 3: Where should «sunt» stand? Cf. I. 2 above.] [Illustration: AGRICOLA ARAT] LESSON XV THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _WITH_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «carrus, -ī», m., _cart, wagon_ «inopia, -ae», f., _want, lack;_ the opposite of «cōpia» «studium, studī», n., _zeal, eagerness_ (study) ADJECTIVES «armātus, -a, -um», _armed_ «īnfīrmus, -a, -um», _week, feeble_ (infirm) vali´dus, -a, -um, _strong, sturdy_ VERB «mātūrat», _he (she, it) hastens._ Cf. properat ADVERB «iam», _already, now_ «-que», conjunction, _and_; an enclitic (cf. §16) and always added to the _second_ of two words to be connected, as «arma tēla´que», _arms and weapons_. «100.» Of the various relations denoted by the ablative case (§50) there is none more important than that expressed in English by the preposition _with_. This little word is not so simple as it looks. It does not always convey the same meaning, nor is it always to be translated by «cum». This will become clear from the following sentences: _a._ Mark is feeble _with_ (_for_ or _because of_) want of food _b._ Diana kills the beasts _with_ (or _by_) her arrows _c._ Julia is _with_ Sextus _d._ The men fight _with_ great steadiness _a._ In sentence _a_, _with want_ (_of food_) gives the cause of Mark’s feebleness. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the «ablative of cause»: «Mārcus est īnfīrmus inopiā cibī» _b._ In sentence _b_, _with_ (or _by_) _her arrows_ tells «by means of what» Diana kills the beasts. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative without a preposition, and the construction is called the «ablative of means»: «Diāna sagittīs suīs ferās necat» _c._ In sentence _c_ we are told that Julia is not alone, but «in company with» Sextus. This idea is expressed in Latin by the ablative with the preposition «cum», and the construction is called the «ablative of accompaniment»: «Iūlia est cum Sextō» _d._ In sentence _d_ we are told how the men fight. The idea is one of «manner». This is expressed in Latin by the ablative with «cum», unless there is a modifying adjective present, in which case «cum» may be omitted. This construction is called the «ablative of manner»: «Virī (cum) cōnstantiā magnā pugnant» «101.» You are now able to form four important rules for the ablative denoting _with_: «102.» RULE. «Ablative of Cause.» _Cause is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what?_ «103.» RULE. «Ablative of Means.» _Means is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? With what?_ N.B. «Cum» must never be used with the ablative expressing cause or means. «104.» RULE. «Ablative of Accompaniment.» _Accompaniment is denoted by the ablative with «cum». This answers the question With whom?_ «105.» RULE. «Ablative of Manner.» _The ablative with «cum» is used to denote the manner of an action. «Cum» may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? In what manner?_ «106.» What uses of the ablative do you discover in the following passage, and what question does each answer? The soldiers marched to the fort with great speed and broke down the gate with blows of their muskets. The inhabitants, terrified by the din, attempted to cross the river with their wives and children, but the stream was swollen with (_or_ by) the rain. Because of this many were swept away by the waters and only a few, almost overcome with fatigue, with great difficulty succeeded in gaining the farther shore. «107.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 286. I. _The Romans prepare for War._ Rōmānī, clārus Italiae populus, bellum parant. Ex agrīs suīs, vicīs, oppidīsque magnō studiō virī validī ad arma properant. Iam lēgatī cum legiōnariīs ex Italiā ad Rhēnum, fluvium Germāniae altum et lātum, properant, et servī equīs et carrīs cibum frūmentumque ad castra Rōmāna portant. Inopiā bonōrum tēlōrum īnfirmī sunt Germānī, sed Rōmānī armāti galeīs, lōrīcīs, scūtīs, gladiīs, pīlīsque sunt validī. II. 1. The sturdy farmers of Italy labor in the fields with great diligence. 2. Sextus, the lieutenant, and (his) son Mark are fighting with the Germans. 3. The Roman legionaries are armed with long spears. 4. Where is Lesbia, your maid, Sextus? Lesbia is with my friends in Galba’s cottage. 5. Many are sick because of bad water and for lack of food. 6. The Germans, with (their) sons and daughters, are hastening with horses and wagons. LESSON XVI THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES «108.» There are nine irregular adjectives of the first and second declensions which have a peculiar termination in the genitive and dative singular of all genders: MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Gen._ -īus -īus -īus _Dat._ -ī -ī -ī Otherwise they are declined like «bonus, -a, -um». Learn the list and the meaning of each: «alius, alia, aliud», _other, another_ (of several) «alter, altera, alterum», _the one, the other_ (of two) «ūnus, -a, -um», _one, alone_; (in the plural) _only_ «ūllus, -a, -um», _any_ «nūllus, -a, -um», _none, no_ «sōlus, -a, -um», _alone_ «tōtus, -a, -um», _all, whole, entire_ «uter, utra, utrum», _which?_ (of two) «neuter, neutra, neutrum», _neither_ (of two) «109.» PARADIGMS SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ nūllus nūlla nūllum _Gen._ nūllī´us nūllī´us nūllī´us _Dat._ nūllī nūllī nūllī _Acc._ nūllum nūllam nūllum _Abl._ nūllō nūllā nūllō MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ alius alia aliud _Gen._ alī´us alī´us alī´us _Dat._ aliī aliī aliī _Acc._ alium aliam aliud _Abl._ aliō aliā aliō THE PLURAL IS REGULAR _a._ Note the peculiar neuter singular ending in «-d» of «alius». The genitive «alīus» is rare. Instead of it use «alterīus», the genitive of «alter». _b._ These peculiar case endings are found also in the declension of pronouns (see §114). For this reason these adjectives are sometimes called the «pronominal adjectives». «110.» Learn the following idioms: «alter, -era, -erum» ... «alter, -era, -erum», _the one ... the other_ (of two) «alius, -a, -ud» ... «alius, -a, -ud», _one ... another _ (of any number) «aliī, -ae, -a» ... «aliī, -ae, -a», _some ... others_ EXAMPLES 1. «Alterum oppidum est magnum, alterum parvum», _the one town is large, the other small_ (of two towns). 2. «Aliud oppidum est validum, aliud īnfīrmum», _one town is strong, another weak_ (of towns in general). 3. «Aliī gladiōs, aliī scūta portant», _some carry swords, others shields._ «111.» EXERCISES I. 1. In utrā casā est Iūlia? Iūlia est in neutrā casā. 2. Nūllī malō puerō praemium dat magister. 3. Alter puer est nauta, alter agricola. 4. Aliī virī aquam, aliī terram amant. 5. Galba ūnus (_or_ sōlus) cum studiō labōrat. 6. Estne ūllus carrus in agrō meō? 7. Lesbia est ancilla alterīus dominī, Tullia alterīus. 8. Lesbia sōla cēnam parat. 9. Cēna nūllīus alterīus ancillae est bona. 10. Lesbia nūllī aliī virō cēnam dat. NOTE. The pronominal adjectives, as you observe, regularly stand before and not after their nouns. II. 1. The men of all Germany are preparing for war. 2. Some towns are great and others are small. 3. One boy likes chickens, another horses. 4. Already the booty of one town is in our fort. 5. Our whole village is suffering for (i.e. _weak because of_) lack of food. 6. The people are already hastening to the other town. 7. Among the Romans (there) is no lack of grain. LESSON XVII THE DEMONSTRATIVE _IS, EA, ID_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «agrī cultūra, -ae», f., _agriculture_ «Gallia, -ae», f., _Gaul_ «domicilīum, domīci´lī», n., _dwelling place_ (domicile), _abode_ «Gallus, -i», m., _a Gaul_ «lacrima, -ae», f., _tear_ «fēmina, -ae», f., _woman_ (female) «numerus, -ī», m., _number_ (numeral) ADJECTIVE «mātūrus, -a, -um», _ripe, mature_ ADVERB quō, _whither_ VERBS arat, _he (she, it) plows_ (arable) «dēsīderat», _he (she, it) misses, longs for_ (desire), with acc. CONJUNCTION «an», _or_, introducing the second half of a double question, as _Is he a Roman or a Gaul_, «Estne Romanus an Gallus?» «112.» A demonstrative is a word that points out an object definitely, as _this, that, these, those_. Sometimes these words are pronouns, as, _Do you hear these?_ and sometimes adjectives, as, _Do you hear these men?_ In the former case they are called «demonstrative pronouns», in the latter «demonstrative adjectives». «113.» Demonstratives are similarly used in Latin both as _pronouns_ and as _adjectives_. The one used most is «is», masculine; «ea», feminine; «id», neuter SINGULAR: _this, that_; PLURAL: _these, those_ «114.» «Is» is declined as follows. Compare its declension with that of «alius», §109. BASE «e-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ is ea id eī eae ea (_or_ iī) _Gen._ eius eius eius eōrum eārum eōrum _Dat._ eī eī eī eīs eīs eīs (_or_ iīs iīs iīs) _Acc._ eum eam id eōs eās ea _Abl._ eō eā eō eīs eīs eīs (_or_ iīs iīs iīs) Note that the base «e-» changes to «i-» in a few cases. The genitive singular «eius» is pronounced _eh´yus_. In the plural the forms with two «i»’s are preferred and the two «i»’s are pronounced as one. Hence, pronounce «iī» as «ī» and «iīs» as «īs». «115.» Besides being used as demonstrative pronouns and adjectives the Latin demonstratives are regularly used for the personal pronoun _he, she, it_. As a personal pronoun, then, «is» would have the following meanings: SINGULAR _Nom._ «is», _he_; «ea», _she_; «id», _it_ _Gen._ «eius», _of him_ or _his_; «eius», _of her, her_, or _hers_; «eius», _of it_ or _its_ _Dat._ «eī», _to_ or _for him_; «eī», _to_ or _for her_; «eī», _to_ or _for it_ _Acc._ «eum», _him_; «eam», _her_; «id», _it_ _Abl._ «eō», _with, from_, etc., _him_; «eā», _with, from_, etc., _her_; «eō», _with, from_, etc., _it_ PLURAL _Nom._ «eī» or «iī», «eae», «ea», _they_ _Gen._ «eōrum», «eārum», «eōrum», _of them, their_ _Dat._ «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», _to_ or _for them_ _Acc._ «eōs, eās, ea», _them_ _Abl._ «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», «eīs» or «iīs», _with, from_, etc., _them_ «116.» «Comparison between _suus_ and _is_.» We learned above (§98.c) that «suus» is a _reflexive_ possessive. When _his, her_ (poss.), _its, their_, do not refer to the subject of the sentence, we express _his, her, its_ by «eius», the genitive singular of «is», «ea», «id»; and _their_ by the genitive plural, using «eōrum» to refer to a masculine or neuter antecedent noun and «eārum» to refer to a feminine one. EXAMPLES _Galba calls his_ (own) _son_, «Galba suum fīlium vocat» _Galba calls his son_ (not his own, but another’s), «Galba eius fīlium vocat» _Julia calls her_ (own) _children_, «Iūlia suōs līberōs vocat» _Julia calls her children_ (not her own, but another’s), «Iūlia eius līberōs vocat» _The men praise their_ (own) _boys_, «virī suōs puerōs laudant» _The men praise their boys_ (not their own, but others’), «virī eōrum puerōs laudant» «117.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287. 1. He praises her, him, it, them. 2. This cart, that report, these teachers, those women, that abode, these abodes. 3. That strong garrison, among those weak and sick women, that want of firmness, those frequent plans. 4. The other woman is calling her chickens (_her own_). 5. Another woman is calling her chickens (_not her own_). 6. The Gaul praises his arms (_his own_). 7. The Gaul praises his arms (_not his own_). 8. This farmer often plows their fields. 9. Those wretched slaves long for their master (_their own_). 10. Those wretched slaves long for their master (_not their own_). 11. Free men love their own fatherland. 12. They love its villages and towns. «118.» DIALOGUE[1] CORNELIUS AND MARCUS M. Quis est vir, Cornēlī, cum puerō parvō? Estne Rōmānus et līber? C. Rōmānus nōn est, Mārce. Is vir est servus et eius domicilium est in silvīs Galliae. M. Estne puer fīlius eius servī an alterīus? C. Neutrīus fīlius est puer. Is est fīlius lēgātī Sextī. M. Quō puer cum eō servō properat? C. Is cum servō properat ad lātōs Sextī agrōs.[2] Tōtum frūmentum est iam mātūrum et magnus servōrum numerus in Italiae[3] agrīs labōrat. M. Agricolaene sunt Gallī et patriae suae agrōs arant? C. Nōn agricolae sunt. Bellum amant Gallī, nōn agrī cultūram. Apud eōs virī pugnant et fēminae auxiliō līberōrum agrōs arant parantque cibum. M. Magister noster puerīs puellīsque grātās Gallōrum fābulās saepe nārrat et laudat eōs saepe. C. Mala est fortūna eōrum et saepe miserī servī multīs cum lacrimīs patriam suam dēsīderant. [Footnote 1: There are a number of departures from the normal order in this dialogue. Find them, and give the reason.] [Footnote 2: When a noun is modified by both a genitive and an adjective, a favorite order of words is _adjective, genitive, noun_.] [Footnote 3: A modifying genitive often stands between a preposition and its object.] * * * * * «Second Review, Lessons IX-XVII, §§506-509» * * * * * LESSON XVIII «CONJUGATION» THE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE TENSES OF «SUM» [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS lūdus, -ī, m.,_school_ «socius, socī», m., _companion, ally_ (social) ADJECTIVES «īrātus, -a, -um», _angry, furious_ (irate) «laetus, -a, -um», _happy, glad_ (social) ADVERBS hodiē, _to-day_ «ibi», _there, in that place_ mox, _presently, soon_, of the immediate future «nunc», _now, the present moment_ «nūper», _lately, recently_, of the immediate past «119.» The inflection of a verb is called its _conjugation_ (cf. §23). In English the verb has but few changes in form, the different meanings being expressed by the use of personal pronouns and auxiliaries, as, _I am carried, we have carried, they shall have carried_, etc. In Latin, on the other hand, instead of using personal pronouns and auxiliary verbs, the form changes with the meaning. In this way the Romans expressed differences in _tense, mood, voice, person_, and _number_. «120.» «The Tenses.» The different forms of a verb referring to different times are called its _tenses_. The chief distinctions of time are present, past, and future: 1. «The present», that is, _what is happening now_, or _what usually happens_, is expressed by THE PRESENT TENSE 2. «The past», that is, _what was happening, used to happen, happened, has happened_, or _had happened_, is expressed by THE IMPERFECT, PERFECT, AND PLUPERFECT TENSES 3. «The future», that is, _what is going to happen_, is expressed by THE FUTURE AND FUTURE PERFECT TENSES «121.» «The Moods.» Verbs have inflection of _mood_ to indicate the manner in which they express action. The moods of the Latin verb are the _indicative, subjunctive, imperative_, and _infinitive_. _a._ A verb is in the _indicative_ mood when it makes a statement or asks a question about something assumed as a fact. All the verbs we have used thus far are in the present indicative. «122.» «The Persons.» There are three persons, as in English. The first person is the person speaking (_I sing_); the second person the person spoken to (_you sing_); the third person the person spoken of (_he sings_). Instead of using personal pronouns for the different persons in the two numbers, singular and plural, the Latin verb uses the personal endings (cf. §22 _a_; 29). We have already learned that «-t» is the ending of the third person singular in the active voice and «-nt» of the third person plural. The complete list of personal endings of the active voice is as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ _I_ -m or -ō _we_ -mus _2d Pers._ _thou_ or _you_ -s _you_ -tis _3d Pers._ _he, she, it_ -t _they_ -nt «123.» Most verbs form their moods and tenses after a regular plan and are called _regular_ verbs. Verbs that depart from this plan are called _irregular_. The verb _to be_ is irregular in Latin as in English. The present, imperfect, and future tenses of the indicative are inflected as follows: PRESENT INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ su-m, _I am_ su-mus, _we are_ _2d Pers._ e-s, _you[1] are_ es-tis, _you[1] are_ _3d Pers._ es-t, _he, she_, or _it is_ su-nt, _they are_ IMPERFECT INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ er-a-m, _I was_ er-ā´-mus, _we were_ _2d Pers._ er-ā-s, _you were_ er-ā´-tis, _you were_ _3d Pers._ er-a-t, _he, she_, or _it was_ er-a-nt, _they were_ FUTURE INDICATIVE SINGULAR PLURAL _1st Pers._ er-ō, _I shall be_ er´-i-mus, _we shall be_ _2d Pers._ er-i-s, _you will be_ er´-i-tis, _you will be_ _3d Pers._ er-i-t, _he will be_ er-u-nt, _they will be_ _a._ Be careful about vowel quantity and accent in these forms, and consult §§12.2; 14; 15. [Footnote 1: Observe that in English _you are_, _you were_, etc. may be either singular or plural. In Latin the singular and plural forms are never the same.] «124.» DIALOGUE THE BOYS SEXTUS AND MARCUS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287. S. Ubi es, Mārce? Ubi est Quīntus? Ubi estis, amīcī? M. Cum Quīntō, Sexte, in silvā sum. Nōn sōlī sumus; sunt in silvā multī aliī puerī. S. Nunc laetus es, sed nūper nōn laetus erās. Cūr miser erās? M. Miser eram quia amīcī meī erant in aliō vicō et eram sōlus. Nunc sum apud sociōs meōs. Nunc laetī sumus et erimus. S. Erātisne in lūdo hodiē? M. Hodiē nōn erāmus in lūdō, quod magister erat aeger. S. Eritisne mox in lūdō? M. Amīcī meī ibi erunt, sed ego (_I_) nōn erō. S. Cūr nōn ibi eris? Magister, saepe irātus, inopiam tuam studī dīligentiaeque nōn laudat. M. Nūper aeger eram et nunc īnfīrmus sum. «125.» EXERCISE 1. You are, you were, you will be, (_sing. and plur._). 2. I am, I was, I shall be. 3. He is, he was, he will be. 4. We are, we were, we shall be. 5. They are, they were, they will be. 6. Why were you not in school to-day? I was sick. 7. Lately he was a sailor, now he is a farmer, soon he will be a teacher. 8. To-day I am happy, but lately I was wretched. 9. The teachers were happy because of the boys’ industry. [Illustration: PUERI ROMANI IN LUDO] LESSON XIX THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_ «126.» There are four conjugations of the regular verbs. These conjugations are distinguished from each other by the final vowel of the present conjugation-stem.[1] This vowel is called the _distinguishing vowel_, and is best seen in the present infinitive. [Footnote 1: The _stem_ is the body of a word to which the terminations are attached. It is often identical with the base (cf. §58). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the inflectional terminations. This point is further explained in §230.] Below is given the _present infinitive_ of a verb of each conjugation, the _present stem_, and the _distinguishing vowel._ DISTINGUISHING CONJUGATION PRES. INFIN. PRES. STEM VOWEL I. «amā´re», _to love_ «amā-» «ā» II. «monē´re», _to advise_ «monē-» «ē» III. «re´gĕre», _to rule_ «regĕ-» «ĕ» IV. «audī´re», _to hear_ «audi-» «ī» _a._ Note that the present stem of each conjugation is found by dropping «-re», the ending of the present infinitive. NOTE. The present infinitive of «sum» is «esse», and «es-» is the present stem. «127.» From the present stem are formed the _present_, _imperfect_, and _future_ tenses. «128.» The inflection of the Present Active Indicative of the first and of the second conjugation is as follows: «a´mō, amā´re» (_love_) «mo´neō, monē´re» (_advise_) PRES. STEM «amā-» PRES. STEM «monē-» SINGULAR PLURAL PERSONAL ENDINGS 1. a´mō, _I love_ mo´neō, _I advise_ -ō 2. a´mās, _you love_ mo´nēs, _you advise_ -s 3. a´mat, _he (she, it) loves_ mo´net, _he (she, it) advises_ -t 1. amā´mus, _we love_ monē´mus, _we advise_ -mus 2. amā´tis, _you love_ monē´tis, _you advise_ -tis 3. a´mant, _they love_ mo´nent, _they advise_ -nt 1. The present tense is inflected by adding the personal endings to the present stem, and its first person uses «-o» and not «-m». The form «amō» is for «amā-ō», the two vowels «ā-ō» contracting to «ō». In «moneō» there is no contraction. _Nearly all regular verbs ending in «-eo» belong to the second conjugation._ 2. Note that the long final vowel of the stem is shortened before another vowel («monē-ō» = «mo´nĕō»), and before final «-t» («amăt», «monĕt») and «-nt» («amănt», «monĕnt»). Compare §12.2. «129.» Like «amō» and «moneō» inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs[2]: [Footnote 2: The only new verbs in this list are the five of the second conjugation which are starred. Learn their meanings.] INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT a´rō, _I plow_ arā´re, _to plow_ cū´rō, _I care for_ cūrā´re, _to care for_ *dē´leō, _I destroy_ dēlē´re, _to destroy_ dēsī´derō, _I long for_ dēsīderā´re, _to long for_ dō,[3] _I give_ da´re, _to give_ *ha´beō, _I have_ habē´re, _to have_ ha´bitō, _I live, I dwell_ habitā´re, _to live, to dwell_ *iu´beō, _I order_ iubē´re, _to order_ labō´rō, _I labor_ labōrā´re, _to labor_ lau´dō, _I praise_ laudā´re, _to praise_ mātū´rō, _I hasten_ mātūrā´re, _to hasten_ *mo´veō, _I move_ movē´re, _to move_ nār´rō, _I tell_ nārrā´re, _to tell_ ne´cō, _I kill_ necā´re, _to kill_ nūn´tiō, _I announce_ nūntiā´re, _to announce_ pa´rō, _I prepare_ parā´re, _to prepare_ por´tō, _I carry_ portā´re, _to carry_ pro´perō, _I hasten_ properā´re, _to hasten_ pug´nō, _I fight_ pugnā´re, _to fight_ *vi´deō, _I see_ vidē´re, _to see_ vo´cō, _I call_ vocā´re, _to call_ [Footnote 3: Observe that in «dō, dăre», the «a» is _short_, and that the present stem is «dă-» and not «dā-». The only forms of «dō» that have a long are «dās» (pres. indic.), «dā» (pres. imv.), and «dāns» (pres. part.).] «130.» «The Translation of the Present.» In English there are three ways of expressing present action. We may say, for example, _I live, I am living_, or _I do live_. In Latin the one expression «habitō» covers all three of these expressions. «131.» EXERCISES Give the _voice_, _mood_, _tense_, _person_, and _number_ of each form. I. 1. Vocāmus, properātis, iubent. 2. Movētis, laudās, vidēs. 3. Dēlētis, habētis, dant. 4. Mātūrās, dēsīderat, vidēmus. 5. Iubet, movent, necat. 6. Nārrāmus, movēs, vident. 7. Labōrātis, properant, portās, parant. 8. Dēlet, habētis, iubēmus, dās. N.B. Observe that the personal ending is of prime importance in translating a Latin verb form. Give that your first attention. II. 1. We plow, we are plowing, we do plow. 2. They care for, they are caring for, they do care for. 3. You give, you are having, you do have (_sing_.). 4. We destroy, I do long for, they are living. 5. He calls, they see, we are telling. 6. We do fight, we order, he is moving, he prepares. 7. They are laboring, we kill, you announce. LESSON XX IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «fōrma, -ae», f., _form, beauty_ «regīna, -ae», f., _queen_ (regal) «poena, -ae», f., _punishment, penalty_ superbia, -ae, f., _pride, haughtiness_ «potentia, -ae», f., _power_ (potent) «trīstītīa, -ae», f., _sadness, sorrow_ ADJECTIVES «septem», indeclinable, _seven_ «superbus, -a, -um», _proud, haughty_ (superb) CONJUNCTIONS «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_ «132.» «Tense Signs.» Instead of using auxiliary verbs to express differences in tense, like _was_, _shall_, _will_, etc., Latin adds to the verb stem certain elements that have the force of auxiliary verbs. These are called _tense signs_. «133.» «Formation and Inflection of the Imperfect.» The tense sign of the imperfect is «-bā-», which is added to the present stem. The imperfect consists, therefore, of three parts: PRESENT STEM TENSE SIGN PERSONAL ENDING «amā-» «ba-» «m» _loving_ _was_ _I_ The inflection is as follows: CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II PERSONAL SINGULAR ENDINGS 1. amā´bam, _I was loving_ monē´bam, _I was advising_ -m 2. amā´bās, _you were loving_ monē´bās, _you were advising_ -s 3. amā´bat, _he was loving_ monē´bat, _he was advising_ -t PLURAL 1. amābā´mus, _we were loving_ monēbā´mus, _we were advising_ -mus 2. amābā´tis, _you were loving_ monēbā´tis, _you were advising_ -tis 3. amā´bant, _they were loving_ monē´bant, _they wereadvising_ -nt _a._ Note that the «ā» of the tense sign «-bā-» is shortened before «-nt», and before «m» and «t» when final. (Cf. §12.2.) In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §129. «134.» «Meaning of the Imperfect.» The Latin imperfect describes an act as _going on_ or _progressing in past time_, like the English past-progressive tense (as, _I was walking_). It is the regular tense used to describe a past situation or condition of affairs. «135.» EXERCISES I. 1. Vidēbāmus, dēsīderābat, mātūrābās. 2. Dabant, vocābātis, dēlēbāmus. 3. Pugnant, laudābās, movēbātis. 4. Iubēbant, properābātis, portābāmus. 5. Dabās, nārrābant, labōrābātis. 6. Vidēbant, movēbās, nūntiābāmus. 7. Necābat, movēbam, habēbat, parābātis. II. 1. You were having (_sing. and plur._), we were killing, they were laboring. 2. He was moving, we were ordering, we were fighting. 3. We were telling, they were seeing, he was calling. 4. They were living, I was longing for, we were destroying. 5. You were giving, you were moving, you were announcing, (_sing. and plur._). 6. They were caring for, he was plowing, we were praising. «136.» NI´OBE AND HER CHILDREN First learn the special vocabulary, p. 287. Niobē, rēgina Thēbānōrum, erat pulchra fēmina sed superba. Erat superba nōn sōlum fōrmā[1] suā marītīque potentiā[1] sed etiam magnō līberōrum numerō.[1] Nam habēbat[2] septem fīliōs et septem fīliās. Sed ea superbia erat rēgīnae[3] causa magnae trīstitiae et līberīs[3] causa dūrae poenae. NOTE. The words «Niobē», «Thēbānōrum», and «marītī» will be found in the general vocabulary. Translate the selection without looking up any other words. [Footnote 1: Ablative of cause.] [Footnote 2: Translate _had_; it denotes a past situation. (See §134.)] [Footnote 3: Dative, cf. §43.] LESSON XXI FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS sacrum, -ī, n., _sacrifice, offering, rite_ «verbum, -ī», n., _word_ (verb) VERBS sedeō, -ēre, _sit_ (sediment) volō, -āre, _fly_ (volatile) ADJECTIVES «interfectus, -a, -um», _slain_ «molestus, -a, -um», _troublesome, annoying_ (molest) «perpetuus, -a, -um», _perpetual, continuous_ «ego», personal pronoun, _I_ (egotism). Always emphatic in the nominative. «137.» The tense sign of the Future Indicative in the first and second conjugations is «-bi-». This is joined to the present stem of the verb and followed by the personal ending, as follows: PRESENT STEM TENSE SIGN PERSONAL ENDING «amā-» «bi-» «s» _love_ _will_ _you_ «138.» The Future Active Indicative is inflected as follows. CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II SINGULAR 1. amā´bō, _I shall love_ monē´bō, _I shall advise_ 2. amā´bis, _you will love_ monē´bis, _you will advise_ 3. amā´bit, _he will love_ monē´bit, _he will advise_ PLURAL 1. amā´bimus, _we shall love_ monē´bimus, _we shall advise_ 2. amā´bitis _you will love_ monē´bitis, _you will advise_ 3. amā´bunt, _they will love_ monē´bunt, _they will advise_ _a._ The personal endings are as in the present. The ending «-bō» in the first person singular is contracted from «-bi-ō». The «-bi-» appears as «-bu-» in the third person plural. Note that the inflection is like that of «erō», the future of «sum». _Pay especial attention to the accent._ In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §129. «139.» EXERCISES I. 1. Movēbitis, laudābis, arābō. 2. Dēlēbitis, vocābitis, dabunt. 3. Mātūrābis, dēsīderābit, vidēbimus. 4. Habēbit, movēbunt, necābit. 5. Nārrābimus, monēbis, vidēbunt. 6. Labōrābitis, cūrābunt, dabis. 7. Habitābimus, properābitis, iubēbunt, parābit. 8. Nūntiābō, portābimus, iubēbō. II. 1. We shall announce, we shall see, I shall hasten. 2. I shall carry, he will plow, they will care for. 3. You will announce, you will move, you will give, (_sing. and plur._). 4. We shall fight, we shall destroy, I shall long for. 5. He will call, they will see, you will tell (_plur._). 6. They will dwell, we shall order, he will praise. 7. They will labor, we shall kill, you will have (_sing. and plur._), he will destroy. «140.» NI´OBE AND HER CHILDREN (_Concluded_) First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288. Apollō et Diāna erant līberī Lātōnae. Iīs Thēbānī sacra crēbra parābant.[1] Oppidānī amābant Lātōnam et līberōs eius. Id superbae rēgīnae erat molestum. “Cūr,” inquit, “Lātōnae et līberīs sacra parātis? Duōs līberōs habet Lātōna; quattuordecim habeō ego. Ubi sunt mea sacra?” Lātōna iīs verbīs[2] īrāta līberōs suōs vocat. Ad eam volant Apollō Diānaque et sagittīs[3] suīs miserōs līberōs rēgīnae superbae dēlent. Niobē, nūper laeta, nunc misera, sedet apud līberōs interfectōs et cum perpetuīs lacrimīs[4] eōs dēsīderat. NOTE. Consult the general vocabulary for «Apollō», «inquit», «duōs», and «quattuordecim». Try to remember the meaning of all the other words. [Footnote 1: Observe the force of the imperfect here, _used to prepare_, _were in the habit of preparing_; so «amābant» denotes a past situation of affairs. (See §134.)] [Footnote 2: Ablative of cause.] [Footnote 3: Ablative of means.] [Footnote 4: This may be either manner or accompaniment. It is often impossible to draw a sharp line between means, manner, and accompaniment. The Romans themselves drew no sharp distinction. It was enough for them if the general idea demanded the ablative case.] LESSON XXII REVIEW OF VERBS · THE DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «disciplīna, -ae», f., _training, culture, discipline_ «Gāius, Gāī», m., _Caius_, a Roman first name «ōrnāmentum, -ī», n., _ornament, jewel_ Tiberius, Tibe´rī, m., _Tiberius_, a Roman first name VERB «doceō, -ēre», _teach_ (doctrine) ADVERB «maximē», _most of all, especially_ ADJECTIVE «antīquus, -qua, -quum», _old, ancient_ (antique) «141.» Review the present, imperfect, and future active indicative, both orally and in writing, of «sum» and the verbs in §129. «142.» We learned in §43 for what sort of expressions we may expect the dative, and in §44 that one of its commonest uses is with _verbs_ to express the indirect object. It is also very common with _adjectives_ to express the object toward which the quality denoted by the adjective is directed. We have already had a number of cases where «grātus», _agreeable to_, was so followed by a dative; and in the last lesson we had «molestus», _annoying to_, followed by that case. The usage may be more explicitly stated by the following rule: «143.» RULE. «Dative with Adjectives.» _The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed. Such are, especially, those meaning «near», also «fit», «friendly», «pleasing», «like», and their opposites._ «144.» Among such adjectives memorize the following: «idōneus, -a, -um», _fit, suitable_ (for) «amīcus, -a, -um», _friendly_ (to) «inimīcus, -a, -um», _hostile_ (to) «grātus, -a, -um», _pleasing_ (to), _agreeable_ (to) «molestus, -a, -um», _annoying_ (to), _troublesome_ (to) «fīnitimus, -a, -um», _neighboring_ (to) «proximus, -a, -um», _nearest, next_ (to) «145.» EXERCISES I. 1. Rōmānī terram idōneam agrī cultūrae habent. 2. Gallī cōpiīs Rōmānīs inimīcī erant. 3. Cui dea Lātōna amīca non erat? 4. Dea Lātōna superbae rēgīnae amīca nōn erat. 5. Cibus noster, Mārce, erit armātīs virīs grātus. 6. Quid erat molestum populīs Italiae? 7. Bella longa cum Gallīs erant molesta populīs Italiae. 8. Agrī Germānōrum fluviō Rhēnō fīnitimī erant. 9. Rōmānī ad silvam oppidō proximam castra movēbant. 10. Nōn sōlum fōrma sed etiam superbia rēgīnae erat magna. 11. Mox rēgīna pulchra erit aegra trīstitiā. 12. Cūr erat Niobē, rēgīna Thēbānōrum, laeta? Laeta erat Niobē multīs fīliīs et fīliābus. II. 1. The sacrifices of the people will be annoying to the haughty queen. 2. The sacrifices were pleasing not only to Latona but also to Diana. 3. Diana will destroy those hostile to Latona. 4. The punishment of the haughty queen was pleasing to the goddess Diana. 5. The Romans will move their forces to a large field[1] suitable for a camp. 6. Some of the allies were friendly to the Romans, others to the Gauls. [Footnote 1: Why not the dative?] «146.» CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288. Apud antīquās dominās, Cornēlia, Āfricānī fīlia, erat[2] maximē clāra. Fīliī eius erant Tiberius Gracchus et Gāius Gracchus. Iī puerī cum Cornēliā in oppidō Rōmā, clārō Italiae oppidō, habitābant. Ibi eōs cūrābat Cornēlia et ibi magnō cum studiō eōs docēbat. Bona fēmina erat Cornēlia et bonam disciplīnam maximē amābat. NOTE. Can you translate the paragraph above? There are no new words. [Footnote 2: Observe that all the imperfects denote continued or progressive action, or describe a state of affairs. (Cf. §134.)] LESSON XXIII PRESENT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_ «147.» As we learned in §126, the present stem of the third conjugation ends in «-ĕ», and of the fourth in «-ī». The inflection of the Present Indicative is as follows: CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV «re´gō, re´gere» (_rule_) «au´diō, audī´re» (_hear_) PRES. STEM «regĕ-» PRES. STEM «audī-» SINGULAR 1. re´gō, _I rule_ au´diō, _I hear_ 2. re´gis, _you rule_ au´dīs, _you hear_ 3. re´git, _he (she, it) rules_ au´dit, _he (she, it) hears_ PLURAL 1. re´gimus, _we rule_ audī´mus, _we hear_ 2. re´gitis, _you rule_ audī´tis, _you hear_ 3. re´gunt, _they rule_ au´diunt, _they hear_ 1. The personal endings are the same as before. 2. The final short «-e-» of the stem «regĕ-» combines with the «-ō» in the first person, becomes «-u-» in the third person plural, and becomes «-ĭ-» elsewhere. The inflection is like that of «erō», the future of «sum». 3. In «audiō» the personal endings are added regularly to the stem «audī-». In the third person plural «-u-» is inserted between the stem and the personal ending, as «audi-u-nt». Note that the long vowel of the stem is shortened before final «-t» just as in «amō» and «moneō». (Cf. §12.2.) Note that «-i-» is always short in the third conjugation and long in the fourth, excepting where long vowels are regularly shortened. (Cf. §12.1, 2.) «148.» Like «regō» and «audiō» inflect the present active indicative of the following verbs: INDICATIVE PRESENT INFINITIVE PRESENT agō, _I drive_ agere, _to drive_ dīcō, _I say_ dīcere, _to say_ dūcō, _I lead_ dūcere, _to lead_ mittō, _I send_ mittere, _to send_ mūniō, _I fortify_ mūnīre, _to fortify_ reperiō, _I find_ reperīre, _to find_ veniō, _I come_ venīre, _to come_ «149.» EXERCISES I. 1. Quis agit? Cūr venit? Quem mittit? Quem dūcis? 2. Quid mittunt? Ad quem veniunt? Cuius castra mūniunt? 3. Quem agunt? Venīmus. Quid puer reperit? 4. Quem mittimus? Cuius equum dūcitis? Quid dīcunt? 5. Mūnīmus, venītis, dīcit. 6. Agimus, reperītis, mūnīs. 7. Reperis, ducitis, dīcis. 8. Agitis, audimus, regimus. II. 1. What do they find? Whom do they hear? Why does he come? 2. Whose camp are we fortifying? To whom does he say? What are we saying? 3. I am driving, you are leading, they are hearing. 4. You send, he says, you fortify (_sing. and plur._). 5. I am coming, we find, they send. 6. They lead, you drive, he does fortify. 7. You lead, you find, you rule, (_all plur._). «150.» CORNELIA AND HER JEWELS (_Concluded_) Proximum domicīliō Cornēliae erat pulchrae Campānae domicilium. Campāna erat superba nōn sōlum fōrmā suā sed maximē ōrnāmentīs suīs. Ea[1] laudābat semper. “Habēsne tū ūlla ornāmenta, Cornēlia?” inquit. “Ubi sunt tua ōrnāmenta?” Deinde Cornēlia fīliōs suōs Tiberium et Gāium vocat. “Puerī meī,” inquit, “sunt mea ōrnāmenta. Nam bonī līberī sunt semper bonae fēminae ōrnāmenta maximē clāra.” NOTE. The only new words here are «Campāna», «semper», and «tū». [Footnote 1: «Ea», accusative plural neuter.] [Illustration: “PUERI MEI SUNT MEA ORNAMENTA”] LESSON XXIV IMPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_ THE DATIVE WITH SPECIAL INTRANSITIVE VERBS «151.» PARADIGMS CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV SINGULAR 1. regē´bam, _I was ruling_ audiē´bam, _I was hearing_ 2. regē´bās, _you were riding_ audiē´bās, _you were hearing_ 3. regē´bat, _he was ruling_ audiē´bat, _he was hearing_ PLURAL 1. regēbā´mus, _we were ruling_ audiēbā´mus, _we were hearing_ 2. regēbā´tis, _you were ruling_ audiēbā´tis, _you were hearing_ 3. regē´bant, _they were ruling_ audiē´bant, _they were hearing_ 1. The tense sign is «-bā-», as in the first two conjugations. 2. Observe that the final «-ĕ-» of the stem is lengthened before the tense sign «-bā-». This makes the imperfect of the third conjugation just like the imperfect of the second (cf. «monēbam» and «regēbam»). 3. In the fourth conjugation «-ē-» is inserted between the stem and the tense sign «-bā-» («audi-ē-ba-m»). 4. In a similar manner inflect the verbs given in §148. «152.» EXERCISES I. 1. Agēbat, veniēbat, mittēbat, dūcēbant. 2. Agēbant, mittēbant, dūcēbas, mūniēbant. 3. Mittēbāmus, dūcēbātis, dīcēbant. 4. Mūniēbāmus, veniēbātis, dīcēbās. 5. Mittēbās, veniēbāmus, reperiēbat. 6. Reperiēbās, veniēbās, audiēbātis. 7. Agēbāmus, reperiēbātis, mūniēbat. 8. Agēbātis, dīcēbam, mūniēbam. II. 1. They were leading, you were driving (_sing. and plur._), he was fortifying. 2. They were sending, we were finding, I was coming. 3. You were sending, you were fortifying, (_sing. and plur._), he was saying. 4. They were hearing, you were leading (_sing. and plur._), I was driving. 5. We were saying, he was sending, I was fortifying. 6. They were coming, he was hearing, I was finding. 7. You were ruling (_sing. and plur._), we were coming, they were ruling. «153.» «The Dative with Special Intransitive Verbs.» We learned above (§20.a) that a verb which does not admit of a direct object is called an _intransitive_ verb. Many such verbs, however, are of such meaning that they can govern an indirect object, which will, of course, be in the dative case (§45). Learn the following list of intransitive verbs with their meanings. In each case the dative indirect object is the person or thing to which a benefit, injury, or feeling is directed. (Cf. §43.) «crēdō, crēdere», _believe_ (give belief to) «faveō, favēre», _favor_ (show favor to) «noceō, nocēre», _injure_ (do harm to) «pāreō, pārēre», _obey_ (give obedience to) «persuādeō, persuādēre», _persuade_ (offer persuasion to) «resistō, resistere», _resist_ (offer resistance to) «studeō, studēre», _be eager for_ (give attention to) «154.» RULE. «Dative with Intransitive Verbs.» _The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive verbs «crēdō», «faveō», «noceō», «pāreō», «persuādeō», «resistō», «studeō», and others of like meaning._ «155.» EXERCISE 1. Crēdisne verbīs sociōrum? Multī verbīs eōrum nōn crēdunt. 2. Meī fīnitimī cōnsiliō tuō nōn favēbunt, quod bellō student. 3. Tiberius et Gāius disciplīnae dūrae nōn resistēbant et Cornēliae pārēbant. 4. Dea erat inimīca septem fīliābus rēgīnae. 5. Dūra poena et perpetua trīstitia rēgīnae nōn persuādēbunt. 6. Nūper ea resistēbat et nunc resistit potentiae Lātōnae. 7. Mox sagittae volābunt et līberīs miserīs nocēbunt. LESSON XXV FUTURE ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_ «156.» In the future tense of the third and fourth conjugations we meet with a new tense sign. Instead of using «-bi-», as in the first and second conjugations, we use «-ā-»[1] in the first person singular and «-ē-» in the rest of the tense. In the third conjugation the final «-ĕ-» of the stem is dropped before this tense sign; in the fourth conjugation the final «-ī-» of the stem is retained.[2] [Footnote 1: The «-ā-» is shortened before «-m» final, and «-ē-» before «-t» final and before «-nt». (Cf. §12.2.)] [Footnote 2: The «-ī-» is, of course, shortened, being before another vowel. (Cf. §12.1.)] «157.» PARADIGMS CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION IV SINGULAR 1. re´gam, _I shall rule_ au´diam, _I shall hear_ 2. re´gēs, _you will rule_ au´diēs, _you will hear_ 3. re´get, _he will rule_ au´diet, _he will hear_ PLURAL 1. regē´mus, _we shall rule_ audiē´mus, _we shall hear_ 2. regē´tis, _you will rule_ audiē´tis, _you will hear_ 3. re´gent, _they will rule_ au´dient, _they will hear_ 1. Observe that the future of the third conjugation is like the present of the second, excepting in the first person singular. 2. In the same manner inflect the verbs given in §148. «158.» EXERCISES I. 1. Dīcet, dūcētis, mūniēmus. 2. Dīcent, dīcētis, mittēmus. 3. Mūnient, venient, mittent, agent. 4. Dūcet, mittēs, veniet, aget. 5. Mūniet, reperiētis, agēmus. 6. Mittam, veniēmus, regent. 7. Audiētis, veniēs, reperiēs. 8. Reperiet, agam, dūcēmus, mittet. 9. Vidēbitis, sedēbō, vocābimus. II. 1. I shall find, he will hear, they will come. 2. I shall fortify, he will send, we shall say. 3. I shall drive, you will lead, they will hear. 4. You will send, you will fortify, (_sing. and plur._), he will say. 5. I shall come, we shall find, they will send. 6. Who[3] will believe the story? I[4] shall believe the story. 7. Whose friends do you favor? We favor our friends. 8. Who will resist our weapons? Sextus will resist your weapons. 9. Who will persuade him? They will persuade him. 10. Why were you injuring my horse? I was not injuring your horse. 11. Whom does a good slave obey? A good slave obeys his master. 12. Our men were eager for another battle. [Footnote 3: Remember that «quis», _who_, is singular in number.] [Footnote 4: Express by «ego», because it is emphatic.] LESSON XXVI VERBS IN _-IŌ_ OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION · THE IMPERATIVE MOOD «159.» There are a few common verbs ending in «-iō» which do not belong to the fourth conjugation, as you might infer, but to the third. The fact that they belong to the third conjugation is shown by the ending of the infinitive. (Cf. §126.) Compare «audiō, audī´re» (_hear_), fourth conjugation «capiō, ca´pere» (_take_), third conjugation «160.» The present, imperfect, and future active indicative of «capiō» are inflected as follows: «capiō, capere», _take_ PRES. STEM «cape-» PRESENT IMPERFECT FUTURE SINGULAR 1. ca´piō capiē´bam ca´piam 2. ca´pis capiē´bās ca´piēs 3. ca´pit capiē´bat ca´piet PLURAL 1. ca´pimus capiēbā´mus capiē´mus 2. ca´pitis capiēbā´tis capiē´tis 3. ca´piunt capiē´bant ca´pient 1. Observe that «capiō» and the other «-iō» verbs follow the fourth conjugation wherever in the fourth conjugation _two vowels occur in succession._ (Cf. capiō, audiō; capiunt, audiunt; and all the imperfect and future.) All other forms are like the third conjugation. (Cf. capis, regis; capit, regit; etc.) 2. Like «capiō», inflect «faciō, facere», _make, do_ «fugiō, fugere», _flee_ «iaciō, iacere», _hurl_ «rapiō, rapere», _seize_ «161.» «The Imperative Mood.» The imperative mood expresses a command; as, _come!_ _send!_ The present tense of the imperative is used only in the second person, singular and plural. _The singular in the active voice is regularly the same in form as the present stem. The plural is formed by adding «-te» to the singular._ CONJUGATION SINGULAR PLURAL I. amā, _love thou_ amā´te, _love ye_ II. monē, _advise thou_ monē´te, _advise ye_ III. (_a_) rege, _rule thou_ re´gite, _rule ye_ (_b_) cape, _take thou_ ca´pite, _take ye_ IV. audī, _hear thou_ audī´te, _hear ye_ sum (irregular) es, _be thou_ este, _be ye_ 1. In the third conjugation the final -ĕ- of the stem becomes -ĭ- in the plural. 2. The verbs «dīcō», _say_; «dūcō», _lead_; and «faciō», _make_, have the irregular forms «dīc», «dūc», and «fac» in the singular. 3. Give the present active imperative, singular and plural, of «veniō», «dūcō», «vocō», «doceō», «laudō», «dīcō», «sedeō», «agō», «faciō», «mūniō», «mittō», «rapiō». «162.» EXERCISES I. 1. Fugient, faciunt, iaciēbat. 2. Dēlē, nūntiāte, fugiunt. 3. Venīte, dīc, faciētis. 4. Dūcite, iaciam, fugiēbant. 5. Fac, iaciēbāmus, fugimus, rapite. 6. Sedēte, reperī, docēte. 7. Fugiēmus, iacient, rapiēs. 8. Reperient, rapiēbātis, nocent. 9. Favēte, resistē, pārēbitis. 10. Volā ad multās terrās et dā auxilium. 11. Ego tēla mea capiam et multās ferās dēlēbō. 12. Quis fābulae tuae crēdet? 13. Este bonī, puerī, et audīte verba grāta magistrī. II. 1. The goddess will seize her arms and will hurl her weapons. 2. With her weapons she will destroy many beasts. 3. She will give aid to the weak.[1] 4. She will fly to many lands and the beasts will flee. 5. Romans, tell[2] the famous story to your children. [Footnote 1: Plural. An adjective used as a noun. (Cf. §99.II.3.)] [Footnote 2: Imperative. The imperative generally stands first, as in English.] * * * * * «Third Review, Lessons XVIII-XXVI, §§510-512» * * * * * LESSON XXVII THE PASSIVE VOICE PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE OF _AMŌ_ AND _MONEŌ_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «āla, -ae», f., _wing_ «deus, -ī», m., _god_ (deity)[A] «monstrum, -ī», n., _omen, prodigy; monster_ ōrāculum, -ī, n., _oracle_ VERB «vāstō, -āre», _lay waste, devastate_ ADJECTIVES «commōtus, -a, -um», _moved, excited_ «maximus, -a, -um», _greatest_ (maximum) «saevus, -a, -um», _fierce, savage_ ADVERBS «ita», _thus, in this way, as follows_ «tum», _then, at that time_ [Footnote A: For the declension of «deus», see §468] «163.» «The Voices.» Thus far the verb forms have been in the _active voice_; that is, they have represented the subject as _performing_ an action; as, The lion ---> _killed_ ---> the hunter A verb is said to be in the _passive voice_ when it represents its subject as _receiving_ an action; as, The lion <--- _was killed_ <--- by the hunter Note the direction of the arrows. «164.» «Passive Personal Endings.» In the passive voice we use a different set of personal endings. They are as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL 1. -r, _I_ 1. -mur, _we_ 2. -ris, -re, _you_ 2. -minī, _you_ 3. -tur, _he, she, it_ 3. -ntur, _they_ _a._ Observe that the letter «-r» appears somewhere in all but one of the endings. This is sometimes called the _passive sign_. «165.» PARADIGMS «amō, amāre» «monēo, monēre» PRES. STEM «amā-» PRES. STEM «monē-» PRESENT INDICATIVE PERSONAL ENDINGS SINGULAR a´mor, _I am loved_ mo´neor, _I am advised_ -or[1] amā´ris or amā´re, monē´ris or monē´re. -ris or -re _you are loved_ _you are advised_ amā´tur, _he is loved_ monē´tur, _he is advised_ -tur PLURAL amā´mur, _we are loved_ monē´mur, _we are advised_ -mur amā´minī, _you are loved_ monē´minī, _you are advised_ -mini aman´tur, _they are loved_ monen´tur, _they are advised_ -ntur [Footnote 1: In the present the personal ending of the first person singular is «-or».] IMPERFECT INDICATIVE (TENSE SIGN «-bā-») SINGULAR amā´bar, monē´bar, -r _I was being loved_ _I was being advised_ amābā´ris or amābā´re, monēbā´ris or monēbā´re -ris or -re _you were being loved_ _you were being advised_ amābā´tur, monēbā´tur, -tur _he was being loved_ _he was being advised_ PLURAL amābā´mur, monēbā´mur, -mur _we were being loved_ _we were being advised_ amābā´minī, monēbā´minī, -minī _you were being loved_ _you were being advised_ amāban´tur, monēban´tur, -ntur _they were being loved_ _they were being advised_ FUTURE (TENSE SIGN «-bi-») SINGULAR amā´bor, monē´bor, -r _I shall be loved_ _I shall be advised_ amā´beris, _or_ amā´bere monē´beris _or_ monē´bere, -ris or -re _you will be loved_ _you will be advised_ amā´bitur, monē´bitur, -tur _he will be loved_ _he will be advised_ PLURAL amā´bimur, monē´bimur, -mur _we shall be loved_ _we shall be advised_ amābi´minī, monēbi´minī, -minī _you will be loved_ _you will be advised_ amābun´tur, monēbun´tur, -ntur _they will be loved_ _they will be advised_ 1. The tense sign and the personal endings are added as in the active. 2. In the future the tense sign «-bi-» appears as «-bo-» in the first person, «-be-» in the second, singular number, and as «-bu-» in the third person plural. 3. Inflect «laudō», «necō», «portō», «moveō», «dēleō», «iubeō», in the present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive. «166.» Intransitive verbs, such as «mātūrō», _I hasten_; «habitō», _I dwell_, do not have a passive voice with a personal subject. «167.» EXERCISES I. 1. Laudāris _or_ laudāre, laudās, datur, dat. 2. Dabitur, dabit, vidēminī, vidētis. 3. Vocābat, vocābātur, dēlēbitis, dēlēbiminī. 4. Parābātur, parābat, cūrās, cūrāris _or_ cūrāre. 5. Portābantur, portābant, vidēbimur, vidēbimus. 6. Iubēris _or_ iubēre, iubēs, laudābāris _or_ laudābāre, laudābās. 7. Movēberis or movēbere, movēbis, dabantur, dabant. 8. Dēlentur, dēlent, parābāmur, parābāmus. II. 1. We prepare, we are prepared, I shall be called, I shall call, you were carrying, you were being carried. 2. I see, I am seen, it was being announced, he was announcing, they will order, they will be ordered. 3. You will be killed, you will kill, you move, you are moved, we are praising, we are being praised. 4. I am called, I call, you will have, you are cared for. 5. They are seen, they see, we were teaching, we were being taught, they will move, they will be moved. [Illustration: PERSEUS ANDROMEDAM SERVAT] «168.» PER´SEUS AND ANDROM´EDA First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288. Perseus fīlius erat Iovis,[2] maximī[3] deōrum. Dē eō multās fabulās nārrant poētae. Eī favent deī, eī magica arma et ālās dant. Eīs tēlīs armātus et ālīs frētus ad multās terrās volābat et mōnstra saeva dēlēbat et miserīs īnfīrmīsque auxilium dabat. Aethiopia est terra Āfricae. Eam terram Cēpheus[4] regēbat. Eī[5] Neptūnus, maximus aquārum deus, erat īrātus et mittit[6] mōnstrum saevum ad Aethiopiam. Ibi mōnstrum nōn sōlum lātīs pulchrīsque Aethiopiae agrīs nocēbat sed etiam domicilia agricolārum dēlēbat, et multōs virōs, fēminās, līberōsque necābat. Populus ex agrīs fugiēbat et oppida mūrīs validīs mūniēbat. Tum Cēpheus magnā trīstitiā commōtus ad Iovis ōrāculum properat et ita dīcit: “Amīcī meī necantur; agrī meī vāstantur. Audī verba mea, Iuppiter. Dā miserīs auxilium. Age mōnstrum saevum ex patriā.” [Footnote 2: «Iovis», the genitive of «Iuppiter».] [Footnote 3: Used substantively, _the greatest_. So below, l. 4, «miserīs» and «īnfīrmīs» are used substantively.] [Footnote 4: Pronounce in two syllables, _Ce´pheus_.] [Footnote 5: «Eī», _at him_, dative with «īrātus».] [Footnote 6: The present is often used, as in English, in speaking of a past action, in order to make the story more vivid and exciting.] LESSON XXVIII PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF _REGŌ_ AND _AUDIŌ_ [Special Vocabulary] VERBS «respondeō, -ēre», _respond, reply_ «servō, -āre», _save, preserve_ ADJECTIVE «cārus, -a, -um», _dear_ (cherish) CONJUNCTION «autem», _but, moreover, now_. Usually stands second, never first NOUN «vīta, -ae», f., _life_ (vital) «169.» Review the present, imperfect, and future indicative active of «regō» and «audiō», and learn the passive of the same tenses (§§490, 491). _a._ Observe that the tense signs of the imperfect and future are the same as in the active voice, and that the passive personal endings (§164) are added instead of the active ones. _b._ Note the slight irregularity in the second person singular present of the third conjugation. There the final «-e-» of the stem is not changed to «-i-», as it is in the active. We therefore have «re´geris» or «re´gere», _not_ «re´giris», «re´gire». _c._ Inflect «agō», «dīcō», «dūcō», «mūniō», «reperiō», in the present, imperfect, and future indicative, active and passive. «170.» EXERCISES I. 1. Agēbat, agēbātur, mittēbat, mittēbātur, dūcēbat. 2. Agunt, aguntur, mittuntur, mittunt, mūniunt. 3. Mittor, mittar, mittam, dūcēre, dūcere. 4. Dīcēmur, dīcimus, dīcēmus, dīcimur, mūniēbaminī. 5. Dūcitur, dūciminī, reperīmur, reperiar, agitur. 6. Agēbāmus, agēbāmur, reperīris, reperiēminī. 7. Mūnīminī, veniēbam, dūcēbar, dīcētur. 8. Mittiminī, mittitis, mittēris, mitteris, agēbāminī. 9. Dīcitur, dīcit, mūniuntur, reperient, audientur. II. 1. I was being driven, I was driving, we were leading, we were being led, he says, it is said. 2. I shall send, I shall be sent, you will find, you will be found, they lead, they are led. 3. I am found, we are led, they are driven, you were being led (_sing. and plur._). 4. We shall drive, we shall be driven, he leads, he is being led, they will come, they will be fortified. 5. They were ruling, they were being ruled, you will send, you will be sent, you are sent, (_sing. and plur._). 6. He was being led, he will come, you are said (_sing. and plur._). «171.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) First learn the special vocabulary, p. 288. Tum ōrāculum ita respondet: “Mala est fortūna tua. Neptūnus, magnus aquārum deus, terrae Aethiopiae inimīcus, eās poenās mittit. Sed parā īrātō deō sacrum idōneum et mōnstrum saevum ex patriā tuā agētur. Andromeda fīlia tua est mōnstrō grāta. Dā eam mōnstrō. Servā cāram patriam et vītam populī tuī.” Andromeda autem erat puella pulchra. Eam amābat Cēpheus maximē. LESSON XXIX PRESENT, IMPERFECT, AND FUTURE INDICATIVE PASSIVE OF _-IŌ_ VERBS PRESENT PASSIVE INFINITIVE AND IMPERATIVE [Special Vocabulary] VERB «superō, -āre», _conquer, overcome_ (insuperable) NOUNS «cūra, -ae», f., _care, trouble_ «locus, -ī», m., _place, spot_ (location). «Locus» is neuter in the plural and is declined «loca, -ōrum», etc. «perīculum, -ī», n., _danger, peril_ ADVERBS «semper», _always_ «tamen», _yet, nevertheless_ PREPOSITIONS «dē», with abl., _down from; concerning_ «per», with acc., _through_ CONJUNCTION «si», _if_ «172.» Review the active voice of «capiō», present, imperfect, and future, and learn the passive of the same tenses (§492). _a._ The present forms «capior» and «capiuntur» are like «audior, audiuntur», and the rest of the tense is like «regor». _b._ In like manner inflect the passive of «iaciō» and «rapiō». «173.» «The Infinitive.» The infinitive mood gives the general meaning of the verb without person or number; as, «amāre», _to love_. Infinitive means _unlimited_. The forms of the other moods, being limited by person and number, are called the _finite_, or limited, verb forms. «174.» The forms of the Present Infinitive, active and passive, are as follows: CONJ. PRES. PRES. INFINITIVE PRES. INFINITIVE STEM ACTIVE PASSIVE I. «amā-» amā´re, amā´rī, _to love_ _to be loved_ II. «monē-» monē´re, monē´rī, _to advise_ _to be advised_ III. «rege-» re´gere, re´gī, _to rule_ _to be ruled_ «cape-» ca´pere ca´pī, _to take_ _to be taken_ IV. «audī-» audī´re, audīrī, _to hear_ _to be heard_ 1. Observe that to form the present active infinitive we add «-re» to the present stem. _a._ The present infinitive of «sum» is «esse». There is no passive. 2. Observe that the present passive infinitive is formed from the active by changing final «-e» to «-ī», except in the third conjugation, which changes final «-ere» to «-ī». 3. Give the active and passive present infinitives of «doceō», «sedeō», «volō», «cūrō», «mittō», «dūcō», «mūniō», «reperiō», «iaciō», «rapiō.» «175.» The forms of the Present Imperative, active and passive, are as follows: ACTIVE[1] PASSIVE CONJ. SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL I. «a´mā» amā´te amā´re, amā´minī, _be thou loved_ _be ye loved_ II. «mo´nē» monē´te monē´re, monē´minī, _be thou advised_ _be ye advised_ III. «re´ge» re´gite re´gere, regi´minī, _be thou ruled _ _be ye ruled_ «ca´pe» ca´pite ca´pere, capi´minī, _be thou taken_ _be ye taken_ IV. «au´dī» audī´te audī´re, audī´minī, _be thou heard_ _be ye heard_ 1. Observe that the second person singular of the present passive imperative is like the present active infinitive, and that both singular and plural are like the second person singular[2] and plural, respectively, of the present passive indicative. 2. Give the present imperative, both active and passive, of the verbs in §174.3. [Footnote 1: For the sake of comparison the active is repeated from §161.] [Footnote 2: That is, using the personal ending «-re». A form like «amāre» may be either _indicative_, _infinitive_, or _imperative_.] «176.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289. I. 1. Tum Perseus ālīs ad terrās multās volabit. 2. Mōnstrum saevum per aquās properat et mox agrōs nostrōs vāstābit. 3. Sī autem Cēpheus ad ōrāculum properābit, ōrāculum ita respondēbit. 4. Quis tēlīs Perseī superābitur? Multa mōnstra tēlīs eius superābuntur. 5. Cum cūrīs magnīs et lacrimīs multīs agricolae ex domiciliīs cārīs aguntur. 6. Multa loca vāstābantur et multa oppida dēlēbantur. 7. Mōnstrum est validum, tamen superābitur. 8. Crēdēsne semper verbīs ōrāculī? Ego iīs non semper crēdam. 9. Pārēbitne Cēpheus ōrāculō? Verba ōrāculī eī persuādēbunt. 10. Si nōn fugiēmus, oppidum capiētur et oppidānī necābuntur. 11. Vocāte puerōs et nārrāte fābulam clāram dē mōnstrō saevō. II. 1. Fly thou, to be cared for, be ye sent, lead thou. 2. To lead, to be led, be ye seized, fortify thou. 3. To be hurled, to fly, send thou, to be found. 4. To be sent, be ye led, to hurl, to be taken. 5. Find thou, hear ye, be ye ruled, to be fortified. LESSON XXX SYNOPSES IN THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS · THE ABLATIVE DENOTING _FROM_ [Special Vocabulary] VERBS «absum, abesse», irreg., _be away, be absent, be distant_, with separative abl. «adpropinquō, -āre», _draw near, approach_ (propinquity), with dative[A] «contineō, -ēre», _hold together, hem in, keep_ (contain) «discēdō, -ere», _depart, go away, leave_, with separative abl. «egeō, -ēre», _lack, need, be without_, with separative abl. «interficiō, -ere», _kill_ «prohibeō, -ēre», _restrain, keep from_ (prohibit) «vulnerō, -āre», _wound_ (vulnerable) NOUNS «prōvincia, -ae», f., _province_ «vīnum, -ī», n., _wine_ ADJECTIVE «dēfessus, -a, -um», _weary, worn out_ ADVERB «longē», _far, by far, far away_ [Footnote A: This verb governs the dative because the idea of _nearness to_ is stronger than that of _motion to_. If the latter idea were the stronger, the word would be used with «ad» and the accusative.] «177.» You should learn to give rapidly synopses of the verbs you have had, as follows:[1] CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ a´mō a´mor mo´neō mo´neor _Imperf._ amā´bam amā´bar monē´bam monē´bar _Fut._ amā´bo amā´bor monē´bo monē´bor [Footnote 1: Synopses should be given not only in the first person, but in other persons as well, particularly in the third singular and plural.] CONJUGATION I CONJUGATION II IMPERATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ a´mā amā´re mo´nē monē´re INFINITIVE _Pres._ amā´re amā´rī monē´re monē´rī CONJUGATION III CONJUGATION III («-iō» verbs) INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ re´gō re´gor ca´piō ca´pior _Imperf._ regē´bam regē´bar capiē´bam capiē´bar _Fut._ re´gam re´gar ca´piam ca´piar IMPERATIVE _Pres._ re´ge re´gere ca´pe ca´pere INFINITIVE _Pres._ re´gere re´gī ca´pere ca´pī CONJUGATION IV INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ au´diō au´dior _Imperf._ audiē´bam audiē´bar _Fut._ au´diam au´diar IMPERATIVE _Pres._ au´dī audī´re INFINITIVE _Pres._ audī´re audī´rī 1. Give the synopsis of «rapiō», «mūniō», «reperiō», «doceō», «videō», «dīcō», «agō», «laudō», «portō», and vary the person and number. «178.» We learned in §50 that one of the three relations covered by the ablative case is expressed in English by the preposition _from._ This is sometimes called the _separative ablative_, and it has a number of special uses. You have already grown familiar with the first mentioned below. «179.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place From.» _The place from which is expressed by the ablative with the prepositions «ā» or «ab», «dē», «ē» or «ex»._ «Agricolae ex agrīs veniunt», _the farmers come from the fields_ _a._ «ā» or «ab» denotes _from near_ a place; «ē» or «ex», _out from_ it; and «dē», _down from_ it. This may be represented graphically as follows: _________ | | «ā» or «ab» | | «ē» or «ex» /_____________| ___________________\ \ | Place | / |_________| | | «dē» | V «180.» RULE. «Ablative of Separation.» _Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning._ _a._ If the separation is _actual_ and _literal_ of one material thing from another, the preposition «ā» or «ab», «ē» or «ex», or «dē» is generally used. If no actual motion takes place of one thing from another, no preposition is necessary. (a) «Perseus terram ā mōnstrīs līberat» _Perseus frees the land from monsters_ (literal separation--actual motion is expressed) (b) «Perseus terram trīstitiā līberat» _Perseus frees the land from sorrow_ (figurative separation--no actual motion is expressed) «181.» RULE. «Ablative of the Personal Agent.» _The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition «ā» or «ab.»_ _a._ In this construction the English translation of «ā», «ab» is _by_ rather than _from_. This ablative is regularly used with passive verbs to indicate the _person by whom_ the act was performed. «Mōnstrum ā Perseō necātur», _the monster is being slain by_ (lit. _from_) _Perseus_ _b._ Note that the active form of the above sentence would be «Perseus monstrum necat», _Perseus is slaying the monster_. In the passive the _object_ of the active verb becomes the _subject_, and the _subject_ of the active verb becomes the _ablative of the personal agent_, with «ā» or «ab». _c._ Distinguish carefully between the ablative of means and the ablative of the personal agent. Both are often translated into English by the preposition _by_. (Cf. §100. _b._) _Means is a «thing»; the agent or actor is a «person»_. The ablative of means has no preposition. The ablative of the personal agent has «ā» or «ab». Compare «Fera sagittā necātur», _the wild beast is killed by an arrow_ «Fera ā Diānā necātur», _the wild beast is killed by Diana_ «Sagittā», in the first sentence, is the ablative of means; «ā Diānā», in the second, is the ablative of the personal agent. «182.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289. I. 1. Viri inopiā cibī dēfessī ab eō locō discēdent. 2. Germānī castrīs Rōmānīs adpropinquābant, tamen lēgātus cōpiās ā proeliō continēbat. 3. Multa Gallōrum oppida ab Rōmanīs capientur. 4. Tum Rōmānī tōtum populum eōrum oppidōrum gladiīs pīlīsque interficient. 5. Oppidānī Rōmānīs resistent, sed defessī longō proelīo fugient. 6. Multī ex Galliā fugiēbant et in Germānōrum vicīs habitābant. 7. Miserī nautae vulnerantur ab inimīcīs[2] saevīs et cibō egent. 8. Discēdite et date virīs frūmentum et cōpiam vīnī. 9. Cōpiae nostrae ā proeliō continēbantur ab Sextō lēgatō. 10. Id oppidum ab prōvinciā Rōmānā longē aberat. II. 1. The weary sailors were approaching a place dear to the goddess Diana. 2. They were without food and without wine. 3. Then Galba and seven other men are sent to the ancient island by Sextus. 4. Already they are not far away from the land, and they see armed men on a high place. 5. They are kept from the land by the men with spears and arrows. 6. The men kept hurling their weapons down from the high place with great eagerness. [Footnote 2: «inimīcīs», here used as a noun. See vocabulary.] LESSON XXXI PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, AND FUTURE PERFECT OF _SUM_ [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS aurum, -ī, n., _gold_ (oriole) «mora, -ae», f., _delay_ «nāvigium, nāvi´gī», n., _boat, ship_ «ventus, -ī», m., _wind_ (ventilate) VERB «nāvigō, -āre», _sail_ (navigate) ADJECTIVES attentus, -a, -um, _attentive, careful_ «dubius, -a, -um», _doubtful_ (dubious) perfidus, -a, -um, _faithless, treacherous_ (perfidy) ADVERB «anteā», _before, previously_ PREPOSITION «sine», with abl., _without_ «183.» «Principal Parts.» There are certain parts of the verb that are of so much consequence in tense formation that we call them the _principal parts._ The principal parts of the Latin verb are the present, the past, and the past participle; as _go, went, gone_; _see, saw, seen_, etc. The principal parts of the Latin verb are the _first person singular of the present indicative_, the _present infinitive_, the _first person singular of the perfect indicative_, and _the perfect passive participle._ «184.» «Conjugation Stems.» From the principal parts we get three conjugation stems, from which are formed the entire conjugation. We have already learned about the «present stem», which is found from the present infinitive (cf. §126.a). The other two stems are the «perfect stem» and the «participial stem». «185.» «The Perfect Stem.» The perfect stem of the verb is formed in various ways, but may always be _found by dropping «-ī» from the first person singular of the perfect_, the third of the principal parts. From the perfect stem are formed the following tenses: THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE THE PLUPERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE (ENGLISH PAST PERFECT) THE FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE All these tenses express completed action in present, past, or future time respectively. «186.» «The Endings of the Perfect.» The perfect active indicative is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. These endings are different from those found in any other tense, and are as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL 1. -ī, _I_ 1. -imus, _we_ 2. -istī, _you_ 2. -istis, _you_ 3. -it, _he, she, it_ 3. -ērunt or -ēre, _they_ «187.» Inflection of «sum» in the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative: PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PRIN. PARTS sum esse fuī PERFECT STEM fu- PERFECT SINGULAR PLURAL fu´ī, _I have been, I was_ fu´imus, _we have been, we were_ fuis´tī, fuis´tis, _you have been, you were_ _you have been, you were_ fu´it, _he has been, he was_ fuē´runt _or_ fuē´re, _they have been, they were_ PLUPERFECT (TENSE SIGN «-erā-») fu´eram, _I had been_ fuerā´mus, _we had been_ fu´erās, _you had been_ fuerā´tis, _you had been_ fu´erat, _he had been_ fu´erant, _they had been_ FUTURE PERFECT (TENSE SIGN «-eri-») fu´erō, _I shall have been_ fue´rimus, _we shall have been_ fu´eris, _you will have been_ fue´ritis, _you will have been_ fu´erit, _he will have been_ fu´erint, _they will have been_ 1. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect. 2. Observe that the pluperfect may be formed by adding «eram», the imperfect of «sum», to the perfect stem. The tense sign is «-erā-». 3. Observe that the future perfect may be formed by adding «erō», the future of «sum», to the perfect stem. But the third person plural ends in «-erint», not in «-erunt». The tense sign is «-eri-». 4. All active perfects, pluperfects, and future perfects are formed on the perfect stem and inflected in the same way. «188.» DIALOGUE THE BOYS TITUS, MARCUS, AND QUINTUS First learn the special vocabulary, p. 289. M. Ubi fuistis, Tite et Quīnte? T. Ego in meō lūdō fuī et Quīntus in suō lūdō fuit. Bonī puerī fuimus. Fuitne Sextus in vīcō hodiē? M. Fuit. Nūper per agrōs proximōs fluviō properābat. Ibi is et Cornēlius habent nāvigium. T. _Nāvigium_ dīcis? Aliī[1] nārrā eam fābulam! M. Vērō (_Yes, truly_), pulchrum et novum nāvigium! Q. Cuius pecūniā[2] Sextus et Cornēlius id nāvigium parant? Quis iīs pecūniam dat? M. Amīcī Cornēlī multum habent aurum et puer pecūniā nōn eget. T. Quō puerī nāvigābunt? Nāvigābuntne longē ā terrā? M. Dubia sunt cōnsilia eōrum. Sed hodiē, crēdō, sī ventus erit idōneus, ad maximam īnsulam nāvigābunt. Iam anteā ibi fuērunt. Tum autem ventus erat perfidus et puerī magnō in perīculō erant. Q. Aqua ventō commōta est inimīca nautīs semper, et saepe perfidus ventus nāvigia rapit, agit, dēletque. Iī puerī, sī nōn fuerint maximē attentī, īrātā aquā et validō ventō superābuntur et ita interficientur. [Footnote 1: Dative case. (Cf. §109.)] [Footnote 2: Ablative of means.] «189.» EXERCISE 1. Where had the boys been before? They had been in school. 2. Where had Sextus been? He had been in a field next to the river. 3. Who has been with Sextus to-day? Cornelius has been with him. 4. Who says so? Marcus. 5. If the wind has been suitable, the boys have been in the boat. 6. Soon we shall sail with the boys. 7. There[3] will be no danger, if we are (shall have been) careful.[4] [Footnote 3: The expletive _there_ is not expressed, but the verb will precede the subject, as in English.] [Footnote 4: This predicate adjective must be nominative plural to agree with _we_.] LESSON XXXII THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE OF THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS [Special Vocabulary] NOUNS «animus, -ī», m., _mind, heart; spirit, feeling_ (animate) «bracchium, bracchī», n., _forearm, arm_ «porta, -ae», f., _gate_ (portal) ADJECTIVES «adversus, -a, -um», _opposite; adverse, contrary_ «plēnus, -a, -um», _full_ (plenty) PREPOSITION «prō», with abl., _before; in behalf of; instead of_ ADVERB «diū», _for a long time, long_ «190.» «Meanings of the Perfect.» The perfect tense has two distinct meanings. The first of these is equivalent to the English present perfect, or perfect with _have_, and denotes that the action of the verb is complete at the time of speaking; as, _I have finished my work_. As this denotes completed action at a definite time, it is called the «perfect definite». The perfect is also used to denote an action that happened _sometime in the past_; as, _I finished my work._ As no definite time is specified, this is called the «perfect indefinite». It corresponds to the ordinary use of the English past tense. _a._ Note carefully the difference between the following tenses: _I {was finishing } my work_ (imperfect, §134) {used to finish} _I finished my work_ (perfect indefinite) _I have finished my work_ (perfect definite) When telling a story the Latin uses the _perfect indefinite_ to mark the different _forward steps_ of the narrative, and the _imperfect_ to _describe situations and circumstances_ that attend these steps. If the following sentences were Latin, what tenses would be used? “Last week I went to Boston. I was trying to find an old friend of mine, but he was out of the city. Yesterday I returned home.” «191.» «Inflection of the Perfect.» We learned in §186 that any perfect is inflected by adding the endings of the perfect to the perfect stem. The inflection in the four regular conjugations is then as follows: CONJ. I «amāvī» _I have loved_, _I loved_ or _did love_ CONJ. II «monuī» _I have advised_, _I advised_ or _did advise_ CONJ. III «rēxī» _I have ruled_, _I ruled_ or _did rule_ «cēpī» _I have taken_, _I took_ or _did take_ CONJ. IV «audīvī» _I have heard_, _I heard_ or _did hear_ PERFECT STEMS «amāv-» «monu-» «rēx-» «cēp-» «audīv-» SINGULAR 1. amā´vī mo´nuī rē´xī cē´pī audī´vī 2. amāvis´tī monuis´tī rēxis´tī cēpis´tī audīvis´tī 3. amā´vit mo´nuit rē´xit cē´pit audī´vit PLURAL 1. amā´vimus monu´imus rē´ximus cē´pimus audī´vimus 2. amāvis´tis monuis´tis rēxis´tis cēpis´tis audīvis´tis 3. amāvē´runt monuē´runt rēxē´runt cēpē´runt audīvē´runt _or_ _or_ _or_ _or_ _or_ amāvē´re monuē´re rēxē´re cēpē´re audīvē´re 1. The first person of the perfect is always given as the third of the principal parts. From this we get the perfect stem. _This shows the absolute necessity of learning the principal parts thoroughly._ 2. Nearly all perfects of the first conjugation are formed by adding «-vī» to the present stem. Like «amāvī» inflect «parāvī», «vocāvī», «cūrāvī», «laudāvī». 3. Note carefully the changing accent in the perfect. Drill on it. «192.» Learn the principal parts and inflect the perfects: PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. dō dăre dedī _give_ dēleō dēlēre dēlēvī _destroy_ habeō habēre habuī _have_ moveō movēre mōvī _move_ pāreō pārēre pāruī _obey_ prohibeō prohibēre prohibuī _restrain, keep from_ videō vidēre vīdī _see_ dīcō dīcere dīxī _say_ discēdō discēdere discessī _depart_ dūcō dūcere dūxī _lead_ faciō facere fēcī _make, do_ mittō mittere mīsī _send_ mūniō mūnīre mūnīvī _fortify_ veniō venīre vēnī _come_ «193.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Continued_) First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. Cēpheus, adversā fortūnā maximē commōtus, discessit et multīs cum lacrimīs populō Aethiopiae verba ōrāculī nārrāvit. Fāta Andromedae, puellae pulchrae, ā tōtō populō dēplōrābantur, tamen nūllum erat auxilium. Deinde Cēpheus cum plēnō trīstitiae animō cāram suam fīliam ex oppidī portā ad aquam dūxit et bracchia eius ad saxa dūra revīnxit. Tum amīcī puellae miserae longē discessērunt et diū mōnstrum saevum exspectāvērunt. Tum forte Perseus, ālīs frētus, super Aethiopiam volābat. Vīdit populum, Andromedam, lacrimās, et, magnopere attonitus, ad terram dēscendit. Tum Cēpheus eī tōtās cūrās nārrāvit et ita dīxit: “Pārēbō verbīs ōrāculī, et prō patriā fīliam meam dabō; sed sī id mōnstrum interficiēs et Andromedam servābis, tibi (_to you_) eam dabō.” LESSON XXXIII PLUPERFECT AND FUTURE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE PERFECT ACTIVE INFINITIVE «194.» CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV «amō» «moneō» «regō» «capiō» «audiō» PERFECT STEMS «amāv-» «monu-» «rēx-» «cēp-» «audīv-» PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE TENSE SIGN «-erā-» SINGULAR I had loved I had advised I had ruled I had taken I had heard 1. amā´veram monu´eram rē´xeram cē´peram audī´veram 2. amā´verās monu´erās rē´xerās cē´perās audī´verās 3. amā´verat monu´erat rē´xerat cē´perat audī´verat PLURAL 1. amāverā´mus monuerā´mus rēxerā´mus cēperā´mus audīverā´mus 2. amāverā´tis monuerā´tis rēxerā´tis cēperā´tis audīverā´tis 3. amā´verant monu´erant rē´xerant cē´perant audī´verant FUTURE PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE TENSE SIGN «-eri-» SINGULAR I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have I shall have loved advised ruled taken heard 1. amā´verō monu´erō rē´xerō cē´perō audī´verō 2. amā´veris monu´eris rē´xeris cē´peris audī´veris 3. amā´verit monu´erit rē´xerit cē´perit audī´verit PLURAL 1. amāve´rimus monue´rimus rēxe´rimus cēpe´rimus audīve´rimus 2. amāve´ritis monue´ritis rēxe´ritis cēpe´ritis audīve´ritis 3. amā´verint monu´erint rē´xerint cē´perint audī´verint 1. Observe that these are all inflected alike and the rules for formation given in §187.2-4 hold good here. 2. In like manner inflect the pluperfect and future perfect indicative active of «dō», «portō», «dēleō», «moveō», «habeō», «dīcō», «discēdō», «faciō», «veniō», «mūniō.» «195.» «The Perfect Active Infinitive.» The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding «-isse» to the perfect stem. CONJ PERFECT STEM PERFECT INFINITIVE I. amāv- amāvis´se, _to have loved_ II. monu- monuis´se, _to have advised_ III. (_a_) rēx- rēxis´se, _to have ruled_ (_b_) cēp- cēpis´se, _to have taken_ IV. audīv» audīvis´se, _to have heard_ sum fu- fuis´se, _to have been_ 1. In like manner give the perfect infinitive active of «dō», «portō», «dēleō», «moveō», «habeō», «dīcō», «discēdō», «faciō», «veniō», «mūniō». «196.» EXERCISES I. 1. Habuistī, mōvērunt, miserant. 2. Vīdit, dīxeris, dūxisse. 3. Mīsistis, pāruērunt, discesserāmus. 4. Mūnīvit, dederam, mīserō. 5. Habuerimus, dēlēvī, pāruit, fuisse. 6. Dederās, mūnīveritis, vēnerātis, mīsisse. 7. Vēnerās, fēcisse, dederātis, portāveris. 8. Quem verba ōrāculī mōverant? Populum verba ōrāculī mōverant. 9. Cui Cēpheus verba ōrāculī nārrāverit? Perseō Cēpheus verba ōrāculī nārrāverit. 10. Amīcī ab Andromedā discesserint. 11. Mōnstrum saevum domicilia multa dēlēverat. 12. Ubi mōnstrum vīdistis? Id in aquā vīdimus. 13. Quid mōnstrum faciet? Mōnstrum Andromedam interficiet. II. 1. They have obeyed, we have destroyed, I shall have had. 2. We shall have sent, I had come, they have fortified. 3. I had departed, he has obeyed, you have sent (_sing. and plur._). 4. To have destroyed, to have seen, he will have given, they have carried. 5. He had destroyed, he has moved, you have had (_sing. and plur._). 6. I have given, you had moved (_sing. and plur._), we had said. 7. You will have made (_sing. and plur._), they will have led, to have given. 8. Who had seen the monster? Andromeda had seen it. 9. Why had the men departed from[1] the towns? They had departed because the monster had come. 10. Did Cepheus obey[2] the oracle[3]? He did. [Footnote 1: «ex». What would «ab» mean?] [Footnote 2: _Did ... obey_, perfect tense.] [Footnote 3: What case?] LESSON XXXIV REVIEW OF THE ACTIVE VOICE [Special Vocabulary] ADVERBS «celeriter», _quickly_ (celerity) «dēnique», _finally_ «graviter», _heavily, severely_ (gravity) «subitō», _suddenly_ VERB «reportō, -āre, -āvī», _bring back, restore; win, gain_ (report) «197.» A review of the tenses of the indicative active shows the following formation: { PRESENT = First of the principal parts TENSES { IMPERFECT = Present stem + -ba-m OF THE { FUTURE = Present stem + -bō, Conj. I and II INDICATIVE { -a-m, Conj. III and IV { PERFECT = Third of the principal parts { PLUPERFECT = Perfect stem + -era-m { FUTURE PERFECT = Perfect stem + -erō «198.» The synopsis of the active voice of «amō», as far as we have learned the conjugation, is as follows: PRINCIPAL PARTS «amō, amāre, amāvī» PRES. STEM «amā-» { _Pres._ amō INDIC. { _Imperf._ amābam { _Fut._ amābō PRES. IMV. amā PRES. INFIN. amāre PERF. STEM «amāv-» { _Perf._ amāvī INDIC. { _Pluperf._ amāveram { _Fut. perf._ amāverō PERF. INFIN. amāvisse 1. Learn to write in the same form and to give rapidly the principal parts and synopsis of «parō», «dō», «laudō», «dēleō», «habeō», «moveō», «pāreō», «videō», «dīcō», «discēdō», «dūcō», «mittō», «capiō», «muniō», «veniō».[1] [Footnote 1: Learn to give synopses rapidly, and not only in the first person singular but in any person of either number.] «199.» Learn the following principal parts:[2] PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. IRREGULAR VERBS sum esse fuī _be_ ab´sum abes´se ā´fuī _be away_ dō dare dedī _give_ CONJUGATION II contineō continēre continuī _hold in, keep_ doceō docēre docuī _teach_ egeō egēre eguī _need_ faveō favēre fāvī _favor_ iubeō iubēre iussī _order_ noceō nocēre nocuī _injure_ persuādeō persuādēre persuāsī _persuade_ respondeō respondēre respondī _reply_ sedeō sedēre sēdī _sit_ studeō studēre studuī _be eager_ CONJUGATION III agō agere ēgī _drive_ crēdō crēdere crēdidī _believe_ fugiō fugere fūgī _flee_ iaciō iacere iēcī _hurl_ interficiō interficere interfēcī _kill_ rapiō rapere rapuī _seize_ resis´tō resis´tere re´stitī _resist_ CONJUGATION IV repe´riō reperī´re rep´perī _find_ [Footnote 2: These are all verbs that you have had before, and the perfect is the only new form to be learned.] «200.» PERSEUS AND ANDROMEDA (_Concluded_) First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. Read the whole story. Perseus semper proeliō studēbat[3] et respondit,[3] “Verba tua sunt maximē grāta,” et laetus arma sua magica parāvit.[3] Subitō mōnstrum vidētur; celeriter per aquam properat et Andromedae adpropinquat. Eius amīcī longē absunt et misera puella est sōla. Perseus autem sine morā super aquam volāvit.[3] Subitō dēscendit[3] et dūrō gladiō saevum mōnstrum graviter vulnerāvit.[3] Diū pugnātur,[4] diū proelium est dubium. Dēnique autem Perseus mōnstrum interfēcit[3] et victōriam reportāvit.[3] Tum ad saxum vēnit[3] et Andromedam līberāvit[3] et eam ad Cēpheum dūxit.[3] Is, nūper miser, nunc laetus, ita dīxit[3]: “Tuō auxiliō, mī amīce, cāra fīlia mea est lībera; tua est Andromeda.” Diū Perseus cum Andromedā ibi habitābat[3] et magnopere ā tōtō populō amābātur.[3] [Footnote 3: See if you can explain the use of the perfects and imperfects in this passage.] [Footnote 4: The verb pugnātur means, literally, _it is fought_; translate freely, _the battle is fought_, or _the contest rages_. The verb pugnō in Latin is intransitive, and so does not have a personal subject in the passive. A verb with an indeterminate subject, designated in English by _it_, is called impersonal.] LESSON XXXV THE PASSIVE PERFECTS OF THE INDICATIVE THE PERFECT PASSIVE AND FUTURE ACTIVE INFINITIVE «201.» The fourth and last of the principal parts (§183) is the «perfect passive participle». _From it we get the participial stem on which are formed the future active infinitive and all the passive perfects._ 1. Learn the following principal parts, which are for the first time given in full: CONJ. PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PASS. PART. I. amō amā´-re amā´v-ī amā´t-us This is the model for all regular verbs of the first conjugation. II. mo´neō monē´-re mo´nu-ī mo´nit-us III. regō re´ge-re rēx-ī rēct-us ca´piō ca´pe-re cēp-ī capt-us IV. au´diō audī´-re audī´v-ī audī´t-us 2. The base of the participial stem is found by dropping «-us» from the perfect passive participle. «202.» In English the perfect, past perfect, and future perfect tenses of the indicative passive are made up of forms of the auxiliary verb _to be_ and the past participle; as, _I have been loved_, _I had been loved_, _I shall have been loved._ Very similarly, in Latin, the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passive tenses use respectively the present, imperfect, and future of «sum» as an auxiliary verb with the perfect passive participle, as Perfect passive, «amā´tus sum», _I have been_ or _was loved_ Pluperfect passive, «amā´tus eram», _I had been loved_ Future perfect passive, «amā´tus erō», _I shall have been loved_ 1. In the same way give the synopsis of the corresponding tenses of «moneō», «regō», «capiō», and «audiō», and give the English meanings. «203.» «Nature of the Participle.» A participle is partly verb and partly adjective. As a verb it possesses tense and voice. As an adjective it is declined and agrees with the word it modifies in gender, number, and case. «204.» The perfect passive participle is declined like «bonus, bona, bonum», and in the compound tenses (§202) it agrees as a predicate adjective with the subject of the verb. EXAMPLES IN SINGULAR «Vir laudātus est», _the man was praised_, or _has been praised_ «Puella laudāta est», _the girl was praised_, or _has been praised_ «Cōnsilium laudātum est», _the plan was praised_, or _has been praised_ EXAMPLES IN PLURAL «Virī laudātī sunt», _the men were praised_, or _have been praised_ «Puellae laudātae sunt», _the girls were praised_, or _have been praised_ «Cōnsilia laudāta sunt», _the plans were praised_, or _have been praised_ 1. Inflect the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect indicative passive of «amō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», and «audiō» (§§488-492). «205.» «The perfect passive infinitive» is formed by adding «esse», the present infinitive of «sum», to the perfect passive participle; as, amā´t-us (-a, -um) «esse», _to have been loved_; mo´nit-us (-a, -um) «esse», _to have been advised_. 1. Form the perfect passive infinitive of «regō», «capiō», «audiō», and give the English meanings. «206.» The future active infinitive is formed by adding «esse», the present infinitive of «sum», to the future active participle. This participle is made by adding «-ūrus, -a, -um» to the base of the participial stem. Thus the future active infinitive of «amō» is amat-ū´rus (-a, -um) «esse», _to be about to love_. _a._ Note that in forming the three tenses of the active infinitive we use all three conjugation stems: Present, amāre (present stem), _to love_ Perfect, amāvisse (perfect stem), _to have loved_ Future, amātūrus esse (participial stem), _to be about to love_ 1. Give the three tenses of the active infinitive of «laudō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», «audiō», with the English meanings. «207.» EXERCISES I. 1. Fābula Andromedae nārrāta est. 2. Multae fābulae ā magistrō nārrātae sunt. 3. Ager ab agricolā validō arātus erat. 4. Agrī ab agricolīs validīs arātī erant. 5. Aurum ā servō perfidō ad domicilium suum portātum erit. 6. Nostra arma ā lēgātō laudāta sunt. Quis vestra arma laudāvit? 7. Ab ancillā tuā ad cēnam vocātae sumus. 8. Andromeda mōnstrō nōn data est, quia mōnstrum ā Perseō necātum erat. II. 1. The provinces were laid waste, the field had been laid waste, the towns will have been laid waste. 2. The oracles were heard, the oracle was heard, the oracles had been heard. 3. The oracle will have been heard, the province had been captured, the boats have been captured. 4. The fields were laid waste, the man was advised, the girls will have been advised. 5. The towns had been ruled, we shall have been captured, you will have been heard. LESSON XXXVI REVIEW OF PRINCIPAL PARTS · PREPOSITIONS _YES_-OR-_NO_ QUESTIONS [Special Vocabulary] «dexter, dextra, dextrum», _right_ (dextrous) «sinister, sinistra, sinistrum», _left_ «frūstrā», adv., _in vain_ (frustrate) «gerō, gerere, gessī, gestus», _bear, carry on; wear_; «bellum gerere», _to wage war_ «occupō, occupāre, occupāvī, occupātus», _seize, take possession of_ (occupy) «postulō, postulāre, postulāvī, postulātus», _demand_ (ex-postulate) «recūsō, recūsāre, recūsāvī, recūsātus», _refuse_ «stō, stāre, stetī, status», _stand_ «temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātus», _try, tempt, test; attempt_ «teneō, tenēre, tenuī, ----», _keep, hold_ (tenacious) The word «ubi», which we have used so much in the sense of _where_ in asking a question, has two other uses equally important: 1. «ubi» = _when_, as a relative conjunction denoting time; as, «Ubi mōnstrum audīvērunt, fūgērunt», _when they heard the monster, they fled_ 2. «ubi» = _where_, as a relative conjunction denoting place; as, «Videō oppidum ubi Galba habitat», _I see the town where Galba lives_ «ubi» is called a _relative conjunction_ because it is equivalent to a relative pronoun. _When_ in the first sentence is equivalent to _at the time «at which»;_ and in the second, _where_ is equivalent to _the place «in which»._ «208.» The following list shows the principal parts of all the verbs you have had excepting those used in the paradigms. The parts you have had before are given for review, and the perfect participle is the only new form for you to learn. Sometimes one or more of the principal parts are lacking, which means that the verb has no forms based on that stem. A few verbs lack the perfect passive participle but have the future active participle in «-ūrus», which appears in the principal parts instead. IRREGULAR VERBS «sum» «esse» «fuī» «futūrus» _be_ «absum» «abesse» «āfuī» «āfutūrus» _be away_ «dō»[1] «dare» «dedī» «datus» _give_ [Footnote 1: «dō» is best classed with the irregular verbs because of the short «a» in the present and participial stems.] CONJUGATION I «portō» «portāre» «portāvī» «portātus» _carry_ So for all verbs of this conjugation thus far used. CONJUGATION II «contineō» «continēre» «continuī» «contentus» _hold in, keep_ «dēleō» «dēlēre» «dēlēvī» «dēlētus» _destroy_ «doceō» «docēre» «docuī» «doctus» _teach_ «egeō» «egēre» «eguī» ---- _lack_ «faveō» «favēre» «fāvī» «fautūrus» _favor_ «iubeō» «iubēre» «iussī» «iussus» _order_ «moveō» «movēre» «mōvī» «mōtus» _move_ «noceō» «nocēre» «nocuī» «nocitūrus» _injure_ «pāreō» «pārēre» «pāruī» ---- _obey_ «persuādeō» «persuādēre» «persuāsī» «persuāsus» _persuade (from)_ «prohibeō» «prohibēre» «prohibuī» «prohibitus» _restrain, keep_ «respondeō» «respondēre» «respondī» «respōnsus» _reply_ «sedeō» «sedēre» «sēdī» «-sessus» _sit_ «studeō» «studēre» «studuī» ---- _be eager_ «videō» «vidēre» «vīdī» «vīsus» _see_ CONJUGATION III «agō» «agere» «ēgī» «āctus» _drive_ «crēdō» «crēdere» «crēdidī» «crēditus» _believe_ «dīcō» «dīcere» «dīxī» «dictus» _say_ «discēdō» «discēdere» «discessī» «discessus» _depart_ «dūcō» «dūcere» «dūxī» «ductus» _lead_ «faciō»[2] «facere» «fēcī» «factus» _make_ «fugiō» «fugere» «fūgī» «fugitūrus» _flee_ «iaciō» «iacere» «iēcī» «iactus» _hurl_ «interficiō» «interficere» «interfēcī» «interfectus» _kill_ «mittō» «mittere» «mīsī» «missus» _send_ «rapiō» «rapere» «rapuī» «raptus» _seize_ «resistō» «resistere» «restitī» ---- _resist_ CONJUGATION IV «mūniō» «mūnīre» «mūnīvī» «mūnītus» _fortify_ «reperiō» «reperīre» «rep´perī» «repertus» _find_ «veniō» «venīre» «vēnī» «ventus» _come_ [Footnote 2: «faciō» has an irregular passive which will be presented later.] «209.» «Prepositions.» 1. We learned in §§52, 53 that only the _accusative_ and the _ablative_ are used with prepositions, and that prepositions expressing ablative relations govern the ablative case. Those we have had are here summarized. The table following should be learned. «ā» or «ab», _from, by_ «cum», _with_ «dē», _down from, concerning_ «ē» or «ex», _out from, out of_ «prō», _before, in front of; for, in behalf of_ «sine», _without_ 2. Prepositions not expressing ablative relations must govern the _accusative_ (§52). Of these we have had the following: «ad», _to_; «apud», _among_; «per», _through_ There are many others which you will meet as we proceed. 3. The preposition «in» when meaning _in_ or _on_ governs the _ablative_; when meaning _to, into, against_ (relations foreign to the ablative) «in» governs the _accusative_. «210.» «_Yes_-or-_No_ Questions.» Questions not introduced by some interrogative word like _who, why, when_, etc., but expecting the answer _yes_ or _no_, may take one of three forms: 1. _Is he coming?_ (Asking for information. Implying nothing as to the answer expected.) 2. _Is he not coming?_ (Expecting the answer _yes_.) 3. _He isn´t coming, is he?_ (Expecting the answer _no_.) These three forms are rendered in Latin as follows: 1. «Venitne?» _is he coming?_ 2. «Nōnne venit?» _is he not coming?_ 3. «Num venit?» _he isn´t coming, is he?_ _a._ «-ne», the question sign, is usually added to the verb, which then stands first. _b._ We learned in §56.b that _yes_-or-_no_ questions are usually answered by repeating the verb, with or without a negative. Instead of this, «ita», «vērō», «certē», etc. (_so, truly, certainly_, etc.) may be used for _yes_, and «nōn», «minimē», etc. for _no_ if the denial is emphatic, as, _by no means_, _not at all_. «211.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 290. I. 1. Nōnne habēbat Cornēlia ōrnāmenta aurī? Habēbat. 2. Num Sextus lēgātus scūtum in dextrō bracchiō gerēbat? Nōn in dextrō, sed sinistrō in bracchiō Sextus scūtum gerēbat. 3. Frūstrā bella multa ab Gallīs gesta erant. 4. Ubi oppidum ā perfidō Sextō occupātum est, oppidānī miserī gladiō interfectī sunt. 5. Id oppidum erat plēnum frūmentī. 6. Nōnne Sextus ab oppidānīs frūmentum postulāvit? Vērō, sed iī recūsāvērunt frūmentum dare. 7. Cūr oppidum ab Sextō dēlētum est? Quia frūmentum recūsātum est. 8. Ea victōria nōn dubia erat. 9. Oppidānī erant dēfessī et armīs egēbant. 10. Num fugam temptāvērunt? Minimē. II. 1. Where was Julia standing? She was standing where you had ordered. 2. Was Julia wearing any ornaments? She had many ornaments of gold. 3. Did she not attempt flight when she saw the danger? She did. 4. Who captured her? Galba captured her without delay and held her by the left arm. 5. She didn´t have the lady’s gold, did she? No, the gold had been taken by a faithless maid and has been brought back. * * * * * «Fourth Review, Lessons XXVII-XXXVI, §§513-516» * * * * * LESSON XXXVII CONJUGATION OF _POSSUM_ · THE INFINITIVE USED AS IN ENGLISH [Special Vocabulary] «neque» or «nec», conj., _neither_, _nor_, _and ... not_; «neque ... neque», _neither ... nor_ «castellum, -ī», n., _redoubt, fort_ (castle) «cotīdiē», adv., _daily_ cessō, cessāre, cessāvī, cessātus, _cease_, with the infin. «incipiō, incipere, incēpī, inceptus», _begin_ (incipient), with the infin. «oppugnō, oppugnāre, oppugnāvī, oppugnātus», _storm, assail_ «petō, petere, petivi» or «petiī, petītus», _aim at, assail, storm, attack; seek, ask_ (petition) «pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus», _place, put_ (position); «castra pōnere», _to pitch camp_ «possum, posse, potuī, ----», _be able, can_ (potent), with the infin. «vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus», _forbid_ (veto), vith the infin.; opposite of «iubeō», _command_ «vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus», _conquer_ (in-vincible) «vīvō, vīvere, vīxī, ----», _live, be alive_ (re-vive) «212.» Learn the principal parts of «possum», _I am able_, _I can_, and its inflection in the indicative and infinitive. (Cf. §495.) _a._ «Possum», _I can_, is a compound of «potis», _able_, and «sum», _I am_. «213.» «The Infinitive with Subject Accusative.» The _infinitive_ (cf. §173) is a _verbal noun_. Used as a noun, it has the constructions of a noun. As a verb it can govern a case and be modified by an adverb. The uses of the infinitive are much the same in Latin as in English. 1. In English certain verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of a substantive in the objective case and an infinitive, as, _he commanded the men to flee_. Such object clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive. Similarly in Latin, some verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_, and the like are used with an object clause consisting of an infinitive with a subject in the accusative case, as, «Is virōs fugere iussit», _he commanded the men to flee_. «214.» RULE. «Subject of the Infinitive.» _The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative._ «215.» «The Complementary Infinitive.» In English a verb is often followed by an infinitive to complete its meaning, as, _the Romans are able to conquer the Gauls_. This is called the _complementary_ infinitive, as the predicate is not _complete_ without the added infinitive. Similarly in Latin, _verbs of incomplete predication_ are completed by the infinitive. Among such verbs are «possum», _I am able, I can_; «properō», «mātūrō», _I hasten_; «temptō», _I attempt_; as «Rōmānī Gallōs superāre possunt», _the Romans are able to_ (or _can_) _conquer the Gauls_ «Bellum gerere mātūrant», _they hasten to wage war_ _a._ A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb. «Malī puerī esse bonī nōn possunt», _bad boys are not able to_ (or _cannot_) _be good._ Observe that «bonī» agrees with «puerī». «216.» «The Infinitive used as a Noun.» In English the infinitive is often used as a pure noun, as the subject of a sentence, or as a predicate nominative. For example, _To conquer_ (= conquering) _is pleasing; To see_ (= seeing) _is to believe_ (= believing). The same use of the infinitive is found in Latin, especially with «est», as «Superāre est grātum», _to conquer is pleasing_ «Vidēre est crēdere», _to see is to believe_ _a._ In the construction above, the infinitive often has a subject, which must then be in the accusative case, as «Galbam superāre inimīcōs est grātum multīs», _for Galba to conquer his enemies is pleasing to many_ _b._ An infinitive used as a noun is neuter singular. Thus, in the sentence «superāre est grātum», the predicate adjective «grātum» is in the neuter nominative singular to agree with «superāre» the subject. «217.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291. I. 1. Magister lūdī līberōs cum dīligentiā labōrāre iussit. 2. Egēre cibō et vinō est virīs molestum. 3. Virī armātī vetuērunt Gallōs castra ibi pōnere. 4. Estne lēgātus in castellō an in mūrō? Is est prō portā. 5. Ubi nostrī[1] fugere incēpērunt, lēgātus ab vestrīs[1] captus est. 6. Gallī castellum ibi oppugnāverant ubi praesidium erat īnfīrmum. 7. Aliī pugnāre temptābant, aliī portās petēbant. 8. Fēminae prō domiciliīs sedēbant neque resistere validīs Gallīs poterant. 9. Bellum est saevum, nec īnfīrmīs nec miserīs favet. 10. Sed virī arma postulābant et studēbant Gallōs dē mūrīs agere. 11. Id castellum ab Gallīs occupārī Rōmānīs nōn grātum erit. 12. Gallī ubi ā Rōmānīs victī sunt, esse līberī[2] cessāvērunt. 13. Diū sine aquā vīvere nōn potestis. II. 1. The girl began daily to carry water from the river to the gates. 2. The Gauls had pitched their camp in a place suitable for a battle. 3. For a long time they tried in vain to seize the redoubt. 4. Neither did they cease to hurl weapons against[3] the walls. 5. But they were not able to (could not) take the town. [Footnote 1: Supply _men_. «nostri», «vestrī», and «suī» are often used as nouns in this way.] [Footnote 2: Not _children_. The Romans used «līberī» either as an adjective, meaning _free_, or as a noun, meaning _the free_, thereby signifying their _free-born children_. The word was never applied to children of slaves.] [Footnote 3: «in» with the accusative.] «218.» THE FAITHLESS TARPE´IA Sabīnī ōlim cum Rōmānīs bellum gerēbant et multās victōriās reportāverant. Iam agrōs proximōs mūrīs vāstābant, iam oppidō adpropinquābant. Rōmānī autem in Capitōlium fūgerant et longē perīculō aberant. Mūrīs validīs et saxīs altīs crēdēbant. Frūstrā Sabīnī tēla iaciēbant, frūstrā portās dūrās petēbant; castellum occupāre nōn poterant. Deinde novum cōnsilium cēpērunt.[4] Tarpēia erat puella Rōmāna pulchra et superba. Cotīdiē aquam cōpiīs Rōmānīs in Capitōlium portābat. Eī[5] nōn nocēbant Sabīnī, quod ea sine armīs erat neque Sabīnī bellum cum fēminīs līberīsque gerēbant. Tarpēia autem maximē amābat ōrnāmenta aurī. Cotīdiē Sabīnōrum ōrnāmenta vidēbat et mox ea dēsīderāre incipiēbat. Eī ūnus ex[6] Sabīnīs dīxit, “Dūc cōpiās Sabīnās intrā portās, Tarpēia, et maxima erunt praemia tua.” [Footnote 4: «cōnsilium capere», _to make a plan_. Why is the _perfect_ tense used here and the imperfect in the preceding sentences? Explain the use of tenses in the next paragraph.] [Footnote 5: Dative with «nocēbant». (Cf. §154.)] [Footnote 6: «ex», _out of_, i.e. _from the nuumber of_; best translated _of_.] [Illustration: TARPEIA PUELLA PERFIDA] LESSON XXXVIII THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN «219.» Sentences are _simple, compound_, or _complex_. _a._ A _simple sentence_ is a sentence containing but one statement, that is, one subject and one predicate: _The Romans approached the town._ _b._ A _compound sentence_ is a sentence containing two or more independent statements: _The Romans approached the town_ | and | _the enemy fled._ NOTE. An independent statement is one that can stand alone; it does not depend upon another statement. _c._ A _complex sentence_ is a sentence containing one independent statement and one or more dependent statements: _When the Romans approached the town | the enemy fled._ NOTE. A dependent or subordinate statement is one that depends on or qualifies another statement; thus _the enemy fled_ is independent, and _when the Romans approached the town_ is dependent or subordinate. _d._ The separate statements in a compound or complex sentence are called _clauses_. In a complex sentence the independent statement is called the _main clause_ and the dependent statement the _subordinate clause._ «220.» Examine the complex sentence _The Romans killed the men who were taken_ Here are two clauses: _a._ The main clause, _The Romans killed the men_ _b._ The subordinate clause, _who were taken_ The word _who_ is a pronoun, for it takes the place of the noun _men_. It also connects the subordinate clause _who were taken_ with the noun _men_. Hence the clause is an _adjective clause_. A pronoun that connects an _adjective clause_ with a substantive is called a _relative pronoun_, and the substantive for which the relative pronoun stands is called its _antecedent_. The relative pronouns in English are _who, whose, whom, which, what, that_. «221.» The relative pronoun in Latin is «quī», «quae», «quod», and it is declined as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ «quī» «quae» «quod» «quī» «quae» «quae» _Gen._ «cuius» «cuius» «cuius» «quōrum» «quārum» «quōrum» _Dat._ «cui» «cui» «cui» «quibus» «quibus» «quibus» _Acc._ «quem» «quam» «quod» «quōs» «quās» «quae» _Abl._ «quō» «quā» «quō» «quibus» «quibus» «quibus» 1. Review the declension of «is», §114, and note the similarity in the endings. The forms «quī», «quae», and «quibus» are the only forms showing new endings. NOTE. The genitive «cuius» and the dative «cui» are pronounced _co͝oi´yo͝os_ (two syllables) and _co͝oi_ (one syllable). «222.» «The Relative Pronoun is translated as follows:»[1] MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ _who, that_ _which, what, that_ _Gen._ _of whom, whose_ _of which, of what, whose_ _Dat._ _to_ or _for whom_ _to_ or _for which_, _to_ or _for what_ _Acc._ _whom, that_ _which, what, that_ _Abl._ _from_, etc., _whom_ _from_, etc., _which_ or _what_ [Footnote 1: This table of meanings need not be memorized. It is inserted for reference when translating.] _a._ We see from the table above that «quī», when it refers to a person, is translated by some form of _who_ or by _that_; and that when it refers to anything else it is translated by _which, what_, or _that_. «223.» Note the following sentences: _The Romans killed the men who were taken_ _The Romans killed the woman who was taken_ «Rōmānī interfēcērunt virōs quī captī sunt» «Rōmānī interfēcērunt fēminam quae capta est» In the first sentence _who_ («quī») refers to the antecedent _men_ («virōs»), and is _masculine plural_. In the second, _who_ («quae») refers to _woman_ («fēminam»), and _feminine singular_. From this we learn that the relative must agree with its antecedent in _gender_ and _number_. In neither of the sentences are the antecedents and relatives in the same case. «Virōs» and «fēminam» are accusatives, and «quī» and «quae» are nominatives, being the subjects of the subordinate clauses. Hence «224.» RULE. «Agreement of the Relative.» _A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause._ «225.» «Interrogative Pronouns.» An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that asks a question. In English the interrogatives are _who?_ _which?_ _what?_ In Latin they are «quis?» «quid?» (pronoun) and «quī?» «quae?» «quod?» (adjective). «226.» Examine the sentences _a._ _Who is the man?_ «Quis est vir?» _b._ _What man is leading them?_ «Quī vir eōs dūcit?» In _a_, _who_ is an interrogative _pronoun_. In _b_, _what_ is an interrogative _adjective_. Observe that in Latin «quis», «quid» is the _pronoun_ and «quī», «quae», «quod» is the _adjective_. «227.» 1. The interrogative adjective «quī», «quae», «quod» is declined just like the relative pronoun. (See §221.) 2. The interrogative pronoun «quis», «quid» is declined like «quī», «quae», «quod» in the plural. In the singular it is declined as follows: MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ «quis», _who?_ «quid», _what? which?_ _Gen._ «cuius», _whose?_ «cuius», _whose?_ _Dat._ «cui», _to_ or _for whom?_ «cui», _to_ or _for_ _what_ or _which?_ _Acc._ «quem», _whom?_ «quid», _what? which?_ _Abl._ «quō», _from_, etc., _whom?_ «quō», _from_, etc., _which_ or _what?_ NOTE. Observe that the masculine and feminine are alike and that all the forms are like the corresponding forms of the relative, excepting quis and quid. «228.» EXERCISES I. 1. Quis est aeger? Servus quem amō est aeger. 2. Cuius scūtum habēs? Scūtum habeō quod lēgātus ad castellum mīsit. 3. Cui lēgātus suum scūtum dabit? Fīliō meō scūtum dabit. 4. Ubi Germānī antīquī vīvēbant? In terrā quae est proxima Rhēnō Germānī vīvēbant. 5. Quibuscum[1] Germānī bellum gerēbant? Cum Rōmānīs, qui eōs superāre studēbant, Germānī bellum gerēbant. 6. Quī virī castra pōnunt? Iī sunt virī quōrum armīs Germānī victī sunt. 7. Quibus tēlīs cōpiae nostrae eguērunt? Gladiīs et telīs nostrae cōpiae eguērunt. 8. Ā quibus porta sinistra tenēbātur? Ā sociīs porta sinistra tenēbātur. 9. Quae prōvinciae ā Rōmānīs occupātae sunt? Multae prōvinciae ā Rōmānīs occupātae sunt. 10. Quibus virīs deī favēbunt? Bonīs virīs deī favēbunt. [Footnote 1: «cum» is added to the ablative of relative, interrogative, and personal pronouns instead of being placed before them.] [Illustration: GERMANI ANTIQUI] II. 1. What victory will you announce? 2. I will announce to the people the victory which the sailors have won. 3. The men who were pitching camp were eager for battle. 4. Nevertheless they were soon conquered by the troops which Sextus had sent. 5. They could not resist our forces, but fled from that place without delay. «229.» THE FAITHLESS TARPEIA (_Concluded_)[2] Tarpēia, commōta ōrnamentīs Sabīnōrum pulchrīs, diū resistere nōn potuit et respondit: “Date mihi[3] ōrnāmenta quae in sinistrīs bracchīs geritis, et celeriter cōpiās vestrās in Capitōlium dūcam.” Nec Sabīnī recūsāvērunt, sed per dūrās magnāsque castellī portās properāvērunt quō[1] Tarpēia dūxit et mox intrā validōs et altōs mūrōs stābant. Tum sine morā in[2] Tarpēiam scūta graviter iēcērunt; nam scūta quoque in sinistrīs bracchiīs gerēbant. Ita perfida puella Tarpēia interfecta est; ita Sabīnī Capitōlium occupāvērunt. [Footnote 2: Explain the use of the tenses in this selection.] [Footnote 3: _to me._] [Footnote 1: quō = _whither_, _to the place where_. Here «quo» is the relative adverb. We have had it used before as the interrogative adverb, _whither?_ _to what place?_] [Footnote 2: _upon_.] LESSON XXXIX THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS [Special Vocabulary] «barbarus, -a, -um», _strange, foreign, barbarous_. As a noun, «barbarī, -ōrum», m., plur., _savages, barbarians_ «dux, ducis», m., _leader_ (duke). Cf. the verb «dūcō» «eques, equitis», m., _horseman, cavalryman_ (equestrian) iūdex, iūdicis, _m., judge_ «lapis, lapidis», m., _stone_ (lapidary) «mīles, mīlitis», m., _soldier_ (militia) «pedes, peditis», m., _foot soldier_ (pedestrian) «pēs, pedis»,[A] m., _foot_ (pedal) «prīnceps, prīncipis», m., _chief_ (principal) «rēx, rēgis», m., _king_ (regal) «summus, -a, -um», _highest, greatest_ (summit) «virtūs, virtūtis», f., _manliness, courage_ (virtue) [Footnote A: Observe that «e» is _long_ in the nom. sing, and _short_ in the other cases.] «230.» «Bases and Stems.» In learning the first and second declensions we saw that the different cases were formed by adding the case terminations to the part of the word that did not change, which we called the «base». If to the base we add «-ā» in the first declension, and «-o» in the second, we get what is called the «stem». Thus «porta» has the base «port-» and the stem «portā-»; «servus» has the base «serv-» and the stem «servo-». These stem vowels, «-ā-» and «-o-», play so important a part in the formation of the case terminations that these declensions are named from them respectively the _Ā_- and _O_-Declensions. «231.» «Nouns of the Third Declension.» The third declension is called the Consonant or _I_-Declension, and its nouns are classified according to the way the _stem_ ends. If the last letter of the stem is a consonant, the word is said to have a _consonant stem_; if the stem ends in «-i-», the word is said to have an «i-»_stem_. _In consonant stems the stem is the same as the base. In_ «i-»_stems the stem is formed by adding_ «-i-» _to the base._ The presence of the «i» makes a difference in certain of the cases, so the distinction is a very important one. «232.» Consonant stems are divided into two classes: I. Stems that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular. II. Stems that add no termination in the nominative singular. CLASS I «233.» Stems that add «-s» to the base in the nominative singular are either masculine or feminine and are declined as follows: «prīnceps», «mīles», m., «lapis», m., _chief_ _soldier_ m., _stone_ BASES OR STEMS «prīncip-» «mīlit-» «lapid-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ prīnceps mīles lapis -s _Gen._ prīn´cipis mīlitis lapidis -is _Dat._ prīn´cipī mīlitī lapidī -ī _Acc._ prīn´cipem mīlitem lapidem -em _Abl._ prīn´cipe mīlite lapide -e PLURAL _Nom._ prīn´cipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs _Gen._ prīn´cipum mīlitum lapidum -um _Dat._ prīnci´pibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus _Acc._ prīn´cipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs _Abl._ prīnci´pibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus «rēx», «iūdex», «virtūs», f., m., _king_ m.,_judge_ _manliness_ BASES OR STEMS «rēg-» «iūdic-» «virtūt-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ rēx iūdex virtūs -s _Gen._ rēgis iūdicis virtū´tis -is _Dat._ rēgī iūdicī virtū´tī -ī _Acc._ rēgem iūdicem virtū´tem -em _Abl._ rēge iūdice virtū´te -e PLURAL _Nom._ rēgēs iūdicēs virtū´tēs -ēs _Gen._ rēgum iūdicum virtū´tum -um _Dat._ rēgibus iūdicibus virtū´tibus -ibus _Acc._ rēgēs iūdicēs virtū´tēs -ēs _Abl._ rēgibus iūdicibus virtū´tibus -ibus 1. The base or stem is found by dropping «-is» in the genitive singular. 2. Most nouns of two syllables, like «prīnceps» («prīncip-»), «mīles» («mīlit-»), «iūdex» («iūdic-»), have «i» in the base, but «e» in the nominative. _a._ «lapis» is an exception to this rule. 3. Observe the consonant changes of the base or stem in the nominative: _a._ A final «-t» or «-d» is dropped before «-s»; thus «mīles» for «mīlets», «lapis» for «lapids», «virtūs» for «virtūts». _b._ A final «-c» or «-g» unites with «-s» and forms «-x»; thus «iūdec» + «s» = «iūdex», «rēg» + «s» = «rēx». 4. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension. In like manner decline «dux, ducis», m., _leader_; «eques, equitis», m., _horseman_; «pedes, peditis», m., _foot soldier_; «pēs, pedis», m.,_foot_. «234.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291. I. 1. Neque peditēs neque equitēs occupāre castellum Rōmānum poterant. 2. Summā virtūte mūrōs altōs cotīdiē oppugnābant. 3. Pedes mīlitum lapidibus quī dē mūrō iaciēbantur saepe vulnerābantur. 4. Quod novum cōnsilium dux cēpit? 5. Is perfidam puellam pulchrīs ōrnāmentīs temptāvit. 6. Quid puella fēcit? 7. Puella commōta aurō mīlitēs per portās dūxit. 8. Tamen praemia quae summō studiō petīverat nōn reportāvit. 9. Apud Rōmānōs antīquōs Tarpēia nōn est laudāta. II. 1. What ship is that which I see? That («illud») ship is the _Victory_. It is sailing now with a favorable wind and will soon approach Italy. 2. The judges commanded the savages to be seized and to be killed. 3. The chiefs of the savages suddenly began to flee, but were quickly captured by the horsemen. 4. The king led the foot soldiers to the wall from which the townsmen were hurling stones with the greatest zeal. [Illustration: NAVIGIUM] LESSON XL THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] «Caesar, -aris», m., _Cæsar_ «captīvus, -ī», m., _captive, prisoner_ «cōnsul, -is», m., _consul_ «frāter, frātris», m., _brother_ (fraternity) «homō, hominis», m., _man, human being_ «impedīmentum, -ī», n., _hindrance_ (impediment); plur. «impedīmenta, -ōrum», _baggage_ «imperātor, imperātōris», m., _commander in chief, general_ (emperor) «legiō, legiōnis», f., _legion_ «māter, mātris», f., _mother_ (maternal) «ōrdō, ōrdinis», m., _row, rank_ (order) «pater, patris», m., _father_ (paternal) «salūs, salūtis», f., _safety_ (salutary) «soror, sorōris», f., _sister_ (sorority) CLASS II «235.» Consonant stems that add no termination in the nominative are declined in the other cases exactly like those that add «-s.» They may be masculine, feminine, or neuter. «236.» PARADIGMS MASCULINES AND FEMININES «cōnsul», «legiō», f., «ōrdō», «pater», m., m., _consul_ _legion_ m., _row_ _father_ BASES OR STEMS «cōnsul-» «legiōn-» «ōrdin-» «patr-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ cōnsul legiō ōrdō pater -- _Gen._ cōnsulis legiōnis ōrdinis patris -is _Dat._ cōnsulī legiōnī ōrdinī patrī -ī _Acc._ cōnsulem legiōnem ōrdinem patrem -em _Abl._ cōnsule legiōne ōrdine patre -e PLURAL _Nom._ cōnsulēs legiōnēs ōrdinēs patrēs -ēs _Gen._ cōnsulum legiōnum ōrdinum patrum -um _Dat._ cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus _Acc._ cōnsulēs legiōnēs ōrdinēs patrēs -ēs _Abl._ cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus 1. With the exception of the nominative, the terminations are exactly the same as in Class I, and the base or stem is found in the same way. 2. Masculines and feminines with bases or stems in -in- and -ōn- drop -n- and end in -ō in the nominative, as legiō (base or stem legiōn-), ōrdō (base or stem ōrdin-). 3. Bases or stems in -tr- have -ter in the nominative, as pater (base or stem patr-). 4. Note how the genitive singular gives the clue to the whole declension. _Always learn this with the nominative._ «237.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 291. I. 1. Audīsne tubās, Mārce? Nōn sōlum tubās audiō sed etiam ōrdinēs militum et carrōs impedīmentōrum plēnōs vidēre possum. 2.Quās legiōnēs vidēmus? Eae legiōnēs nūper ex Galliā vēnērunt. 3. Quid ibi fēcērunt? Studēbantne pugnāre an sine virtūte erant? 4.Multa proelia fēcērunt[1] et magnās victōriās et multōs captīvōs reportāvērunt. 5.Quis est imperātor eārum legiōnum? Caesar, summus Rōmānōrum imperātor. 6.Quis est eques quī pulchram corōnam gerit? Is eques est frāter meus. Eī corōna ā cōnsule data est quia summā virtūte pugnāverat et ā barbarīs patriam servāverat. II. 1. Who has seen my father to-day? 2. I saw him just now («nūper»). He was hastening to your dwelling with your mother and sister. 3. When men are far from the fatherland and lack food, they cannot be restrained[2] from wrong[3]. 4. The safety of the soldiers is dear to Cæsar, the general. 5. The chiefs were eager to storm a town full of grain which was held by the consul. 6. The king forbade the baggage of the captives to be destroyed. [Footnote 1: «proelium facere» = _to fight a battle._] [Footnote 2: «contineō.» Cf. §180.] [Footnote 3: Abl. iniūriā.] LESSON XLI THE THIRD DECLENSION · CONSONANT STEMS (_Concluded_) [Special Vocabulary] «calamitās, calamitātis», f., _loss, disaster, defeat_ (calamity) «caput, capitis», n., _head_ (capital) «flūmen, flūminis», n., _river_ (flume) «labor, labōris», m., _labor, toil_ «opus, operis», n., _work, task_ «ōrātor, ōrātōris», m., _orator_ «rīpa, -ae», f., _bank_ (of a stream) «tempus, temporis», n., _time_ (temporal) «terror, terrōris», m., _terror, fear_ «victor, victōris», m., _victor_ «accipiō, accipere, accēpī, acceptus», _receive, accept_ «cōnfirmō, cōnfīrmāre, cōnfīrmāvī, cōnfīrmātus», _strengthen, establish, encourage_ (confirm) «238.» Neuter consonant stems add no termination in the nominative and are declined as follows: «flūmen», «tempus», «opus», «caput», n., _river_ n., _time_ n., _work_ n., _head_ BASES OR STEMS «flūmin-» «tempor-» «oper-» «capit-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ flūmen tempus opus caput -- _Gen._ flūminis temporis operis capitis -is _Dat._ flūminī temporī operī capitī -ī _Acc._ flūmen tempus opus caput -- _Abl._ flūmine tempore opere capite -e PLURAL _Nom._ flūmina tempora opera capita -a _Gen._ flūminum temporum operum capitum -um _Dat._ flūminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus _Acc._ flūmina tempora opera capita -a _Abl._ flūminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus 1. Review §74 and apply the rules to this declension. 2. Bases or stems in -in- have -e- instead of -i- in the nominative, as flūmen, base or stem flūmin-. 3. Most bases or stems in -er- and -or- have -us in the nominative, as opus, base or stem oper-; tempus, base or stem tempor-. «239.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292. I. 1. Barbarī ubi Rōmam cēpērunt, maxima rēgum opera dēlēvērunt. 2. Rōmānī multās calamitātēs ā barbarīs accēpērunt. 3. Ubi erat summus terror apud oppidānōs, animī dubiī eōrum ab ōrātōre clarō cōnfīrmāti sunt. 4. Rōma est in rīpīs fiūminis magnī. 5. Ubi Caesar imperātor mīlitēs suōs arma capere iussit, iī ā proeliō continērī nōn potuērunt. 6. Ubi proelium factum est, imperātor reperīrī nōn potuit. 7. Imperātor sagittā in capite vulnerātus erat et stāre nōn poterat. 8. Eum magnō labōre pedes ex proeliō portāvit. 9. Is bracchiīs suīs imperātōrem tenuit et eum ex perīculīs summīs servāvit. 10. Virtūte suā bonus mīles ab imperātōre corōnam accēpit. II. 1. The consul placed a crown on the head of the victor. 2. Before the gates he was received by the townsmen. 3. A famous orator praised him and said, “By your labors you have saved the fatherland from disaster.” 4. The words of the orator were pleasing to the victor. 5. To save the fatherland was a great task. [Illustration: Corona] LESSON XLII REVIEW LESSON «240.» Review the paradigms in §§233, 236, 238; and decline all nouns of the third declension in this selection. TERROR CIMBRICUS[1] Ōlim Cimbrī et Teutonēs, populī Germāniae, cum fēminīs līberīsque Italiae adpropinquāverant et cōpiās Rōmānās maximō proeliō vīcerant. Ubi fuga legiōnum nūntiāta est, summus erat terror tōtīus Rōmae, et Rōmānī, graviter commōtī, sacra crēbra deīs faciēbant et salūtem petēbant. Tum Mānlius ōrātor animōs populī ita cōnfīrmāvit:--“Magnam calamitātem accēpimus. Oppida nostra ā Cimbrīs Teutonibusque capiuntur, agricolae interficiuntur, agrī vāstantur, cōpiae barbarōrum Rōmae adpropinquant. Itaque, nisi novīs animīs proelium novum faciēmus et Germānōs ex patriā nostrā sine morā agēmus, erit nūlla salūs fēminīs nostrīs līberīsque. Servāte līberōs! Servāte patriam! Anteā superātī sumus quia imperātōrēs nostrī fuērunt īnfīrmī. Nunc Marius, clārus imperātor, quī iam multās aliās victōriās reportāvit, legiōnēs dūcet et animōs nostrōs terrōre Cimbricō līberāre mātūrābit.” Marius tum in Āfricā bellum gerēbat. Sine morā ex Āfricā in Italiam vocātus est. Cōpiās novās nōn sōlum tōtī Italiae sed etiam prōvinciīs sociōrum imperāvit.[2] Disciplīnā autem dūrā labōribusque perpetuīs mīlitēs exercuit. Tum cum peditibus equitibusque, quī iam proeliō studēbant, ad Germānōrum castra celeriter properāvit. Diū et ācriter pugnātum est.[3] Dēnique barbarī fūgērunt et multī in fugā ab equitibus sunt interfectī. Marius pater patriae vocātus est. [Footnote 1: About the year 100 B.C. the Romans were greatly alarmed by an invasion of barbarians from the north known as Cimbri and Teutons. They were traveling with wives and children, and had an army of 300,000 fighting men. Several Roman armies met defeat, and the city was in a panic. Then the Senate called upon Marius, their greatest general, to save the country. First he defeated the Teutons in Gaul. Next, returning to Italy, he met the Cimbri. A terrible battle ensued, in which the Cimbri were utterly destroyed; but the _terror Cimbricus_ continued to haunt the Romans for many a year thereafter.] [Footnote 2: _He made a levy_ (of troops) _upon_, «imperāvit» with the acc. and the dat.] [Footnote 3: Cf. §200. II. 2.] LESSON XLIII THE THIRD DECLENSION · _I_-STEMS [Special Vocabulary] «animal, animālis (-ium[A])», n., _animal_ «avis, avis (-ium)», f., _bird_ (aviation) «caedēs, caedis (-ium)», f., _slaughter_ calcar, calcāris (-ium), n., _spur_ «cīvis, cīvis (-ium)», m. and f., _citizen_ (civic) «cliēns, clientis (-ium)», m., _retainer, dependent_ (client) «fīnis, fīnis (-ium)», m., _end, limit_ (final); plur., _country, territory_ «hostis, hostis (-ium)», m. and f., _enemy_ in war (hostile). Distinguish from «inimīcus», which means a _personal_ enemy «ignis, ignis (-ium)», m., _fire_ (ignite) «īnsigne, īnsignis (-ium)», n. _decoration, badge_ (ensign) «mare, maris (-ium[B])», n., _sea_ (marine) «nāvis, nāvis (-ium)», f., _ship_ (naval); «nāvis longa», _man-of-war_ «turris, turris (-ium)», f., _tower_ (turret) «urbs, urbis (-ium)», f., _city_ (suburb). An «urbs» is larger than an «oppidum». [Footnote A: The genitive plural ending «-ium» is written to mark the i-stems.] [Footnote B: The genitive plural of «mare» is not in use.] «241.» To decline a noun of the third declension correctly we must know whether or not it is an «i»-stem. Nouns with «i»-stems are 1. Masculines and feminines: _a._ Nouns in «-ēs» and «-īs» with the same number of syllables in the genitive as in the nominative. Thus «caedēs, caedis», is an «i»-stem, but «mīles, mīlitis», is a consonant stem. _b._ Nouns in «-ns» and «-rs». _c._ Nouns of one syllable in «-s» or «-x» preceded by a consonant. 2. Neuters in «-e», «-al», and «-ar». «242.» The declension of «i»-stems is nearly the same as that of consonant stems. Note the following differences: _a._ Masculines and feminities have «-ium» in the genitive plural and «-īs» or «-ēs» in the accusative plural. _b._ Neuters have «-ī» in the ablative singular, and an «-i-» in every form of the plural. «243.» «Masculine and Feminine _I_-Stems.» Masculine and feminine «i»-stems are declined as follows: «caedēs», f., «hostis», «urbs», f., «cliēns», m., _slaughter_ m., _enemy_ _city_ _retainer_ STEMS «caedi-» «hosti-» «urbi-» «clienti-» BASES «caed-» «host-» «urb-» «client-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS M. AND F. _Nom._ caedēs hostis urbs cliēns[1] -s, -is, _or_ -ēs _Gen._ caedis hostis urbis clientis -is _Dat._ caedī hostī urbī clientī -ī _Acc._ caedem hostem urbem clientem -em (-im) _Abl._ caede hoste urbe cliente -e (-ī) PLURAL _Nom._ caedēs hostēs urbēs clientēs -ēs _Gen._ caedium hostium urbium clientium -ium _Dat._ caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus _Acc._ caedīs, -ēs hostīs, -ēs urbīs, -ēs clientīs, -ēs -īs, -ēs _Abl._ caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus [Footnote 1: Observe that the vowel before «-ns» is long, but that it is shortened before «-nt». Cf. §12.2, 3.] 1. «avis», «cīvis», «fīnis», «ignis», «nāvis» have the ablative singular in «-ī» or «-e». 2. «turris» has accusative «turrim» and ablative «turrī» or «turre». «244.» «Neuter _I_-Stems.» Neuter «i»-stems are declined as follows: «īnsigne», n., «animal», n., «calcar», _decoration_ _animal_ n., _spur_ STEMS «īnsigni-» «animāli-» «calcāri-» BASES «īnsign-» «animāl-» «calcār-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ īnsigne animal calcar -e _or_ -- _Gen._ īnsignis animālis calcāris -is _Dat._ īnsignī animālī calcārī -ī _Acc._ īnsigne animal calcar -e _or_ -- _Abl._ īnsignī animālī calcārī -ī PLURAL _Nom._ īnsignia animālia calcāria -ia _Gen._ īnsignium animālium calcārium -ium _Dat._ īnsignibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus _Acc._ īnsignia animālia calcāria -ia _Abl._ īnsignibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus 1. Review §74 and see how it applies to this declension. 2. The final «-i-» of the stem is usually dropped in the nominative. If not dropped, it is changed to «-e». 3. A long vowel is shortened before final «-l» or «-r». (Cf. §12.2.) «245.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292. I. 1. Quam urbem vidēmus? Urbs quam vidētis est Rōma. 2. Cīvēs Rōmānī urbem suam turribus altīs et mūrīs longīs mūnīverant. 3. Ventī nāvīs longās prohibēbant fīnibus hostium adpropinquāre. 4. Imperātor a clientibus suīs calcāria aurī et alia īnsignia accēpit. 5. Mīlitēs Rōmānī cum hostibus bella saeva gessērunt et eōs caede magnā superāvērunt. 6. Alia animālia terram, alia mare amant. 7. Nāvēs longae quae auxilium ad imperātōrem portābant ignī ab hostibus dēlētae sunt. 8. In eō marī avis multās vīdimus quae longē ā terrā volāverant. 9. Nōnne vīdistis nāvīs longās hostium et ignīs quibus urbs nostra vāstābātur? Certē, sed nec caedem cīvium nec fugam clientium vīdimus. 10. Avēs et alia animālia, ubi ignem vīdērunt, salūtem fugā petere celeriter incēpērunt. 11. Num. iūdex in peditum ōrdinibus stābat? Minimē, iūdex erat apud equitēs et equus eius īnsigne pulchrum gerēbat. [Illustration: NAVES LONGAE] II. 1. Because of the lack of grain the animals of the village were not able to live. 2. When the general[2] heard the rumor, he quickly sent a horseman to the village. 3. The horseman had a beautiful horse and wore spurs of gold. 4. He said to the citizens, “Send your retainers with horses and wagons to our camp, and you will receive an abundance of grain.” 5. With happy hearts they hastened to obey his words.[3] [Footnote 2: Place first.] [Footnote 3: Not the accusative. Why?] LESSON XLIV IRREGULAR NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION · GENDER IN THE THIRD DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] «arbor, arboris», f., _tree_ (arbor) «collis, collis (-ium)», m., _hill_ «dēns, dentis (-ium)», m., _tooth_ (dentist) fōns, fontis (-ium), m.. _fountain, spring; source_ «iter, itineris», n., _march, journey, route_ (itinerary) «mēnsis, mēnsis (-ium)», m., _month_ «moenia, -ium», n., plur., _walls, fortifications_. Cf. «mūrus» «mōns, montis (-ium)», m., _mountain_; «summus mōns», _top of the mountain_ «numquam», adv., _never_ «pōns, pontis», m., _bridge_ (pontoon) «sanguis, sanguinis», m., blood (sanguinary) «summus, -a, -um», _highest, greatest_ (summit) «trāns», prep, with acc., _across_ (transatlantic) «vīs (vīs)», gen. plur. «virium», f. _strength, force, violence_ (vim) «246.» PARADIGMS [Transcriber’s Note: The original text gives «vī-» and «vīr-» as the “Bases” of «vīs», and omits the “Stems” for both words. The forms have been regularized to agree with the inflectional table in the Appendix.] «vīs», f., _force_ «iter», n., _march_ STEMS «vī-» and «vīri-» «iter-» and «itiner-» BASES «v-» and «vīr-» «iter-» and «itiner-» SINGULAR _Nom._ vīs iter _Gen._ vīs (rare) itineris _Dat._ vī (rare) itinerī _Acc._ vim iter _Abl._ vī itinere PLURAL _Nom._ vīrēs itinera _Gen._ vīrium itinerum _Dat._ vīribus itineribus _Acc._ vīrīs, or -ēs itinera _Abl._ vīribus itineribus «247.» There are no rules for gender in the third declension that do not present numerous exceptions.[1] The following rules, however, are of great service, and should be thoroughly mastered: 1. «Masculine» are nouns in «-or», «-ōs», «-er», «-ĕs» (gen. «-itis»). _a._ «arbor», _tree_, is feminine; and «iter», _march_, is neuter. 2. «Feminine» are nouns in «-ō», «-is», «-x», and in «-s» preceded by a consonant or by any long vowel but «ō». _a._ Masculine are «collis» (_hill_), «lapis», «mēnsis» (_month_), «ōrdō», «pēs», and nouns in «-nis» and «-guis»--as «ignis», «sanguis» (_blood_)--and the four monosyllables «dēns», _a tooth_; «mōns», _a mountain_ «pōns», _a bridge_; «fōns», _a fountain_ 3. «Neuters» are nouns in «-e», «-al», «-ar», «-n», «-ur», «-ŭs», and «caput». [Footnote 1: Review §60. Words denoting males are, of course, masculine, and those denoting females, feminine.] «248.» Give the gender of the following nouns and the rule by which it is determined: «animal» «calamitās» «flūmen» «lapis» «nāvis» «avis» «caput» «ignis» «legiō» «opus» «caedēs» «eques» «īnsigne» «mare» «salūs» «calcar» «fīnis» «labor» «mīles» «urbs» «249.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 292. I. _The First Bridge over the Rhine._ Salūs sociōrum erat semper cāra Rōmānīs. Ōlim Gallī, amīcī Rōmānōrum, multās iniūriās ab Germānīs quī trāns flūmen Rhēnum vivēbant accēperant. Ubi lēgātī ab iīs ad Caesarem imperātōrem Rōmānum vēnērunt et auxilium postulāvērunt, Rōmānī magnīs itineribus ad hostium fīnīs properāvērunt. Mox ad rīpās magnī flūminis vēnērunt. Imperātor studēbat cōpiās suās trāns fluvium dūcere, sed nūllā viā[2] poterat. Nūllās nāvīs habēbat. Alta erat aqua. Imperātor autem, vir clārus, numquam adversā fortūnā commōtus, novum cōnsilium cēpit. Iussit suōs[3] in[4] lātō flūmine facere pontem. Numquam anteā pōns in Rhēnō vīsus erat. Hostēs ubi pontem quem Rōmānī fēcerant vīdērunt, summō terrōre commōtī, sine morā fugam parāre incēpērunt. II. 1. The enemy had taken (possession of) the top of the mountain. 2. There were many trees on the opposite hills. 3. We pitched our camp near («ad») a beautiful spring. 4. A march through the enemies’ country is never without danger. 5. The time of the month was suitable for the march. 6. The teeth of the monster were long. 7. When the foot soldiers[5] saw the blood of the captives, they began to assail the fortifications with the greatest violence.[2] [Footnote 2: Abl. of manner.] [Footnote 3: «suōs», used as a noun, _his men_.] [Footnote 4: We say _build a bridge over_; the Romans, _make a bridge on_.] [Footnote 5: Place first.] * * * * * «Fifth Review, Lessons XXXVII-XLIV, §§517-520» * * * * * LESSON XLV ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION · _I_-STEMS [Special Vocabulary] «ācer, ācris, ācre», _sharp, keen, eager_ (acrid) «brevis, breve», _short, brief_ «difficilis, difficile», _difficult_ «facilis, facile», _facile, easy_ «fortis, forte», _brave_ (fortitude) «gravis, grave», _heavy, severe, serious_ (grave) «omnis, omne», _every, all_ (omnibus) «pār», gen. «paris», _equal_ (par) «paucī, -ae, -a», _few, only a few_ (paucity) «secundus, -a, -um», _second; favorable_, opposite of adversus «signum, -ī», n., _signal, sign, standard_ «vēlōx», gen. «vēlōcis», _swift_ (velocity) «conlocō, conlocāre, conlocāvī, conlocātus», _arrange, station, place_ (collocation) «dēmōnstrō, dēmōnstrāre, dēmōnstrāvī, dēmōnstrātus», _point out, explain_ (demonstrate) «mandō, mandāre, mandāvī, mandātus», _commit, intrust_ (mandate) «250.» Adjectives are either of the first and second declensions (like «bonus», «aeger», or «līber»), or they are of the third declension. «251.» Nearly all adjectives of the third declension have «i»-_stems_, and they are declined almost like nouns with «i»-stems. «252.» Adjectives learned thus far have had a different form in the nominative for each gender, as, «bonus», m.; «bona», f.; «bonum», n. Such an adjective is called an _adjective of three endings_. Adjectives of the third declension are of the following classes: I. Adjectives of three endings-- a different form in the nominative for each gender. II. Adjectives of two endings-- masculine and feminine nominative alike, the neuter different. III. Adjectives of one ending-- masculine, feminine, and neuter nominative all alike. «253.» Adjectives of the third declension in «-er» have three endings; those in «-is» have two endings; the others have one ending. CLASS I «254.» Adjectives of Three Endings are declined as follows: «ācer, ācris, ācre», _keen, eager_ STEM «ācri-» BASE «ācr-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ācer ācris ācre ācrēs ācrēs ācria _Gen._ ācris ācris ācris ācrium ācrium ācrium _Dat._ ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus _Acc._ ācrem ācrem ācre ācrīs, -ēs ācrīs, -ēs ācria _Abl._ ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus CLASS II «255.» Adjectives of Two Endings are declined as follows: «omnis, omne», _every, all_[1] STEM «omni-» BASE «omn-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ omnis omne omnēs omnia _Gen._ omnis omnis omnium omnium _Dat._ omnī omnī omnibus omnibus _Acc._ omnem omne omnīs, -ēs omnia _Abl._ omnī omnī omnibus omnibus [Footnote 1: «omnis» is usually translated _every_ in the singular and _all_ in the plural.] CLASS III «256.» Adjectives of One Ending are declined as follows: «pār», _equal_ STEM «pari-» BASE «par-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ pār pār parēs paria _Gen._ paris paris parium parium _Dat._ parī parī paribus paribus _Acc._ parem pār parīs, -ēs paria _Abl._ parī parī paribus paribus 1. All «i»-stem adjectives have «-ī» in the ablative singular. 2. Observe that the several cases of adjectives of one ending have the same form for all genders excepting in the accusative singular and in the nominative and accusative plural. 3. Decline «vir ācer», «legiō ācris», «animal ācre», «ager omnis», «scūtum omne», «proelium pār». «257.» There are a few adjectives of one ending that have consonant stems. They are declined exactly like nouns with consonant stems. «258.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293. I. _The Romans invade the Enemy’s Country._ Ōlim peditēs Rōmānī cum equitibus vēlōcibus in hostium urbem iter faciēbant. Ubi nōn longē āfuērunt, rapuērunt agricolam, quī eīs viam brevem et facilem dēmōnstrāvit. Iam Rōmānī moenia alta, turrīs validās aliaque opera urbis vidēre poterant. In moenibus stābant multī prīncipēs. Prīncipēs ubi vīdērunt Rōmānōs, iussērunt cīvīs lapidēs aliaque tēla dē mūrīs iacere. Tum mīlitēs fortēs continērī ā proeliō nōn poterant et ācer imperātor signum tubā darī iussit. Summā vī omnēs mātūrāvērunt. Imperātor Sextō lēgātō impedīmenta omnia mandāvit. Sextus impedīmenta in summō colle conlocāvit. Grave et ācre erat proelium, sed hostēs nōn parēs Rōmānīs erant. Aliī interfectī, aliī captī sunt. Apud captīvōs erant māter sororque rēgis. Paucī Rōmānōrum ab hostibus vulnerātī sunt. Secundum proelium Rōmānīs erat grātum. Fortūna fortibus semper favet. II. 1. Some months are short, others are long. 2. To seize the top of the mountain was difficult. 3. Among the hills of Italy are many beautiful springs. 4. The soldiers were sitting where the baggage had been placed because their feet were weary. 5. The city which the soldiers were eager to storm had been fortified by strong walls and high towers. 6. Did not the king intrust a heavy crown of gold and all his money to a faithless slave? Yes, but the slave had never before been faithless. [Illustration: AQUILA LEGIONIS] LESSON XLVI THE FOURTH OR _U_-DECLENSION [Special Vocabulary] «adventus, -ūs», m., _approach, arrival_ (advent) «ante», prep, with acc., _before_ (ante-date) «cornū, -ūs», n., _horn, wing_ of an army (cornucopia); «ā dextrō cornū», _on the right wing_; «ā sinistrō cornū», _on the left wing_ «equitātus, -ūs», m., _cavalry_ «exercitus, -ūs», m., _army_ «impetus, -ūs», m., _attack_ (impetus); «impetum facere in», with acc., _to make an attack on_ «lacus, -ūs, dat. and abl. plur. lacubus», m., _lake_ «manus, -ūs», f., _hand; band, force_ (manual) «portus, -ūs», m., _harbor_ (port) «post», prep, with acc., _behind, after_ (post-mortem) «cremō, cremāre, cremāvī, cremātus», _burn_ (cremate) «exerceō, exercēre, exercuī, exercitus», _practice, drill, train_ (exercise) «259.» Nouns of the fourth declension are either masculine or neuter. «260.» Masculine nouns end in «-us», neuters in «-ū». The genitive ends in «-ūs». _a._ Feminine by exception are «domus», _house_; «manus», _hand_; and a few others. PARADIGMS [Transcriber’s Note: The “Stems” are missing in the printed book. They have been supplied from the inflectional table in the Appendix.] «adventus», «cornū», m., _arrival_ n., _horn_ STEMS «adventu-» «cornu-» BASES «advent-» «corn-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS MASC. NEUT. _Nom._ adventus cornū -us -ū _Gen._ adventūs cornūs -ūs -ūs _Dat._ adventuī (ū) cornū -uī (ū) -ū _Acc._ adventum cornū -um -ū _Abl._ adventū cornū -ū -ū PLURAL _Nom._ adventūs cornua -ūs -ua _Gen._ adventuum cornuum -uum -uum _Dat._ adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus _Acc._ adventūs cornua -ūs -ua _Abl._ adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus 1. Observe that the base is found, as in other declensions, by dropping the ending of the genitive singular. 2. «lacus», _lake_, has the ending «-ubus» in the dative and ablative plural; «portus», _harbor_, has either «-ubus» or «-ibus». 3. «cornū» is the only neuter that is in common use. «261.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293. I. 1. Ante adventum Caesaris vēlōcēs hostium equitēs ācrem impetum in castra fēcērunt. 2. Continēre exercitum ā proeliō nōn facile erat. 3. Post adventum suum Caesar iussit legiōnēs ex castrīs dūcī. 4. Prō castrīs cum hostium equitātū pugnātum est. 5. Post tempus breve equitātus trāns flūmen fūgit ubi castra hostium posita erant. 6. Tum victor imperātor agrōs vāstāvit et vīcōs hostium cremāvit. 7. Castra autem nōn oppugnāvit quia mīlitēs erant dēfessī et locus difficilis. 8. Hostēs nōn cessāvērunt iacere tēla, quae paucīs nocuērunt. 9. Post adversum proelium principēs Gallōrum lēgātōs ad Caesarem mittere studēbant, sed populō persuādēre nōn poterant. II. 1. Did you see the man-of-war on the lake? 2. I did not see it (_fem_.) on the lake, but I saw it in the harbor. 3. Because of the strong wind the sailor forbade his brother to sail. 4. Cæsar didn´t make an attack on the cavalry on the right wing, did he? 5. No, he made an attack on the left wing. 6. Who taught your swift horse to obey? 7. I trained my horse with my (own) hands, nor was the task difficult. 8. He is a beautiful animal and has great strength. LESSON XLVII EXPRESSIONS OF PLACE · THE DECLENSION OF _DOMUS_ [Special Vocabulary] Athēnae, -ārum, f., plur., _Athens_ Corinthus, -ī, f., _Corinth_ «domus, -ūs», locative «domī», f., _house, home_ (dome). Cf. «domicilium» «Genāva, -ae», f., _Geneva_ Pompēii, -ōrum, m., plur., _Pompeii_, a city in Campania. See map «propter», prep. with acc., _on account of, because of_ rūs, rūris, in the plur. only nom. and acc. «rūra», n., _country_ (rustic) «tergum, tergī», n., _back_; «ā tergō», _behind, in the rear_ «vulnus, vulneris», n., _wound_ (vulnerable) «committō, committere, commīsī, commissus», _intrust, commit;_ «proelium committere», _join battle_ «convocō, convocāre, convocāvī, convocātus», _call together, summon_ (convoke) «timeō, timēre, timuī, ----», _fear; be afraid_ (timid) «vertō, vertere, vertī, versus», _turn, change_ (convert); «terga vertere», _to turn the backs_, hence _to retreat_ «262.» We have become thoroughly familiar with expressions like the following: «Galba ad» (or «in») «oppidum properat» «Galba ab» («dē» or «ex») «oppidō properat» «Galba in oppidō habitat» From these expressions we may deduce the following rules: «263.» RULE. «Accusative of the Place to.» _The «place to which» is expressed by «ad» or «in» with the accusative. This answers the question Whither?_ «264.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place from.» _The «place from which» is expressed by «ā» or «ab», «dē», «ē» or «ex», with the separative ablative. This answers the question Whence?_ (Cf. Rule, §179.) «265.» RULE. «Ablative of the Place at or in.» _The «place at or in which» is expressed by the ablative with «in». This answers the question Where?_ _a._ The ablative denoting the _place where_ is called the _locative ablative_ (cf. «locus», _place_). «266.» «Exceptions.» Names of towns, small islands,[1] «domus», _home_, «rūs», _country_, and a few other words in common use omit the prepositions in expressions of place, as, «Galba Athēnās properat», _Galba hastens to Athens_ «Galba Athēnīs properat», _Galba hastens from Athens_ «Galba Athēnīs habitat», _Galba lives at_ (or _in_) _Athens_ «Galba domum properat», _Galba hastens home_ «Galba rūs properat», _Galba hastens to the country_ «Galba domō properat», _Galba hastens from home_ «Galba rūre properat», _Galba hastens from the country_ «Galba rūrī» (less commonly «rūre») «habitat», _Galba lives in the country_ _a._ Names of _countries_, like «Germānia», «Italia», etc., do not come under these exceptions. _With them prepositions must not be omitted._ [Footnote 1: Small islands are classed with towns because they generally have but one town, and the name of the town is the same as the name of the island.] «267.» «The Locative Case.» We saw above that the place-relation expressed by _at_ or _in_ is regularly covered by the locative ablative. However, Latin originally expressed this relation by a separate form known as the _locative case_. This case has been everywhere merged in the ablative excepting in the singular number of the first and second declensions. The form of the locative in these declensions is like the genitive singular, and its use is limited to names of towns and small islands, «domī», _at home_, and a few other words. «268.» RULE. «Locative and Locative Ablative.» _To express the «place in which» with names of towns and small islands, «if they are singular and of the first or second declension», use the locative; otherwise use the locative ablative without a preposition; as_, «Galba Rōmae habitat», _Galba lives at Rome_ «Galba Corinthī habitat», _Galba lives at Corinth_ «Galba domī habitat», _Galba lives at home_ Here «Rōmae», «Corinthī», and «domī» are _locatives_, being _singular_ and of the first and second declensions respectively. But in «Galba Athēnīs habitat», _Galba lives at Athens_, «Galba Pompēiīs habitat», _Galba lives at Pompeii_ «Athēnīs» and «Pompēiīs» are locative ablatives. These words can have no locative case, as the nominatives «Athēnae» and «Pompēiī» are _plural_ and there is no plural locative case form. «269.» The word «domus», _home, house_, has forms of both the second and the fourth declension. Learn its declension (§468). «270.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 293. I. 1. Corinthī omnia īnsignia aurī ā ducibus victōribus rapta erant. 2. Caesar Genāvam exercitum magnīs itineribus dūxit. 3. Quem pontem hostēs cremāverant? Pontem in Rhēnō hostēs cremāverant. 4. Pompēiīs multās Rōmānōrum domōs vidēre poteritis. 5. Rōmā cōnsul equō vēlōcī rūs properāvit. 6. Domī cōnsulis hominēs multī sedēbant. 7. Imperātor iusserat lēgātum Athēnās cum multīs nāvibus longīs nāvigāre. 8. Ante moenia urbis sunt ōrdinēs arborum altārum. 9. Propter arborēs altās nec lacum nec portum reperīre potuimus. 10. Proeliīs crēbrīs Caesar legiōnēs suās quae erant in Galliā exercēbat. 11. Cotīdiē in locō idoneō castra pōnēbat et mūniēbat. II. 1. Cæsar, the famous general, when he had departed from Rome, hastened to the Roman province on a swift horse.[2] 2. He had heard a rumor concerning the allies at Geneva. 3. After his arrival Cæsar called the soldiers together and commanded them to join battle. 4. The enemy hastened to retreat, some because[3] they were afraid, others because[3] of wounds. 5. Recently I was at Athens and saw the place where the judges used to sit.[4] 6. Marcus and Sextus are my brothers; the one lives at Rome, the other in the country. [Footnote 2: Latin says “by a swift horse.” What construction?] [Footnote 3: Distinguish between the English conjunction _because_ («quia» or «quod») and the preposition _because of_ («propter»).] [Footnote 4: _used to sit_, express by the imperfect.] [Illustration: DAEDALUS ET ICARUS] «271.» DAED´ALUS AND IC´ARUS Crēta est īnsula antīqua quae aquā altā magnī maris pulsātur. Ibi ōlim Mīnōs erat rēx. Ad eum vēnit Daedalus quī ex Graeciā patriā fugiēbat. Eum Mīnōs rēx benignīs verbīs accēpit et eī domicilium in Crētā dedit. [5]Quō in locō Daedalus sine cūrā vīvebat et rēgī multa et clāra opera faciēbat. Post tempus longum autem Daedalus patriam cāram dēsīderāre incēpit. Domum properāre studēbat, sed rēgī persuādēre nōn potuit et mare saevum fugam vetābat. [Footnote 5: _And in this place_; «quō» does not here introduce a subordinate relative clause, but establishes the connection with the preceding sentence. Such a relative is called a _connecting relative_, and is translated by _and_ and a demonstrative or personal pronoun.] LESSON XLVIII THE FIFTH OR Ē-DECLENSION · THE ABLATIVE OF TIME [Special Vocabulary] «aciēs, -ēī», f., _line of battle_ «aestās, aestātis», f., _summer_ «annus, -ī», m., _year_ (annual) «diēs, diēī», m., _day_ (diary) «fidēs, fideī», no plur., f., _faith, trust; promise, word; protection_; «in fidem venīre», _to come under the protection_ «fluctus, -ūs», m. _wave, billow_ (fluctuate) «hiems, hiemis», f., _winter_ «hōra, -ae», f., _hour_ «lūx, lūcis», f., _light_ (lucid); «prīma lux», _daybreak_ «merīdiēs», acc. -em, abl. -ē, no plur., m., _midday_ (meridian) «nox, noctis (-ium)», f., _night_ (nocturnal) «prīmus, -a, -um», _first_ (prime) «rēs, reī», f., _thing, matter_ (real); «rēs gestae», _deeds, exploits_ (lit. _things performed_); «rēs adversae», _adversity_; «rēs secundae», _prosperity_ «spēs, speī», f., _hope_ «272.» «Gender.» Nouns of the fifth declension are feminine except «diēs», _day_, and «merīdiēs», _midday_, which are usually masculine. «273.» PARADIGMS [Transcriber’s Note: The “Stems” are missing in the printed book. They have been supplied from the inflectional table in the Appendix.] «diēs», «rēs», f., m., _day_ _thing_ STEMS «diē-» «rē-» BASES «di-» «r-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ diēs rēs -ēs _Gen._ diēī reī -ē̆ī _Dat._ diēī reī -ē̆ī _Acc._ diem rem -em _Abl._ diē rē -ē PLURAL _Nom._ diēs rēs -ēs _Gen._ diērum rērum -ērum _Dat._ diēbus rēbus -ēbus _Acc._ diēs rēs -ēs _Abl._ diēbus rēbus -ēbus 1. The vowel «e» which appears in every form is regularly long. It is shortened in the ending «-eī» after a consonant, as in «r-ĕī»; and before «-m» in the accusative singular, as in «di-em». (Cf. §12.2.) 2. Only «diēs» and «rēs» are complete in the plural. Most other nouns of this declension lack the plural. «Aciēs», _line of battle_, and «spēs», _hope_, have the nominative and accusative plural. «274.» The ablative relation (§50) which is expressed by the prepositions _at, in_, or _on_ may refer not only to place, but also to time, as _at noon, in summer, on the first day_. The ablative which is used to express this relation is called the _ablative of time_. «275.» RULE. «The Ablative of Time.» _The time «when» or «within which» anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition._ _a._ Occasionally the preposition «_in_» is found. Compare the English _Next day we started_ and _«On» the next day we started_. «276.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294. I. _Galba the Farmer._ Galba agricola rūrī vīvit. Cotīdiē prīmā lūce labōrāre incipit, nec ante noctem in studiō suō cessat. Merīdiē Iūlia fīlia eum ad cēnam vocat. Nocte pedēs dēfessōs domum vertit. Aestāte fīliī agricolae auxilium patrī dant. Hieme agricola eōs in lūdum mittit. Ibi magister pueris multās fābulās dē rēbus gestīs Caesaris nārrat. Aestāte fīliī agricolae perpetuīs labōribus exercentur nec grave agrī opus est iīs molestum. Galba sine ūllā cūrā vivit nec rēs adversās timet. II. 1. In that month there were many battles in Gaul. 2. The cavalry of the enemy made an attack upon Cæsar’s line of battle. 3. In the first hour of the night the ship was overcome by the billows. 4. On the second day the savages were eager to come under Cæsar’s protection. 5. The king had joined battle, moved by the hope of victory. 6. That year a fire destroyed many birds and other animals. 7. We saw blood on the wild beast’s teeth. «277.» DAED´ALUS AND IC´ARUS (_Continued_) Tum Daedalus gravibus cūrīs commōtus fīliō suō Īcarō ita dixit: “Animus meus, Īcare, est plēnus trīstitiae nec oculī lacrimīs egent. Discēdere ex Crētā, Athēnās properāre, maximē studeō; sed rēx recūsat audīre verba mea et omnem reditūs spem ēripit. Sed numquam rēbus adversīs vincar. Terra et mare sunt inimīca, sed aliam fugae viam reperiam.” Tum in artīs ignōtās animum dīmittit et mīrum capit cōnsilium. Nam pennās in ōrdine pōnit et vērās ālās facit. LESSON XLIX PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED · PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS [Special Vocabulary] «amīcitia, -ae», f., _friendship_ (amicable) «itaque», conj., _and so, therefore, accordingly_ «littera, -ae», f., _a letter_ of the alphabet; plur., _a letter, an epistle_ «metus, metūs», m., _fear_ «nihil, indeclinable», n., _nothing_ (nihilist) «nūntius, nūntī», m., _messenger_. Cf. «nūntiō» «pāx, pācis», f., _peace_ (pacify) «rēgnum, -ī», n., _reign, sovereignty, kingdom_ «supplicum, suppli´cī», n., _punishment_; «supplicum sūmere dē», with abl., _inflict punishment on_; «supplicum dare», _suffer punishment_. Cf. «poena» «placeō, placēre, placuī, placitus», _be pleasing to, please_, with dative. Cf. §154 «sūmō, sūmere, sūmpsī, sūmptus», _take up, assume_ «sustineō, sustinēre, sustinuī, sustentus», _sustain_ «278.» We have the same kinds of pronouns in Latin as in English. They are divided into the following eight classes: 1. «Personal pronouns», which show the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of; as, «ego», _I_; «tū», _you_; «is», _he_. (Cf. §279. etc.) 2. «Possessive pronouns», which denote possession; as, «meus», «tuus», «suus», etc. (Cf. §98.) 3. «Reflexive pronouns», used in the predicate to refer back to the subject; as, _he saw himself_. (Cf. §281.) 4. «Intensive pronouns», used to emphasize a noun or pronoun; as, _I myself saw it_. (Cf. §285.) 5. «Demonstrative pronouns», which point out persons or things; as, «is», _this, that_. (Cf. §112.) 6. «Relative pronouns», which connect a subordinate adjective clause with an antecedent; as, «quī», _who_. (Cf. §220.) 7. «Interrogative pronouns», which ask a question; as, «quis», _who?_ (Cf. §225.) 8. «Indefinite pronouns», which point out indefinitely; as, _some one, any one, some, certain ones_, etc. (Cf. §296.) «279.» The demonstrative pronoun «is», «ea», «id», as we learned in §115, is regularly used as the personal pronoun of the third person (_he_, _she_, _it_, _they_, etc.). «280.» The personal pronouns of the first person are «ego», _I_; «nōs», _we_; of the second person, «tū», _thou_ or _you_; «vōs», _ye_ or _you_. They are declined as follows: SINGULAR FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON _Nom._ ego, _I_ tū, _you_ _Gen._ meī, _of me_ tuī, _of you_ _Dat._ mihi, _to_ or _for me_ tibi, _to_ or _for you_ _Acc._ mē, _me_ tē, _you_ _Abl._ mē, _with, from_, etc., _me_ tē, _with, from_, etc., _you_ PLURAL _Nom._ nōs, _we_ vōs, _you_ _Gen._ nostrum or nostrī, _of us_ vestrum or vestrī, _of you_ _Dat._ nōbīs, _to_ or _for us_ vōbīs, _to_ or _for you_ _Acc._ nōs, _us_ vōs, _you_ _Abl._ nōbīs, _with, from_, vōbīs, _with, from_, etc., _you_ etc., _us_ 1. The personal pronouns are not used in the nominative excepting for emphasis or contrast. «281.» «The Reflexive Pronouns.» 1. The personal pronouns «ego» and «tū» may be used in the predicate as reflexives; as, «videō mē», _I see myself_ «vidēmus nōs», _we see ourselves_ «vidēs tē», _you see yourself_ «vidētis vōs», _you see yourselves_ 2. The reflexive pronoun of the third person (_himself, herself, itself, themselves_) has a special form, used only in these senses, and declined alike in the singular and plural. SINGULAR AND PLURAL _Gen._ suī _Acc._ sē _Dat._ sibi _Abl._ sē EXAMPLES «Puer sē videt», _the boy sees himself_ «Puella sē videt», _the girl sees herself_ «Animal sē videt», _the animal sees itself_ «Iī sē vident», _they see themselves_ _a._ The form «sē» is sometimes doubled, «sēsē», for emphasis. 3. Give the Latin for _I teach myself_ _We teach ourselves_ _You teach yourself_ _You teach yourselves_ _He teaches himself_ _They teach themselves_ «282.» The preposition «cum», when used with the ablative of «ego», «tū», or «suī», is appended to the form, as, «mēcum», _with me_; «tēcum», _with you_; «nōbīscum», _with us_; etc. «283.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 294. I. 1. Mea māter est cāra mihi et tua māter est cāra tibi. 2. Vestrae litterae erant grātae nōbis et nostrae litterae erant grātae vōbīs. 3. Nūntius rēgis quī nōbīscum est nihil respondēbit. 4. Nūntiī pācem amīcitiamque sibi et suīs sociīs postulāvērunt. 5. Sī tū arma sūmēs, ego rēgnum occupābō. 6. Uter vestrum est cīvis Rōmānus? Neuter nostrum. 7. Eō tempore multī supplicium dedērunt quia rēgnum petierant. 8. Sūme supplicium, Caesar, dē hostibus patriae ācribus. 9. Prīmā lūce aliī metū commōtī sēsē fugae mandāvērunt; aliī autem magnā virtūte impetum exercitūs nostrī sustinuērunt. 10. Soror rēgis, ubi dē adversō proeliō audīvit, sēsē Pompēiīs interfēcit. II. 1. Whom do you teach? I teach myself. 2. The soldier wounded himself with his sword. 3. The master praises us, but you he does not praise. 4. Therefore he will inflict punishment on you, but we shall not suffer punishment. 5. Who will march (i.e. make a march) with me to Rome? 6. I will march with you to the gates of the city. 7. Who will show us[1] the way? The gods will show you[1] the way. [Footnote 1: Not accusative.] DAED´ALUS AND IC´ARUS (_Concluded_) «284.» Puer Īcarus ūnā[2] stābat et mīrum patris opus vidēbat. Postquam manus ultima[3] ālīs imposita est, Daedalus eās temptāvit et similis avī in aurās volāvit. Tum ālās umerīs fīlī adligāvit et docuit eum volāre et dīxit, “Tē vetō, mī fīlī, adpropinquāre aut sōlī aut marī. Sī fluctibus adpropinquāveris,[4] aqua ālīs tuīs nocēbit, et sī sōlī adpropinquāveris,[4] ignis eās cremābit.” Tum pater et filius iter difficile incipiunt. Ālās movent et aurae sēsē committunt. Sed stultus puer verbīs patris nōn pāret. Sōlī adpropinquat. Ālae cremantur et Īcarus in mare dēcidit et vitam āmittit. Daedalus autem sine ūllō perīculō trāns fluctūs ad īnsulam Siciliam volāvit. [Footnote 2: Adverb, see vocabulary.] [Footnote 3: «manus ultima», _the finishing touch_. What literally?] [Footnote 4: Future perfect. Translate by the present.] LESSON L THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN _IPSE_ AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE _ĪDEM_ [Special Vocabulary] «corpus, corporis», n., _body_ (corporal) «dēnsus, -a, -um», _dense_ «īdem, e´adem, idem», demonstrative pronoun, _the same_ (identity) «ipse, ipsa, ipsum», intensive pronoun, _self; even, very_ «mīrus, -a, -um», _wonderful, marvelous_ (miracle) «ōlim», adv., _formerly, once upon a time_ «pars, partis (-ium)», f., _part, region, direction_ «quoque», adv., _also_. Stands _after_ the word which it emphasizes «sōl, sōlis», m., _sun_ (solar) «vērus, -a, -um», _true, real_ (verity) «dēbeō, dēbēre, dēbuī, dēbitus», _owe, ought_ (debt) «ēripiō, ēripere, ēripuī, ēreptus», _snatch from_ «285.» «Ipse» means _-self_ (_him-self, her-self_, etc.) or is translated by _even_ or _very_. It is used to emphasize a noun or pronoun, expressed or understood, with which it agrees like an adjective. _a._ «Ipse» must be carefully distinguished from the reflexive «suī». The latter is always used as a pronoun, while «ipse» is regularly adjective. Compare «Homō sē videt», _the man sees himself_ (reflexive) «Homō ipse perīculum videt», _the man himself_ (intensive) _sees the danger_ «Homō ipsum perīculum videt», _the man sees the danger itself_ (intensive) «286.» Except for the one form «ipse», the intensive pronoun is declined exactly like the nine irregular adjectives (cf. §§108, 109). Learn the declension (§481). «287.» The demonstrative «īdem», meaning _the same_, is a compound of «is». It is declined as follows: SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ īdem e´adem idem _Gen._ eius´dem eius´dem eius´dem _Dat._ eī´dem eī´dem eī´dem _Acc._ eun´dem ean´dem idem _Abl._ eō´dem eā´dem eō´dem PLURAL _Nom._ iī´dem eae´dem e´adem eī´dem _Gen._ eōrun´dem eārun´dem eōrun´dem _Dat._ iīs´dem iīs´dem iīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem _Acc._ eōs´dem eās´dem e´adem _Abl._ iīs´dem iīs´dem iīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem _a._ From forms like «eundem» (eum + -dem), «eōrundem» (eōrum + -dem), we learn the rule that «m» before «d» is changed to «n». _b._ The forms «iīdem», «iīsdem» are often spelled and pronounced with one «ī». «288.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295. I. 1. Ego et tū[1] in eādem urbe vīvimus. 2. Iter ipsum nōn timēmus sed ferās saevās quae in silvā dēnsā esse dīcuntur. 3. Ōlim nōs ipsī idem iter fēcimus. 4. Eō tempore multās ferās vīdimus. 5. Sed nōbīs nōn nocuērunt. 6. Caesar ipse scūtum dē manibus mīlitis ēripuit et in ipsam aciem properāvit. 7. Itaque mīlitēs summā virtūte tēla in hostium corpora iēcērunt. 8. Rōmānī quoque gravia vulnera accēpērunt. 9. Dēnique hostēs terga vertērunt et ommīs in partīs[2] fūgērunt. 10. Eādem hōrā litterae Rōmam ab imperātōre ipsō missae sunt. 11. Eōdem mēnse captīvī quoque in Italiam missī sunt. 12. Sed multī propter vulnera iter difficile trāns montīs facere recūsābant et Genāvae esse dīcēbantur. II. 1. At Pompeii there is a wonderful mountain. 2. When I was in that place, I myself saw that mountain. 3. On the same day many cities were destroyed by fire and stones from that very mountain. 4. You have not heard the true story of that calamity, have you?[3] 5. On that day the very sun could not give light to men. 6. You yourself ought to tell (to) us that story. [Footnote 1: Observe that in Latin we say _I and you_, not _you and I_.] [Footnote 2: Not _parts_, but _directions_.] [Footnote 3: Cf. §210.] «289.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE[4] Tarquinius Superbus, septimus et ultimus rēx Rōmānōrum, ubi in exsilium ab īrātīs Rōmānīs ēiectus est, ā Porsenā, rēge Etrūscōrum, auxilium petiit. Mox Porsena magnīs cum cōpiīs Rōmam vēnit, et ipsa urbs summō in perīculō erat. Omnibus in partibus exercitus Rōmānus victus erat. Iam rēx montem Iāniculum[5] occupāverat. Numquam anteā Rōmānī tantō metū tenēbantur. Ex agrīs in urbem properābant et summō studiō urbem ipsam mūniēbant. [Footnote 4: The story of Horatius has been made familiar by Macaulay’s well-known poem “Horatius” in his _Lays of Ancient Rome_. Read the poem in connection with this selection.] [Footnote 5: The Janiculum is a high hill across the Tiber from Rome.] LESSON LI THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS _HIC_, _ISTE_, _ILLE_ [Special Vocabulary] «hic, haec, hoc», demonstrative pronoun, _this_ (of mine); _he, she, it_ «ille, illa, illud», demonstrative pronoun _that_ (yonder); _he, she, it_ «invīsus, -a, -um», _hateful, detested_, with dative Cf. §143 «iste, ista, istud», demonstrative pronoun, _that_ (of yours); _he, she, it_ «lībertās, -ātis», f., _liberty_ «modus, -ī», m., _measure; manner, way, mode_ «nōmen, nōminis», n., _name_ (nominate) «oculus, -ī», m., _eye_ (oculist) «prīstinus, -a, -um», _former, old-time_ (pristine) «pūblicus, -a, -um», _public, belonging to the state;_ «rēs pūblica, reī pūblicae», f., _the commonwealth, the state, the republic_ «vestīgium, vestī´gī», n., _footprint, track; trace, vestige_ «vōx, vōcis», f., _voice_ «290.» We have already learned the declension of the demonstrative pronoun «is» and its use. (Cf. Lesson XVII.) That pronoun refers to persons or things either far or near, and makes no definite reference to place or time. If we wish to point out an object definitely in place or time, we must use «hic», «iste», or «ille.» These demonstratives, like «is», are used both as pronouns and as adjectives, and their relation to the speaker may be represented graphically thus: «hic» «iste» «ille» SPEAKER ------------->-------------->---------------> _this_, _he_; _that_, _he_; _that_, _he_ (near); (remote); (more remote) _a._ In dialogue «hic» refers to a person or thing near the speaker; «iste», to a person or thing near the person addressed; «ille», to a person or thing remote from both. These distinctions are illustrated in the model sentences, §293, which should be carefully studied and imitated. «291.» «Hic» is declined as follows: SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ hic haec hoc _Gen._ huius huius huius _Dat._ huic huic huic _Acc._ hunc hanc hoc _Abl._ hōc hāc hōc PLURAL _Nom._ hī hae haec _Gen._ hōrum hārum hōrum _Dat._ hīs hīs hīs _Acc._ hōs hās haec _Abl._ hīs hīs hīs _a._ «Huius» is pronounced _ho͝o´yo͝os_, and «huic» is pronounced _ho͝oic_ (one syllable). «292.» The demonstrative pronouns «iste», «ista», «istud», and «ille», «illa», «illud», except for the nominative and accusative singular neuter forms «istud» and «illud», are declined exactly like «ipse», «ipsa», «ipsum.» (See §481.) «293.» «MODEL SENTENCES» _Is this horse_ (of mine) _strong?_ «Estne hic equus validus?» _That horse_ (of yours) _is strong, but that one_ (yonder) _is weak_ «Iste equus est validus, sed ille est īnfīrmus» _Are these_ (men by me) _your friends?_ «Suntne hī amīcī tuī?» _Those_ (men by you) _are my friends, but those_ (men yonder) _are enemies_ «Istī sunt amīcī meī, sed illī sunt inimīcī» «294.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295. I. _A German Chieftain addresses his Followers._ Ille fortis Germānōrum dux suōs convocāvit et hōc modō animōs eōrum cōnfirmāvit. “Vōs, quī in hīs fīnibus vīvitis, in hunc locum convocāvī[1] quia mēcum dēbētis istōs agrōs et istās domōs ab iniūriīs Rōmānōrum liberāre. Hoc nōbīs nōn difficile erit, quod illī hostēs hās silvās dēnsās, ferās saevās quārum vestīgia vident, montēs altōs timent. Sī fortēs erimus, deī ipsī nōbīs viam salūtis dēmonstrābunt. Ille sōl, istī oculī calamītātēs nostrās vīdērunt.[1] Itaque nōmen illīus reī pūblicae Rōmānae nōn sōlum nōbis, sed etiam omnibus hominibus quī lībertātem amant, est invīsum. Ad arma vōs vocō. Exercēte istam prīstinam virtūtem et vincētis.” [Footnote 1: The perfect definite. (Cf. §190.)] II. 1. Does that bird (of yours)[2] sing? 2. This bird (of mine)[2] sings both[3] in summer and in winter and has a beautiful voice. 3. Those birds (yonder)[2] in the country don´t sing in winter. 4. Snatch a spear from the hands of that soldier (near you)[2] and come home with me. 5. With those very eyes (of yours)[2] you will see the tracks of the hateful enemy who burned my dwelling and made an attack on my brother. 6. For («propter») these deeds («rēs») we ought to inflict punishment on him without delay. 7. The enemies of the republic do not always suffer punishment. [Footnote 2: English words in parentheses are not to be translated. They are inserted to show what demonstratives should be used. (Cf. §290.)] [Footnote 3: _both ... and_, «et ... et».] [Illustration: HORATIUS PONTEM DEFENDIT] «295.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Continued_) Altera urbis pars mūrīs, altera flūmine satis mūnīrī vidēbātur. Sed erat pōns in flūmine quī hostibus iter paene dedit. Tum Horātius Cocles, fortis vir, magnā vōce dīxit, “Rescindite pontem, Rōmānī! Brevī tempore Porsena in urbem cōpiās suās trādūcet.” Iam hostēs in ponte erant, sed Horātius cum duōbus (cf. §479) comitibus ad extrēmam pontis partem properāvit, et hi sōli aciem hostium sustinuērunt. Tum vērō cīvēs Rōmānī pontem ā tergō rescindere incipiunt, et hostēs frūstrā Horātium superāre temptant. LESSON LII THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS [Special Vocabulary] «incolumis, -e», _unharmed_ «nē ... quidem», adv., _not even_. The emphatic word stands between «nē» and «quidem» «nisi», conj., _unless, if ... not_ «paene», adv., _almost_ (pen-insula) «satis», adv., _enough, sufficiently_ (satisfaction) «tantus, -a, -um», _so great_ «vērō», adv., _truly, indeed, in fact_. As a conj. _but, however_, usually stands second, never first. «dēcidō, dēcidere, dēcidī, ----», _fall down_ (deciduous) «dēsiliō, dēsilīre, dēsiluī, dēsultus», _leap down, dismount_ «maneō, manēre, mānsī, mānsūrus», _remain_ «trādūcō, trādūcere, trādūxī, trāductus», _lead across_ «296.» The indefinite pronouns are used to refer to _some person_ or _some thing_, without indicating which particular one is meant. The pronouns «quis» and «quī», which we have learned in their interrogative and relative uses, may also be indefinite; and nearly all the other indefinite pronouns are compounds of «quis» or «quī» and declined almost like them. Review the declension of these words, §§221, 227. «297.» Learn the declension and meaning of the following indefinites: MASC. FEM. NEUT. «quis» «quid», _some one, any one_ (substantive) «quī» «qua» or «quae» «quod», _some, any_ (adjective), §483 «aliquis» «aliquid», _some one, any one_ (substantive), §487 «aliquī» «aliqua» «aliquod», _some, any_ (adjective), §487 «quīdam» «quaedam» «quoddam», «quiddam», _a certain, a certain one_, §485 «quisquam» «quicquam» or «quidquam» (no plural), _any one_ (at all) (substantive), §486 «quisque» «quidque», _each one, every one_ (substantive), §484 «quisque» «quaeque» «quodque», _each, every_ (adjective), §484 [Transcriber’s Note: In the original text, the combined forms (masculine/feminine) were printed in the “masculine” column.] NOTE. The meanings of the neuters, _something_, etc., are easily inferred from the masculine and feminine. _a._ In the masculine and neuter singular of the indefinites, «quis-»forms and «quid-»forms are mostly used as substantives, «quī-»forms and «quod-»forms as adjectives. _b._ The indefinites «quis» and «quī» never stand first in a clause, and are rare excepting after «sī», «nisi», «nē», «num» (as, «sī quis», _if any one_; «sī quid», _if anything_; «nisi quis», _unless some one_). Generally «aliquis» and «aliquī» are used instead. _c._ The forms «qua» and «aliqua» are both feminine nominative singular and neuter nominative plural of the indefinite adjectives «quī» and «aliquī» respectively. How do these differ from the corresponding forms of the relative «quī?» _d._ Observe that «quīdam» (quī + -dam) is declined like «quī», except that in the accusative singular and genitive plural «m» of «quī» becomes «n» (cf. §287.a): «quendam», «quandam», «quōrundam», «quārundam;» also that the neuter has «quiddam» (substantive) and «quoddam» (adjective) in the nominative and accusative singular. «Quīdam» is the least indefinite of the indefinite pronouns, and implies that you could name the person or thing referred to if you cared to do so. _e._ «Quisquam» and «quisque» (substantive) are declined like «quis.» _f._ «Quisquam», _any one_ («quicquam» or «quidquam», _anything_), is always used substantively and chiefly in negative sentences. The corresponding adjective _any_ is «ūllus, -a, -um» (§108). «298.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 295. I. 1. Aliquis dē ponte in flūmen dēcidit sed sine ūllō perīculō servātus est. 2. Est vērō in vītā cuiusque hominis aliqua bona fortūna. 3. Nē mīlitum quidem[1] quisquam in castrīs mānsit. 4. Sī quem meae domī vidēs, iubē eum discēdere. 5. Sī quis pontem tenet, nē tantus quidem exercitus capere urbem potest. 6. Urbs nōn satis mūnīta erat et merīdiē rēx quīdam paene cōpiās suās trāns pontem trādūxerat. 7. Dēnique mīles quīdam armātus in fluctūs dēsiluit et incolumis ad alteram rīpam oculōs vertit. 8. Quisque illī fortī mīlitī aliquid dare dēbet. 9. Tanta vērō virtūs Rōmānīs semper placuit. 10. Ōlim Corinthus erat urbs satis magna et paene par Rōmae ipsī; nunc vērō moenia dēcidērunt et pauca vestīgia urbis illīus reperīrī possunt. 11. Quisque lībertātem amat, et aliquibus vērō nōmen rēgis est invīsum. II. 1. If you see a certain Cornelius at Corinth, send him to me. 2. Almost all the soldiers who fell down into the waves were unharmed. 3. Not even at Pompeii did I see so great a fire. 4. I myself was eager to tell something to some one. 5. Each one was praising his own work. 6. Did you see some one in the country? I did not see any one. 7. Unless some one will remain on the bridge with Horatius, the commonwealth will be in the greatest danger. [Footnote 1: Observe that «quīdam» and «quidem» are different words.] «299.» HOW HORATIUS HELD THE BRIDGE (_Concluded_) Mox, ubi parva pars pontis mānsit, Horātius iussit comitēs discēdere et sōlus mīrā cōnstantiā impetum illius tōtius exercitūs sustinēbat. Dēnique magnō fragōre pōns in flūmen dēcīdit. Tum vērō Horātius tergum vertit et armātus in aquās dēsiluit. In eum hostēs multa tēla iēcērunt; incolumis autem per fluctūs ad alteram rīpam trānāvit. Eī propter tantās rēs gestās populus Rōmānus nōn sōlum alia magna praemia dedit sed etiam statuam Horāti in locō pūblicō posuit. * * * * * «Sixth Review, Lessons XLV-LII, §§521-523» * * * * * LESSON LIII REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES [Special Vocabulary] «aquila, -ae», f., _eagle_ (aquiline) «audāx», gen. «audācis», adj., _bold, audacious_ «celer, celeris, celere», _swift, quick_ (celerity). Cf. «vēlōx» «explōratōr, -ōris», m., _scout, spy_ (explorer) «ingēns», gen. «ingentis», adj., _huge, vast_ «medius, -a, -um», _middle, middle part of_ (medium) «mēns, mentis (-ium)», f., _mind_ (mental). Cf. «animus» «opportūnus, -a, -um», _opportune_ «quam», adv., _than_. With the superlative «quam» gives the force of _as possible_, as «quam» audācissimī virī, _men as bold as possible_ «recens», gen. «recentis», adj., _recent_ «tam», adv., _so_. Always with an adjective or adverb, while «ita» is generally used with a verb «quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītus», _ask, inquire, seek_ (question). Cf. «petō» «300.» The quality denoted by an adjective may exist in either a higher or a lower degree, and this is expressed by a form of inflection called comparison. The mere presence of the quality is expressed by the positive degree, its presence in a higher or lower degree by the comparative, and in the highest or lowest of all by the superlative. In English the usual way of comparing an adjective is by using the suffix _-er_ for the comparative and _-est_ for the superlative; as, positive _high_, comparative _higher_, superlative _highest_. Less frequently we use the adverbs _more_ and _most_; as, positive _beautiful_, comparative _more beautiful_, superlative _most beautiful._ In Latin, as in English, adjectives are compared by adding suffixes or by using adverbs. «301.» Adjectives are compared by using suffixes as follows: POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE clārus, -a, -um clārior, clārīus clārissimus, -a, -um (_bright_) (_brighter_) (_brightest_) (BASE clār-) brevis, breve brevior, brevius brevissimus, -a, -um (_short_) (_shorter_) (_shortest_) (BASE brev-) vēlōx vēlōcior, vēlōcius vēlōcissimus, -a, -um (_swift_) (_swifter_) (_swiftest_) (BASE veloc-) _a._ The comparative is formed from the base of the positive by adding «-ior» masc. and fem., and «-ius» neut.; the superlative by adding «-issimus, -issima, -issimum». «302.» Less frequently adjectives are compared by using the adverbs «magis», _more_; «maximē», _most_; as, «idōneus», _suitable_; «magis idōneus», _more suitable_; «maximē idōneus», _most suitable._ «303.» «Declension of the Comparative.» Adjectives of the comparative degree are declined as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ clārior clārīus clāriōrēs clāriōra _Gen._ clāriōris clāriōris clāriōrum clāriōrum _Dat._ clāriōrī clāriōrī clāriōribus clāriōribus _Acc._ clāriōrem clārius clāriōrēs clāriōra _Abl._ clāriōre clāriōre clāriōribus clāriōribus _a._ Observe that the endings are those of the consonant stems of the third declension. _b._ Compare «longus», _long_; «fortis», _brave_; «recēns» (base, «recent-»), _recent_; and decline the comparative of each. «304.» Adjectives in «-er» form the comparative regularly, but the superlative is formed by adding «-rimus», «-a», «-um» to the nominative masculine of the positive; as, POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE ācer, ācris, ācre ācrior, ācrius ācerrimus, -a, -um (BASE acr-) pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum pulchrior, pulchrius pulcherrimus, (BASE pulchr-) -a, -um līber, lībera, līberum līberior, līberius līberrimus, -a, -um (BASE līber-) _a._ In a similar manner compare «miser», «aeger», «crēber». «305.» The comparative is often translated by _quite, too_, or _somewhat_, and the superlative by _very_; as, «altior», _quite_ (_too, somewhat_) _high_; «altissimus», _very high._ «306.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296. I. 1. Quid explōrātōrēs quaerēbant? Explōrātōrēs tempus opportūnissimum itinerī quaerēbant. 2. Mediā in silvā ignīs quam crēberrimōs fēcimus, quod ferās tam audācis numquam anteā vīderāmus. 3. Antīquīs temporibus Germānī erant fortiōrēs quam Gallī. 4. Caesar erat clārior quam inimīcī[1] quī eum necāvērunt. 5. Quisque scūtum ingēns et pīlum longius gerēbat. 6. Apud barbarōs Germānī erant audācissimī et fortissimī. 7. Mēns hominum est celerior quam corpus. 8. Virī aliquārum terrārum sunt miserrimī. 9. Corpora Germānōrum erant ingentiōra quam Rōmānōrum. 10. Ācerrimī Gallōrum prīncipēs sine ūllā morā trāns flūmen quoddam equōs vēlōcissimōs trādūxērunt. 11. Aestāte diēs sunt longiōrēs quam hieme. 12. Imperātor quīdam ab explōrātōribus dē recentī adventū nāvium longārum quaesīvit. II. 1. Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest. 2. Certain animals are swifter than the swiftest horse. 3. The Roman name was most hateful to the enemies of the commonwealth. 4. The Romans always inflicted the severest[2] punishment on faithless allies. 5. I was quite ill, and so I hastened from the city to the country. 6. Marcus had some friends dearer than Cæsar.[3] 7. Did you not seek a more recent report concerning the battle? 8. Not even after a victory so opportune did he seek the general’s friendship. [Footnote 1: Why is this word used instead of «hostēs»?] [Footnote 2: Use the superlative of «gravis».] [Footnote 3: Accusative. In a comparison the noun after «quam» is in the same case as the one before it.] N.B. Beginning at this point, the selections for reading will be found near the end of the volume. (See p. 197.) LESSON LIV IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES THE ABLATIVE WITH COMPARATIVES WITHOUT _QUAM_ [Special Vocabulary] «alacer, alacris, alacre», _eager, spirited, excited_ (alacrity) «celeritās, -ātis», f., _speed_ (celerity) «clāmor, clāmōris», m., _shout, clamor_ «lēnis, lēne», _mild, gentle_ (lenient) «mulier, muli´eris», f., _woman_ «multitūdō, multitūdinis», f., _multitude_ «nēmŏ», dat. «nēminī», acc. «nēminem» (gen. «nūllīus», abl. «nūllō», from «nūllus»), no plur., m. and f., _no one_ «nōbilis, nōbile», _well known, noble_ «noctū», adv. (an old abl.), _by night_ (nocturnal) «statim», adv., _immediately, at once_ «subitō», adv., _suddenly_ «tardus, -a, -um», _slow_ (tardy) «cupiō, cupere, cupīvī, cupītus», _desire, wish_ (cupidity) «307.» The following six adjectives in «-lis» form the comparative regularly; but the superlative is formed by adding «-limus» to the base of the positive. Learn the meanings and comparison. POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE facilis, -e, _easy_ facilior, -ius facillimus, -a, -um difficilis, -e, _hard_ difficilior, -ius difficillimus, -a, -um similis, -e, _like_ similior, -ius simillimus, -a, -um dissimilis, -e, _unlike_ dissimilior, -ius dissimillimus, -a, -um gracilis, -e, _slender_ gracilior, -ius gracillimus, -a, -um humilis, -e, _low_ humilior, -ius humillimus, -a, -um «308.» From the knowledge gained in the preceding lesson we should translate the sentence _Nothing is brighter than the sun_ «Nihil est clārius quam sōl» But the Romans, especially in negative sentences, often expressed the comparison in this way, «Nihil est clārius sōle» which, literally translated, is _Nothing is brighter away from the sun_; that is, _starting from the sun as a standard, nothing is brighter_. This relation is expressed by the separative ablative «sōle». Hence the rule «309.» RULE. «Ablative with Comparatives.» _The comparative degree, if «quam» is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative._ «310.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296. I. 1. Nēmō mīlitēs alacriōrēs Rōmānīs vīdit. 2. Statim imperātor iussit nūntiōs quam celerrimōs litterās Rōmam portāre. 3. Multa flūmina sunt lēniōra Rhēnō. 4. Apud Rōmanōs quis erat clārior Caesare? 5. Nihil pulchrius urbe Rōmā vīdī. 6. Subitō multitūdo audacissima magnō clamōre proelium ācrius commīsit. 7. Num est equus tuus tardus? Nōn vērō tardus, sed celerior aquilā. 8. Ubi Romae fuī, nēmō erat mihi amicior Sextō. 9. Quaedam mulierēs cibum mīlitibus dare cupīvērunt. 10. Rēx vetuit cīvis ex urbe noctū discēdere. 11. Ille puer est gracilior hāc muliere. 12. Explōrātor duās (_two_) viās, alteram facilem, alteram difficiliōrem, dēmōnstrāvit. II. 1. What city have you seen more beautiful than Rome? 2. The Gauls were not more eager than the Germans. 3. The eagle is not slower than the horse. 4. The spirited woman did not fear to make the journey by night. 5. The mind of the multitude was quite gentle and friendly. 6. But the king’s mind was very different. 7. The king was not like (similar to) his noble father. 8. These hills are lower than the huge mountains of our territory. [Illustration: ARMA ROMANA] LESSON LV IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Continued_) [Special Vocabulary] «aedificium, aedifi´cī», n., _building, dwelling_ (edifice) «imperium, impe´rī», n., _command, chief power; empire_ «mors, mortis (-ium)», f., _death_ (mortal) «reliquus, -a, -um», _remaining, rest of_. As a noun, m. and n. plur., _the rest_ (relic) «scelus, sceleris», n., _crime_ «servitūs, -ūtis», f., _slavery_ (servitude) «vallēs, vallis (-ium)», f., _valley_ «abdō, abdere, abdidī, abditus», _hide_ «contendō, contendere, contendī, contentus», _strain, struggle; hasten_ (contend) «occīdō, occīdere, occīdī, occīsus», _cut down, kill_. Cf. «necō», «interficiō» «perterreō, perterrēre, perterruī, perterritus», _terrify, frighten_ «recipiō, recipere, recēpī, receptus», _receive, recover_; «sē recipere», _betake one’s self, withdraw, retreat_ «trādō, trādere, trādidī, trāditus», _give over, surrender, deliver_ (traitor) «311.» Some adjectives in English have irregular comparison, as _good, better, best_; _many, more, most._ So Latin comparison presents some irregularities. Among the adjectives that are compared irregularly are POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE «bonus, -a, -um», _good_ «melior, melius» «optimus, -a, -um» «magnus, -a, -um», _great_ «maior, maius» «maximus, -a, -um» «malus, -a, -um», _bad_ «peior, peius» «pessimus, -a, -um» «multus, -a, -um», _much_ «----, plūs» «plūrimus, -a, -um» «multī, -ae, -a», _many_ «plūrēs, plūra» «plūrimī, -ae, -a» «parvus, -a, -um», _small_ «minor, minus» «minimus, -a, -um» «312.» The following four adjectives have two superlatives. Unusual forms are placed in parentheses. «exterus, -a, -um», («exterior, -ius», { «extrēmus, -a, -um» } _outward_ _outer_) {(«extimus, -a, -um») } _outermost, last_ «īnferus, -a, -um», «īnferior, -ius», { «īnfimus, -a, -um» } _low_ _lower_ { «īmus, -a, -um» } _lowest_ «posterus, -a, -um», («posterior, -ius», { «postrēmus, -a, -um» } _next_ _later_) {(«postumus, -a, -um») } _last_ «superus, -a, -um», «superior, -ius» { «suprēmus, -a, -um» } _above_ _higher_ { «summus, -a, -um» } _highest_ «313.» «Plūs», _more_ (plural _more, many, several_), is declined as follows: SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ---- plūs plūrēs plūra _Gen._ ---- plūris plūrium plūrium _Dat._ ---- ---- plūribus plūribus _Acc._ ---- plūs plūrīs, -ēs plūra _Abl._ ---- plūre plūribus plūribus _a._ In the singular «plūs» is used only as a neuter substantive. «314.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 296. I. 1. Reliquī hostēs, quī ā dextrō cornū proelium commīserant, dē superiōre locō fūgērunt et sēsē in silvam maximam recēpērunt. 2. In extrēmā parte silvae castra hostium posita erant. 3. Plūrimī captīvī ab equitibus ad Caesarem ductī sunt. 4. Caesar vērō iussit eōs in servitūtem trādī. 5. Posterō diē magna multitūdō mulierum ab Rōmānīs in valle īmā reperta est. 6. Hae mulierēs maximē perterritae adventū Caesaris sēsē occīdere studēbant. 7. Eae quoque plūrīs fābulās dē exercitūs Rōmānī sceleribus audīverant. 8. Fāma illōrum mīlitum optima nōn erat. 9. In barbarōrum aedificiīs maior cōpia frūmentī reperta est. 10. Nēmō crēbrīs proeliīs contendere sine aliquō perīculō potest. II. 1. The remaining women fled from their dwellings and hid themselves. 2. They were terrified and did not wish to be captured and given over into slavery. 3. Nothing can be worse than slavery. 4. Slavery is worse than death. 5. In the Roman empire a great many were killed because they refused to be slaves. 6. To surrender the fatherland is the worst crime. LESSON LVI IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (_Concluded_) ABLATIVE OF THE MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE [Special Vocabulary] «aditus, -ūs», m., _approach, access; entrance_ «cīvitās, cīvitātis», f., _citizenship; body of citizens, state_ (city) «inter», prep, with acc., _between, among_ (interstate commerce) «nam», conj., _for_ «obses, obsidis», m. and f., _hostage_ «paulō», adv. (abl. n. of «paulus»), _by a little, somewhat_ «incolō, incolere, incoluī, ----», transitive, _inhabit_; intransitive, _dwell_. Cf. «habitō», «vīvō» «relinquō, relinquere, relīquī, relictus», _leave, abandon_ (relinquish) «statuō, statuere, statuī, statūtus», _fix, decide_ (statute), usually with infin. «315.» The following adjectives are irregular in the formation of the superlative and have no positive. Forms rarely used are in parentheses. COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE «citerior», _hither_ («citimus», _hithermost_) «interior», _inner_ («intimus», _inmost_) «prior», _former_ «prīmus», _first_ «propior», _nearer_ «proximus», _next, nearest_ «ulterior», _further_ «ultimus», _furthest_ «316.» In the sentence _Galba is a head taller than Sextus_, the phrase _a head taller_ expresses the «measure of difference» in height between Galba and Sextus. The Latin form of expression would be _Galba is taller than Sextus «by a head»_. This is clearly an ablative relation, and the construction is called the «ablative of the measure of difference». EXAMPLES «Galba est altior capite quam Sextus» _Galba is a head taller_ (taller by a head) _than Sextus_. «Illud iter ad Italiam est multō brevius» _That route to Italy is much shorter_ (shorter by much) «317.» RULE. «Ablative of the Measure of Difference.» _With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the measure of difference._ _a._ Especially common in this construction are the neuter ablatives «eō», _by this, by that_ «nihilō»,[1] _by nothing_ «hōc», _by this_ «paulō», _by a little_ «multō», _by much_ [Footnote 1: «nihil» was originally «nihilum» and declined like «pīlum». There is no plural.] «318.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297. I. 1. Barbarī proelium committere statuērunt eō magis quod Rōmānī īnfīrmī esse vidēbantur. 2. Meum cōnsilium est multō melius quam tuum quia multō facilius est. 3. Haec via est multō lātior quam illa. 4. Barbarī erant nihilō tardiōrēs quam Rōmānī. 5. Tuus equus est paulō celerior quam meus. 6. Iī quī paulō fortiōrēs erant prohibuērunt reliquōs aditum relinquere. 7. Inter illās cīvitātēs Germānia mīlitēs habet optimōs. 8. Propior via quae per hanc vallem dūcit est inter portum et lacum. 9. Servī, quī agrōs citeriōrēs incolēbant, priōrēs dominōs relinquere nōn cupīvērunt, quod eōs amābant. 10. Ultimae Germāniae partēs numquam in fidem Rōmānōrum vēnērunt. 11. Nam trāns Rhēnum aditus erat multō difficilior exercituī Rōmānō. II. 1. Another way much more difficult (more difficult by much) was left through hither Gaul. 2. In ancient times no state was stronger than the Roman empire. 3. The states of further Gaul did not wish to give hostages to Cæsar. 4. Slavery is no better (better by nothing) than death. 5. The best citizens are not loved by the worst. 6. The active enemy immediately withdrew into the nearest forest, for they were terrified by Cæsar’s recent victories. LESSON LVII FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS [Special Vocabulary] «aequus, -a, -um», _even, level; equal_ «cohors, cohortis (-ium)», f., _cohort_, a tenth part of a legion, about 360 men «currō, currere, cucurrī, cursus», _run_ (course) «difficultās, -ātis», f., _difficulty_ «fossa, -ae», f., _ditch_ (fosse) «gēns, gentis (-ium)», f., _race, tribe, nation_ (Gentile) «negōtium, negōtī», n., _business, affair, matter_ (negotiate) «regiō, -ōnis», f., _region, district_ «rūmor, rūmōris», m., _rumor, report_. Cf. fāma «simul atque», conj., _as soon as_ «suscipiō, suscipere, suscēpī, susceptus», _undertake_ «trahō, trahere, trāxī, trāctus», _drag, draw_ (ex-tract) «valeō, valēre, valuī, valitūrus», _be strong_; plūrimum valēre, _to be most powerful, have great influence_ (value). Cf. validus «319.» Adverbs are generally derived from adjectives, as in English (e.g. adj. _sweet_, adv. _sweetly_). Like adjectives, they can be compared; but they have no declension. «320.» Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions are formed and compared as follows: POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE _Adj._ cārus, _dear_ cārior cārissimus _Adv._ cārē, _dearly_ cārius cārissimē _Adj._ pulcher, _beautiful_ pulchrior pulcherrimus _Adv._ pulchrē, _beautifully_ pulchrius pulcherrimē _Adj._ līber, _free_ līberior līberrimus _Adv._ līberē, _freely_ līberius līberrimē _a._ The positive of the adverb is formed by adding «-ē» to the base of the positive of the adjective. The superlative of the adverb is formed from the superlative of the adjective in the same way. _b._ The comparative of any adverb is the neuter accusative singular of the comparative of the adjective. «321.» Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension are formed like those described above in the comparative and superlative. The positive is usually formed by adding «-iter» to the base of adjectives of three endings or of two endings, and «-ter» to the base of those of one ending;[1] as, POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE _Adj._ fortis, _brave_ fortior fortissimus _Adv._ fortiter, _bravely_ fortius fortissimē _Adj._ audāx, _bold_ audācior audācissimus _Adv._ audācter, _boldly_ audācius audācissimē [Footnote 1: This is a good working rule, though there are some exceptions to it.] «322.» «Case Forms as Adverbs.» As we learned above, the neuter accusative of comparatives is used adverbially. So in the positive or superlative some adjectives, instead of following the usual formation, use the accusative or the ablative singular neuter adverbially; as, _Adj._ facilis, _easy_ prīmus, _first_ _Adv._ facile (acc.), _easily_ prīmum (acc.), _first_ prīmō (abl.), _at first_ _Adj._ multus, _many_ plūrimus, _most_ _Adv._ multum (acc.), _much_ plūrimum (acc.), _most_ multō (abl.), _by much_ «323.» Learn the following irregular comparisons: bene, _well_ melius, _better_ optimē, _best_ diū, _long_ (time) diūtius, _longer_ diūtissimē, _longest_ magnopere, _greatly_ magis, _more_ maximē, _most_ parum, _little_ minus, _less_ minimē, _least_ prope, _nearly, near_ propius, _nearer_ proximē, _nearest_ saepe, _often_ saepius, _oftener_ saepissimē, _oftenest_ «324.» Form adverbs from the following adjectives, using the regular rules, and compare them: «laetus», «superbus», «molestus», «amīcus», «ācer», «brevis», «gravis», «recēns.» «325.» RULE. «Adverbs.» _Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs._ «326.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297. I. 1. Nūlla rēs melius gesta est quam proelium illud[2] ubi Marius multō minōre exercitū multō maiōrēs cōpiās Germānōrum in fugam dedit. 2. Audācter in Rōmānōrum cohortīs hostēs impetūs fēcērunt 3. Marius autem omnēs hōs fortissimē sustinuit. 4. Barbarī nihilō fortiōrēs erant quam Rōmānī. 5. Prīmō barbarī esse superiōrēs vidēbantur, tum Rōmānī ācrius contendērunt. 6. Dēnique, ubi iam diūtissimē paene aequō proeliō pugnātum est, barbarī fugam petiērunt. 7. Quaedam Germānōrum gentēs, simul atque rūmōrem illīus calamitātis audīvērunt, sēsē in ultimīs regiōnibus fīnium suōrum abdidērunt. 8. Rōmānī saepius quam hostēs vīcērunt, quod meliōra arma habēbant. 9. Inter omnīs gentīs Rōmānī plūrimum valēbant. 10. Hae cohortēs simul atque in aequiōrem regiōnem sē recēpērunt, castra sine ūllā difficultāte posuērunt. II. 1. Some nations are easily overcome by their enemies. 2. Germany is much larger than Gaul. 3. Were not the Romans the most powerful among the tribes of Italy? 4. On account of (his) wounds the soldier dragged his body from the ditch with the greatest difficulty. 5. He was able neither to run nor to fight. 6. Who saved him? A certain horseman boldly undertook the matter. 7. The rumors concerning the soldier’s death were not true. [Footnote 2: «ille» standing after its noun means _that well-known, that famous_.] LESSON LVIII NUMERALS · THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE [Special Vocabulary] «commeātus, -ūs», m.. _provisions_ «lātitūdō, -inis», f., _width_ (latitude) «longitūdō, -inis», f., _length_ (longitude) «magnitūdō, -inis», f., _size, magnitude_ «mercātor, mercātōris», m., _trader, merchant_ «mūnītiō, -ōnis», f., _fortification_ (munition) «spatium, spatī», n., _room, space, distance; time_ «cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvī, cognitus», _learn_; in the perfect tenses, _know_ (re-cognize) «cōgō, cōgere, coēgī, coāctus», _collect; compel_ (cogent) «dēfendō, dēfendere, dēfendī, dēfēnsus», _defend_ «incendō, incendere, incendī, incēnsus», _set fire to, burn_ (incendiary). Cf. «cremō» «obtineō, obtinēre, obtinuī, obtentus», _possess, occupy, hold_ (obtain) «perveniō, pervenīre, pervēnī, perventus», _come through, arrive_ «327.» The Latin numeral adjectives may be classified as follows: 1. «Cardinal Numerals», answering the question _how many?_ as, «ūnus», _one_; «duo», _two_; etc. 2. «Ordinal Numerals», derived in most cases from the cardinals and answering the question _in what order?_ as, «prīmus», _first_; «secundus», _second_; etc. 3. «Distributive Numerals», answering the question _how many at a time?_ as, «singulī», _one at a time_. «328.» «The Cardinal Numerals.» The first twenty of the cardinals are as follows: 1, «ūnus» 6, «sex» 11, «ūndecim» 16, «sēdecim» 2, «duo» 7, «septem» 12, «duodecim» 17, «septendecim» 3, «trēs» 8, «octō» 13, «tredecim» 18, «duodēvīgintī» 4, «quattuor» 9, «novem» 14, «quattuordecim» 19, «ūndēvīgintī» 5, «quīnque» 10, «decem» 15, «quīndecim» 20, «vīgintī» _a._ Learn also «centum» = 100, «ducentī» = 200, «mīlle» = 1000. «329.» «Declension of the Cardinals.» Of the cardinals only «ūnus», «duo», «trēs», the hundreds above one hundred, and «mīlle» used as a noun, are declinable. _a._ «ūnus» is one of the nine irregular adjectives, and is declined like «nūllus» (cf. §§109, 470). The plural of «ūnus» is used to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning, as, «ūna castra», _one camp_; and with other nouns in the sense of _only_, as, «Gallī ūnī», _only the Gauls_. _b._ Learn the declension of «duo», _two_; «trēs», _three_; and «mīlle», _a thousand_. (§479.) _c._ The hundreds above one hundred are declined like the plural of «bonus»; as, ducentī, -ae, -a ducentōrum, -ārum, -ōrum etc. etc. etc. «330.» We have already become familiar with sentences like the following: «Omnium avium aquila est vēlōcissima» _Of all birds the eagle is the swiftest_ «Hoc ōrāculum erat omnium clārissimum» _This oracle was the most famous of all_ In such sentences the genitive denotes the whole, and the word it modifies denotes a part of that whole. Such a genitive, denoting the whole of which a part is taken, is called a «partitive genitive». «331.» RULE. «Partitive Genitive.» _Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as the «partitive genitive»._ _a._ Words denoting a part are especially pronouns, numerals, and other adjectives. But cardinal numbers excepting «mīlle» regularly take the ablative with «ex» or «dē» instead of the partitive genitive. _b._ «Mīlle», _a thousand_, in the singular is usually an indeclinable adjective (as, «mīlle mīlitēs», _a thousand soldiers_), but in the plural it is a declinable noun and takes the partitive genitive (as, «decem mīlia mīlitum», _ten thousand soldiers_). EXAMPLES: «Fortissimī hōrum sunt Germānī» _The bravest of these are the Germans_ «Decem mīlia hostium interfecta sunt» _Ten thousand_ (lit. _thousands_) _of the enemy were slain_ «Ūna ex captīvīs erat soror rēgis» _One of the captives was the king’s sister_ «332.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 297. I. 1. Caesar maximam partem aedificiōrum incendit. 2. Magna pars mūnītiōnis aquā flūminis dēlēta est. 3. Gallī huius regiōnis quīnque mīlia hominum coēgerant. 4. Duo ex meīs frātribus eundem rūmōrem audīvērunt. 5. Quis Rōmānōrum erat clarior Caesare? 6. Quīnque cohortēs ex illā legiōne castra quam fortissimē dēfendēbant. 7. Hic locus aberat aequō spatiō[1] ab castrīs Caesaris et castrīs Germānōrum. 8. Caesar simul atque pervēnit, plūs commeātūs ab sociīs postulāvit. 9. Nōnne mercātōrēs magnitūdinem īnsulae cognōverant? Longitūdinem sed nōn lātitūdinem cognōverant. 10. Paucī hostium obtinēbant collem quem explōrātōrēs nostrī vīdērunt. II. 1. I have two brothers, and one of them lives at Rome. 2. Cæsar stormed that very town with three legions. 3. In one hour he destroyed a great part of the fortification. 4. When the enemy could no longer[2] defend the gates, they retreated to a hill which was not far distant.[3] 5. There three thousand of them bravely resisted the Romans.[4] [Footnote 1: Ablative of the measure of difference.] [Footnote 2: Not «longius». Why?] [Footnote 3: Latin, _was distant by a small space._] [Footnote 4: Not the accusative.] LESSON LIX NUMERALS (_Continued_) · THE ACCUSATIVE OF EXTENT [Special Vocabulary] «agmen, agminis», n., _line of march, column_; «prīmum agmen», _the van_; «novissimum agmen», _the rear_ «atque», «ac», conj., _and_; «atque» is used before vowels and consonants, «ac» before consonants only. Cf. «et» and «-que» «concilium, conci´lī», n., _council, assembly_ «Helvētiī, -ōrum», m., _the Helvetii_, a Gallic tribe «passus, passūs», m., _a pace_, five Roman feet; «mīlle passuum», _a thousand (of) paces_, a Roman mile «quā dē causā», _for this reason, for what reason_ «vāllum, -ī», n., _earth-works, rampart_ «cadō, cadere, cecidī, cāsūrus», _fall_ (decadence) «dēdō, dēdere, dēdidī, dēditus», _surrender, give up_; with a reflexive pronoun, _surrender one’s self, submit_, with the dative of the indirect object «premō, premere, pressī, pressus», _press hard, harass_ «vexō, vexāre, vexāvī, vexātus», _annoy, ravage_ (vex) «333.» Learn the first twenty of the ordinal numerals (§478). The ordinals are all declined like «bonus». «334.» The distributive numerals are declined like the plural of «bonus». The first three are «singulī, -ae, -a», _one each, one by one_ «bīnī, -ae, -a», _two each, two by two_ «ternī, -ae, -a», _three each, three by three_ «335.» We have learned that, besides its use as object, the accusative is used to express space relations not covered by the ablative. We have had such expressions as «per plūrimōs annōs», _for a great many years_; «per tōtum diem», _for a whole day_. Here the space relation is one of _extent of time_. We could also say «per decem pedēs», _for ten feet_, where the space relation is one of _extent of space_. While this is correct Latin, the usual form is to use the accusative with no preposition, as, «Vir tōtum diem cucurrit», _the man ran for a whole day_ «Caesar mūrum decem pedēs mōvit», _Cæsar moved the wall ten feet_ «336.» RULE. «Accusative of Extent.» _Duration of time and extent of space are expressed by the accusative._ _a._ This accusative answers the questions _how long? how far?_ _b._ Distinguish carefully between the accusative of time _how long_ and the ablative of time _when_, or _within which._ Select the accusatives of time and space and the ablatives of time in the following: When did the general arrive? He arrived at two o’clock. How long had he been marching? For four days. How far did he march? He marched sixty-five miles. Where has he pitched his camp? Three miles from the river, and he will remain there several days. The wall around the camp is ten feet high. When did the war begin? In the first year after the king’s death. «337.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298. I. _Cæsar in Gaul_. Caesar bellum in Gallia septem annōs gessit. Prīmō annō Helvētiōs vīcit, et eōdem annō multae Germanōrum gentēs eī sēsē dēdidērunt. Multōs iam annōs Germānī Gallōs vexabant[1] et ducēs Germānī cōpiās suās trāns Rhēnum saepe trādūcēbant.[1] Nōn singulī veniēbant, sed multa milia hominum in Galliam contendēbant. Quā dē causā prīncipēs Galliae concilium convocāvērunt atque statuērunt legates ad Caesarem mittere. Caesar, simul atque hunc rūmōrem audīvit, cōpiās suās sine morā coēgit. Primā lūce fortiter cum Germanīs proelium commīsit. Tōtum diem ācriter pugnātum est. Caesar ipse ā dextrō cornū acicm dūxit. Magna pars exercitūs Germānī cecidit. Post magnam caedem paucī multa milia passuum ad flūmen fūgērunt. II. 1. Cæsar pitched camp two miles from the river. 2. He fortified the camp with a ditch fifteen feet wide and a rampart nine feet high. 3. The camp of the enemy was a great way off (was distant by a great space). 4. On the next day he hastened ten miles in three hours. 5. Suddenly the enemy with all their forces made an attack upon («in» _with acc._) the rear. 6. For two hours the Romans were hard pressed by the barbarians. 7. In three hours the barbarians were fleeing. [Footnote 1: Translate as if pluperfect.] LESSON LX DEPONENT VERBS [Special Vocabulary] «aut», conj., _or_; «aut ... aut», _either ... or_ «causā», abl. of «causa», _for the sake of, because of_. Always stands _after_ the gen. which modifies it «ferē», adv., _nearly, almost_ «opīniō, -ōnis», f., _opinion, supposition, expectation_ «rēs frūmentāria, reī frūmentāriae», f. (lit. _the grain affair_), _grain supply_ «timor, -ōris», m., _fear_. Cf. «timeō» «undique», adv., _from all sides_ «cōnor, cōnārī, cōnātus sum», _attempt, try_ «ēgredior, ēgredī, ēgressus sum», _move out, disembark_; «prōgredior», _move forward, advance_ (egress, progress) «moror, morārī, morātus sum», _delay_ «orior, orirī, ortus sum», _arise, spring; begin; be born_ (_from_) (origin) «proficīscor, proficīscī, profectus sum», _set out_ «revertor, revertī, reversus sum», _return_ (revert). The forms of this verb are usually active, and not deponent, in the perfect system. Perf. act., «revertī» «sequor, sequī, secūtus sum», _follow_ (sequence). Note the following compounds of «sequor» and the force of the different prefixes: «cōnsequor» (_follow with_), _overtake_; «īnsequor» (_follow against_), _pursue_; «subsequor» (_follow under_), _follow close after_ «338.» A number of verbs are passive in form but active in meaning; as, «hortor», _I encourage_; «vereor», _I fear_. Such verbs are called «deponent» because they have laid aside («dē-pōnere», _to lay aside_) the active forms. _a._ Besides having all the forms of the passive, deponent verbs have also the future active infinitive and a few other active forms which will be noted later. (Sec§§375, 403.b.) «339.» The principal parts of deponents are of course passive in form, as, Conj. I «hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum», _encourage_ Conj. II «vereor, verērī, veritus sum», _fear_ Conj. III (_a_) «sequor, sequī, secūtus sum», _follow_ (_b_) «patior, patī, passus sum», _suffer, allow_ Conj. IV «partior, partīrī, partītus sum», _share, divide_ Learn the synopses of these verbs. (See §493.) «Patior» is conjugated like the passive of «capiō» (§492). «340.» PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE The prepositions with the accusative that occur most frequently are «ante», _before_ «apud», _among_ «circum», _around_ «contrā», _against, contrary to_ «extrā», _outside of_ «in», _into, in, against, upon_ «inter», _between, among_ «intrā», _within_ «ob», _on account of_ («quam ob rem», _wherefore, therefore_) «per», _through, by means of_ «post», _after, behind_ «propter», _on account of, because of_ «trāns», _across, over_ _a._ Most of these you have had before. Review the old ones and learn the new ones. Review the list of prepositions governing the ablative, §209. «341.» EXERCISES First learn the special vocabulary, p. 298. I. 1. Trēs ex lēgātīs, contrā Caesaris opīniōnem, iter facere per hostium fīnīs verēbantur. 2. Quis eōs hortātus est? Imperātor eōs hortātus est et iīs persuādēre cōnātus est, sed nōn potuit. 3. Quid lēgātōs perterruit? Aut timor hostium, quī undique premēbant, aut longitūdō viae eōs perterruit. 4. Tamen omnēs ferē Caesarem multō magis quam hostīs veritī sunt. 5. Fortissimae gentēs Galliae ex Germānīs oriēbantur. 6. Quam ob rem tam fortēs erant? Quia nec vīnum nec alia quae virtūtem dēlent ad sē portārī patiēbantur. 7. Caesar ex mercātōribus dē īnsulā Britanniā quaesīvit, sed nihil cognōscere potuit. 8. Itaque ipse statuit hanc terram petere, et mediā ferē aestāte cum multīs nāvibus longīs profectus est. 9. Magnā celeritāte iter confēcit et in opportūnissimō locō ēgressus est. 10. Barbarī summīs vīribus eum ab īnsulā prohibēre cōnātī sunt. 11. Ille autem barbarōs multa mīlia passuum īnsecūtus est; tamen sine equitātū eōs cōnsequī nōn potuit. II. 1. Contrary to our expectation, the enemy fled and the cavalry followed close after them. 2. From all parts of the multitude the shouts arose of those who were being wounded. 3. Cæsar did not allow the cavalry to pursue too far.[1] 4. The cavalry set out at the first hour and was returning[2] to camp at the fourth hour. 5. Around the Roman camp was a rampart twelve feet high. 6. Cæsar will delay three days because of the grain supply. 7. Nearly all the lieutenants feared the enemy and attempted to delay the march. [Footnote 1: Comparative of «longē».] [Footnote 2: Will this be a deponent or an active form?] * * * * * «Seventh Review, Lessons LIII-LX, §§524-526» * * * * * [Illustration] PART III CONSTRUCTIONS INTRODUCTORY NOTE The preceding part of this book has been concerned chiefly with forms and vocabulary. There remain still to be learned the forms of the Subjunctive Mood, the Participles, and the Gerund of the regular verb, and the conjugation of the commoner irregular verbs. These will be taken up in connection with the study of constructions, which will be the chief subject of our future work. The special vocabularies of the preceding lessons contain, exclusive of proper names, about six hundred words. As these are among the commonest words in the language, _they must be mastered_. They properly form the basis of the study of words, and will be reviewed and used with but few additions in the remaining lessons. For practice in reading and to illustrate the constructions presented, a continued story has been prepared and may be begun at this point (see p. 204). It has been divided into chapters of convenient length to accompany progress through the lessons, but may be read with equal profit after the lessons are finished. The story gives an account of the life and adventures of Publius Cornelius Lentulus, a Roman boy, who fought in Cæsar’s campaigns and shared in his triumph. The colored plates illustrating the story are faithful representations of ancient life and are deserving of careful study. LESSON LXI THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD «342.» In addition to the indicative, imperative, and infinitive moods, which you have learned, Latin has a fourth mood called the subjunctive. The tenses of the subjunctive are PRESENT } IMPERFECT } ACTIVE AND PASSIVE PERFECT } PLUPERFECT } «343.» The tenses of the subjunctive have the same time values as the corresponding tenses of the indicative, and, in addition, _each of them may refer to future time_. No meanings of the tenses will be given in the paradigms, as the translation varies with the construction used. «344.» The present subjunctive is inflected as follows: CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE VOICE SINGULAR 1. a´mem mo´neam re´gam ca´piam au´diam 2. a´mēs mo´neās re´gās ca´piās au´diās 3. a´met mo´neat re´gat ca´piat au´diat PLURAL 1. amē´mus moneā´mus regā´mus capiā´mus audiā´mus 2. amē´tis moneā´tis regā´tis capiā´tis audiā´tis 3. a´ment mo´neant re´gant ca´piant au´diant PASSIVE VOICE SINGULAR 1. a´mer mo´near re´gar ca´piar au´diar 2. amē´ris moneā´ris regā´ris capiā´ris audiā´ris (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) 3. amē´tur moneā´tur regā´tur capiā´tur audiā´tur PLURAL 1. amē´mur moneā´mur regā´mur capiā´mur audiā´mur 2. amē´minī moneā´minī regā´minī capiā´minī audiā´minī 3. amen´tur monean´tur regan´tur capian´tur audian´tur _a._ The present subjunctive is formed from the present stem. _b._ The mood sign of the present subjunctive is «-ē-» in the first conjugation and «-ā-» in the others. It is shortened in the usual places (cf. §12), and takes the place of the final vowel of the stem in the first and third conjugations, but not in the second and fourth. _c._ The personal endings are the same as in the indicative. _d._ In a similar way inflect the present subjunctive of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō». «345.» The present subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» is inflected as follows: { 1. sim { 1. sīmus SING. { 2. sīs PLURAL { 2. sītis { 3. sit { 3. sint «346.» «The Indicative and Subjunctive Compared.» 1. The two most important of the finite moods are the indicative and the subjunctive. The indicative deals with facts either real or assumed. If, then, we wish to assert something as a fact or to inquire after a fact, we use the indicative. 2. On the other hand, if we wish to express a _desire_ or _wish_, a _purpose_, a _possibility_, an _expectation_, or some such notion, we must use the subjunctive. The following sentences illustrate the difference between the indicative and the subjunctive ideas. INDICATIVE IDEAS SUBJUNCTIVE IDEAS 1. _He is brave_ 1. _May he be brave_ «Fortis est» «Fortis sit» (idea of wishing) 2. _We set out at once_ 2. _Let us set out at once_ «Statim proficīscimur» «Statim proficīscāmur» (idea of willing) 3. _You hear him every day_ 3. _You can hear him every day_ «Cotīdiē eum audīs» «Cotīdiē eum audiās» (idea of possibility) 4. _He remained until the ship_ 4. _He waited until the ship_ _arrived_ _should arrive_ «Mānsit dum nāvis pervēnit» «Exspectāvit dum nāvis pervenīret»[1] (idea of expectation) 5. _Cæsar sends men who find the_ 5. _Cæsar sends men_ _bridge_ _who are to find_ (or _to find_) _the bridge_ «Caesar mittit hominēs quī» «Caesar hominēs mittit quī» «pontem reperiunt» «pontem reperiant» (idea of purpose) [Footnote 1: «pervenīret», imperfect subjunctive.] NOTE. From the sentences above we observe that the subjunctive may be used in either independent or dependent clauses; but it is far more common in the latter than in the former. «347.» EXERCISE Which verbs in the following paragraph would be in the indicative and which in the subjunctive in a Latin translation? There have been times in the history of our country when you might be proud of being an American citizen. Do you remember the day when Dewey sailed into Manila Bay to capture or destroy the enemy’s fleet? You might have seen the admiral standing on the bridge calmly giving his orders. He did not even wait until the mines should be removed from the harbor’s mouth, but sailed in at once. Let us not despair of our country while such valor exists, and may the future add new glories to the past. LESSON LXII THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE «348.» Observe the sentence «Caesar hominēs mittit quī pontem reperiant», _Cæsar sends men to find the bridge_ The verb «reperiant» in the dependent clause is in the subjunctive because it tells us what Cæsar wants the men to do; in other words, it expresses his will and the purpose in his mind. Such a use of the subjunctive is called the subjunctive of purpose. «349.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Purpose.» _The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause to express the purpose of the action in the principal clause._ «350.» A clause of purpose is introduced as follows: I. If something is wanted, by «quī», the relative pronoun (as above) «ut», conj., _in order that, that_ «quō» (abl. of «quī», _by which_), _in order that, that_, used when the purpose clause contains a comparative. The ablative «quō» expresses the measure of difference. (Cf. §317.) II. If something is not wanted, by «nē», conj., _in order that not, that not, lest_ «351.» EXAMPLES 1. «Caesar cōpiās cōgit quibus hostīs īnsequātur» _Cæsar collects troops with which to pursue the foe_ 2. «Pācem petunt ut domum revertantur» _They ask for peace in order that they may return home_ 3. «Pontem faciunt quō facilius oppidum capiant» _They build a bridge that they may take the town more easily_ (lit. _by which the more easily_) 4. «Fugiunt nē vulnerentur» _They flee that they may not_ (or _lest they_) _be wounded_ «352.» «Expression of Purpose in English.» In English, purpose clauses are sometimes introduced by _that_ or _in order that_, but much more frequently purpose is expressed in English by the infinitive, as _We eat to live_, _She stoops to conquer_. In Latin prose, on the other hand, «purpose is never expressed by the infinitive». Be on your guard and do not let the English idiom betray you into this error. «353.» EXERCISES I. 1. Veniunt ut { dūcant, mittant, videant, audiant, { dūcantur, mittantur, videantur, audiantur. 2. Fugimus nē { capiāmur, trādāmur, videāmus, { necēmur, rapiāmur, resistāmus. 3. Mittit nūntiōs quī { dicant, audiant, veniant, { nārrent, audiantur, in conciliō sedeant. 4. Castra mūniunt { sēsē dēfendant, impetum sustineant, quō facilius { hostīs vincant, salūtem petant. II. 1. The Helvetii send ambassadors to seek[1] peace. 2. They are setting out at daybreak in order that they may make a longer march before night. 3. They will hide the women in the forest (_acc. with_ «in») that they may not be captured. 4. The Gauls wage many wars to free[1] their fatherland from slavery. 5. They will resist the Romans[2] bravely lest they be destroyed. [Footnote 1: Not infinitive.] [Footnote 2: Not accusative.] LESSON LXIII INFLECTION OF THE IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES «354.» The imperfect subjunctive may be formed by adding the personal endings to the present active infinitive. CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE 1. amā´rem monē´rem re´gerem ca´perem audī´rem 2. amā´rēs monē´rēs re´gerēs ca´perēs audī´rēs 3. amā´ret monē´ret re´geret ca´peret audī´ret 1. amārē´mus monērē´mus regerē´mus caperē´mus audīrē´mus 2. amārē´tis monērē´tis regerē´tis caperē´tis audīrē´tis 3. amā´rent monē´rent re´gerent ca´perent audī´rent PASSIVE 1. amā´rer monē´rer re´gerer ca´perer audī´rer 2. amārē´ris monērē´ris regerē´ris caperē´ris audīrē´ris (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) 3. amārē´tur monērē´tur regerē´tur caperē´tur audīrē´tur 1. amārē´mur monērē´mur regerē´mur caperē´mur audīrē´mur 2. amārē´minī monērē´minī regerē´minī caperē´minī audīrē´minī 3. amāren´tur monēren´tur regeren´tur caperen´tur audīren´tur _a._ In a similar way inflect the imperfect subjunctive, active and passive, of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō». «355.» The imperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» is inflected as follows: { 1. es´sem { 1. essē´mus SING. { 2. es´sēs PLURAL { 2. essē´tis { 3. es´set { 3. es´sent «356.» The three great distinctions of time are _present_, _past_, and _future_. All tenses referring to present or future time are called «primary tenses», and those referring to past time are called «secondary tenses». Now it is a very common law of language that in a complex sentence the tense in the dependent clause should be of the same kind as the tense in the principal clause. In the sentence _He «says» that he «is» coming_, the principal verb, _says_, is present, that is, is in a primary tense; and _is coming_, in the dependent clause, is naturally also primary. If I change _he says_ to _he said_,--in other words, if I make the principal verb secondary in character,--I feel it natural to change the verb in the dependent clause also, and I say, _He «said» that he «was» coming_. This following of a tense by another of the same kind is called _tense sequence_, from _sequī_, “to follow.” In Latin the law of tense sequence is obeyed with considerable regularity, especially when an indicative in the principal clause is followed by a subjunctive in the dependent clause. Then a primary tense of the indicative is followed by a primary tense of the subjunctive, and a secondary tense of the indicative is followed by a secondary tense of the subjunctive. Learn the following table: «357.» TABLE FOR SEQUENCE OF TENSES +-----+-------------------+-------------------------------------------+ | | PRINCIPAL VERB | DEPENDENT VERBS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE | | P | IN THE +---------------------+---------------------+ | R | INDICATIVE | _Incomplete or_ | _Completed Action_ | | I | | _Continuing Action_ | | | M +-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | A | Present | | | | R | Future | Present | Perfect | | T | Future perfect | | | +-----+-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ | S D | | | | | E A | Imperfect | | | | C R | Perfect | Imperfect | Pluperfect | | O Y | Pluperfect | | | | N- | | | | +-----+-------------------+---------------------+---------------------+ «358.» RULE. «Sequence of Tenses.» _Primary tenses are followed by primary tenses and secondary by secondary._ «359.» EXAMPLES I. Primary tenses in principal and dependent clauses: «Mittit» } «Mittet» } «hominēs ut agrōs vāstent» «Mīserit» } { _sends_ } { _that they may_ } _He_ { _will send_ } _men_ { _in order to_ } { _will have sent_ } { _to lay waste the fields_ } II. Secondary tenses in principal and dependent clauses: «Mittēbat»} «Mīsit» } «hominēs ut agrōs vāstārent» «Mīserat» } { _was sending_ } { _that they might_ } _He_ { _sent or has sent_ } _men_ { _in order to_ } { _had sent_ } { _to lay waste the fields_ } «360.» EXERCISES I. 1. Vēnerant ut {dūcerent, mitterent, vidērent, audīrent, {dūcerentur, mitterentur, vidērentur, audirentur 2. Fugiēbat nē {caperētur, trāderētur, vidērētur, {necārētur, raperētur, resisteret. 3. Misit nūntiōs quī {dīcerent, audīrent, venīrent {nārrārent, audīrentur, in conciliō sedērent. 4. Castra mūnīvērunt {sēsē dēfenderent, impetum sustinērent, quō facilius {hostīs vincerent, salūtem peterent. II. 1. Cæsar encouraged the soldiers in order that they might fight more bravely. 2. The Helvetii left their homes to wage war. 3. The scouts set out at once lest they should be captured by the Germans. 4. Cæsar inflicted punishment on them in order that the others might be more terrified. 5. He sent messengers to Rome to announce the victory. LESSON LXIV THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE «361.» The perfect and the pluperfect subjunctive active are inflected as follows: CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE SINGULAR 1. amā´verim monu´erim rē´xerim cē´perim audī´verim 2. amā´veris monu´eris rē´xeris cē´peris audī´veris 3. amā´verit monu´erit rē´xerit cē´perit audī´verit PLURAL 1. amāve´rimus monue´rimus rēxe´rimus cēpe´rimus audīve´rimus 2. amāve´ritis monue´ritis rēxe´ritis cēpe´ritis audīve´ritis 3. amā´verint monu´erint rē´xerint cē´perint audī´verint PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE ACTIVE SINGULAR 1. amāvis´sem monuis´sem rēxis´sem cēpis´sem audīvis´sem 2. amāvis´sēs monuis´sēs rēxis´sēs cēpis´sēs audīvis´sēs 3. amāvis´set monuis´set rēxis´set cēpis´set audīvis´set PLURAL 1. amāvissē´mus monuissē´mus rēxissē´mus cēpissē´mus audīvissē´mus 2. amāvissē´tis monuissē´tis rēxissē´tis cēpissē´tis audīvissē´tis 3. amāvis´sent monuis´sent rēxis´sent cēpis´sent audīvis´sent _a._ Observe that these two tenses, like the corresponding ones in the indicative, are formed from the perfect stem. _b._ Observe that the perfect subjunctive active is like the future perfect indicative active, excepting that the first person singular ends in «-m» and not in «-ō». _c._ Observe that the pluperfect subjunctive active may be formed by adding «-issem, -issēs», etc. to the perfect stem. _d._ In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive active of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō». «362.» The passive of the perfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with «sim», the present subjunctive of «sum.» CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE SINGULAR 1. amā´tus sim mo´nitus sim rēc´tus sim cap´tus sim audī´tus sim 2. amā´tus sīs mo´nitus sīs rēc´tus sīs cap´tus sīs audī´tus sīs 3. amā´tus sit mo´nitus sit rēc´tus sit cap´tus sit audī´tus sit PLURAL 1. amā´tī sīmus mo´nitī s. rēc´tī s. cap´tī s. audī´tī s. 2. amā´tī sītis mo´nitī s. rēc´tī s. cap´tī s. audī´tī s. 3. amā´tī sint mo´nitī sint rēc´tī sint cap´tī sint audī´tī sint «363.» The passive of the pluperfect subjunctive is formed by combining the perfect passive participle with «essem», the imperfect subjunctive of «sum». CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PASSIVE SINGULAR 1. amātus essem monitus essem rēctus essem captus e. audītus e. 2. amātus essēs monitus essēs rēctus essēs captus e. audītus e. 3. amātus esset monitus esset rēctus esset captus e. audītus e. PLURAL 1. amātī essēmus monitī essēmus rēctī essēmus captī e. audītī e. 2. amātī essētis monitī essētis rēctī essētis captī e. audītī e. 3. amātī essent monitī essent rēctī essent captī e. audītī e. _a._ In a similar way inflect the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive passive of «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō.» «364.» The perfect and pluperfect subjunctive of the irregular verb «sum» are inflected as follows: PERFECT PLUPERFECT fu´erim fue´rimus fuis´sem fuissē´mus fu´eris fue´ritis fuis´sēs fuissē´tis fu´erit fu´erint fuis´set fuis´sent «365.» A substantive clause is a clause used like a noun, as, _That the men are afraid_ is clear enough (clause as subject) He ordered _them to call on him_ (clause as object) We have already had many instances of infinitive clauses used in this way (cf. §213), and have noted the similarity between Latin and English usage in this respect. But the Latin often uses the _subjunctive_ in substantive clauses, and this marks an important difference between the two languages. «366.» RULE. «Substantive Clauses of Purpose.» _A substantive clause of purpose with the subjunctive is used as the object of verbs of «commanding», «urging», «asking», «persuading», or «advising», where in English we should usually have the infinitive._ EXAMPLES 1. _The general ordered the soldiers to run_ «Imperātor mīlitibus imperāvit ut currerent» 2. _He urged them to resist bravely_ «Hortātus est ut fortiter resisterent» 3. _He asked them to give the children food_ «Petīvit ut līberīs cibum darent» 4. _He will persuade us not to set out_ «Nōbīs persuādēbit nē proficīscāmur» 5. _He advises us to remain at home_ «Monet ut domī maneāmus» _a._ The object clauses following these verbs all express the purpose or will of the principal subject that something be done or not done. (Cf. §348.) «367.» The following verbs are used with object clauses of purpose. Learn the list and the principal parts of the new ones. «hortor», _urge_ «imperō», _order_ (with the _dative_ of the _person_ ordered and a _subjunctive clause_ of the _thing_ ordered done) «moneō», _advise_ «petō», «quaerō», «rogō», _ask, seek_ «persuādeō», _persuade_ (with the same construction as imperō) «postulō», _demand, require_ «suādeō», _advise_ (cf. «persuādeō») N.B. Remember that «iubeō», _order_, takes the infinitive as in English. (Cf. §213.1.) Compare the sentences «Iubeō eum venīre», _I order him to come_ «Imperō eī ut veniat», _I give orders to him that he is to come_ We ordinarily translate both of these sentences like the first, but the difference in meaning between iubeō and imperō in the Latin requires the _infinitive_ in the one case and the _subjunctive_ in the other. «368.» EXERCISES I. 1. Petit atque hortātur ut ipse dīcat. 2. Caesar Helvētiīs imperāvit nē per prōvinciam iter facerent. 3. Caesar nōn iussit Helvētiōs per prōvinciam iter facere. 4. Ille cīvibus persuāsit ut dē fīnibus suīs discēderent. 5. Caesar prīncipēs monēbit nē proelium committant. 6. Postulāvit nē cum Helvētiīs aut cum eōrum sociīs bellum gererent. 7. Ab iīs quaesīvī nē proficīscerentur. 8. Iīs persuādēre nōn potuī ut domī manērent. II. 1. Who ordered Cæsar to make the march? (_Write this sentence both with_ «imperō» _and with_ «iubeō».) 2. The faithless scouts persuaded him to set out at daybreak. 3. They will ask him not to inflict punishment. 4. He demanded that they come to the camp. 5. He advised them to tell everything («omnia»). NOTE. Do not forget that the English infinitive expressing purpose must be rendered by a Latin subjunctive. Review §352. [Illustration: LEGIO ITER FACIT] LESSON LXV THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF _POSSUM_ · VERBS OF FEARING «369.» Learn the subjunctive of «possum» (§495), and note especially the position of the accent. «370.» «Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing.» We have learned that what we want done or not done is expressed in Latin by a subjunctive clause of purpose. In this class belong also _clauses after verbs of fearing_, for we fear either that something will happen or that it will not, and we either want it to happen or we do not. If we want a thing to happen and fear that it will not, the purpose clause is introduced by «ut». If we do not want it to happen and fear that it will, «nē» is used. Owing to a difference between the English and Latin idiom we translate «ut» after a verb of fearing by _that not_, and «nē» by _that_ or _lest_. «371.» EXAMPLES «timeō» } { «veniat» «timēbō» } «ut» { «timuerō» } { «vēnerit» _I fear_, _shall fear_, _shall have feared_, _that he will not come_, _has not come_ «timēbam» } { «venīret» «timuī» } «ut» { «timueram» } { «vēnisset» _I was fearing_, _feared_, _had feared_, _that he would not come_, _had not come_ The same examples with «nē» instead of «ut» would be translated _I fear that_ or _lest he will come_, _has come_, etc. «372.» RULE. «Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing.» _Verbs of fearing are followed by a substantive clause of purpose introduced by «ut» («that not») or «nē» («that» or «lest»)._ «373.» EXERCISES I. 1. Caesar verēbātur ut supplicium captīvōrum Gallīs placēret. 2. Rōmānī ipsī magnopere verēbantur nē Helvētiī iter per prōvinciam facerent. 3. Timēbant ut satis reī frūmentāriae mittī posset. 4. Vereor ut hostium impetum sustinēre possim. 5. Timuit nē impedīmenta ab hostibus capta essent. 6. Caesar numquam timuit nē legiōnēs vincerentur. 7. Legiōnēs pugnāre nōn timuērunt.[1] II. 1. We fear that they are not coming. 2. We fear lest they are coming. 3. We feared that they had come. 4. We feared that they had not come. 5. They feared greatly that the camp could not be defended. 6. Almost all feared[1] to leave the camp. [Footnote 1: Distinguish between what one is afraid _to do_ (complementary infinitive as here) and what one is afraid _will take place_ or _has taken place_ (substantive clause with the subjunctive).] LESSON LXVI THE PARTICIPLES «374.» The Latin verb has the following Participles:[1] [Transcriber’s Note: For reasons of space, this table is given in two forms: first a reduced version without translation, and then the complete text, including translations, split into two elements.] CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE PRESENT amāns monēns regēns capiēns audiēns FUTURE amātūrus monitūrus rēctūrus captūrus audītūrus PASSIVE PERFECT amātus monitus rēctus captus audītus FUTURE[2] amandus monendus regendus capiendus audiendus CONJ. I CONJ. II ACTIVE PRESENT amāns monēns _loving_ _advising_ FUTURE amātūrus monitūrus _about to love_ _about to advise_ PASSIVE PERFECT amātus monitus _loved, having_ _advised, having been advised_ _been loved_ FUTURE[2] amandus monendus _to be loved_ _to be advised_ CONJ. III CONJ. IV ACTIVE PRESENT regēns capiēns audiēns _ruling_ _taking_ _hearing_ FUTURE rēctūrus captūrus audītūrus _about to rule_ _about to take_ _about to hear_ PASSIVE PERFECT rēctus captus audītus _ruled, having_ _taken, having_ _heard, havinh_ _been ruled_ _been taken_ _been heard_ FUTURE[2] regendus capiendus audiendus _to be ruled_ _to be taken_ _to be heard_ [Footnote 1: Review §203.] [Footnote 2: The future passive participle is often called the _gerundive_.] _a._ The present active and future passive participles are formed from the present stem, and the future active and perfect passive participles are formed from the participial stem. _b._ The present active participle is formed by adding «-ns» to the present stem. In «-iō» verbs of the third conjugation, and in the fourth conjugation, the stem is modified by the addition of «-ē-», as «capi-ē-ns», «audi-ē-ns». It is declined like an adjective of one ending of the third declension. (Cf. §256.) «amāns», _loving_ BASE «amant-» STEM «amanti-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ amāns amāns amantēs amantia _Gen._ amantis amantis amantium amantium _Dat._ amantī amantī amantibus amantibus _Acc._ amantem amāns amantīs amantia _or_ -ēs _Abl._ amantī amantī amantibus amantibus _or_ -e _or_ -e (1) When used as an adjective the ablative singular ends in «-ī»; when used as a participle or as a substantive, in «-e». (2) In a similar way decline «monēns», «regēns», «capiēns», «audiēns». _c._ The future active participle is formed by adding «-ūrus» to the base of the participial stem. We have already met this form combined with «esse» to produce the future active infinitive. (Cf. §206.) _d._ For the perfect passive participle see §201. The future passive participle or gerundive is formed by adding «-ndus» to the present stem. _e._ All participles in «-us» are declined like «bonus». _f._ Participles agree with nouns or pronouns like adjectives. _g._ Give all the participles of the following verbs: «cūrō», «iubeō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «mūniō». «375.» «Participles of Deponent Verbs.» Deponent verbs have the participles of the active voice as well as of the passive; consequently every deponent verb has four participles, as, _Pres. Act._ «hortāns», _urging_ _Fut. Act._ «hortātūrus», _about to urge_ _Perf. Pass._ (in form) «hortātus», _having urged_ _Fut. Pass._ (_Gerundive_) «hortandus», _to be urged_ _a._ Observe that the perfect participle of deponent verbs is passive in form but _active_ in meaning. _No other verbs have a perfect active participle._ On the other hand, the future passive participle of deponent verbs is passive in meaning as in other verbs. _b._ Give the participles of «cōnor», «vereor», «sequor», «patior», «partior». «376.» «Tenses of the Participle.» The tenses express time as follows: 1. The present active participle corresponds to the English present active participle in _-ing_, but can be used only of an action occurring at the same time as the action of the main verb; as, «mīlitēs īnsequentēs cēpērunt multōs», _the soldiers, while pursuing, captured many._ Here the pursuing and the capturing are going on together. 2. The perfect participle (excepting of deponents) is regularly passive and corresponds to the English past participle with or without the auxiliary _having been_; as, «audītus», _heard_ or _having been heard_. 3. The future active participle, translated _about to_, etc., denotes time after the action of the main verb. «377.» Review §§203, 204, and, note the following model sentences: 1. «Mīlitēs currentēs erant dēfessī», _the soldiers who were running_ (lit. _running_) _were weary_. 2. «Caesar profectūrus Rōmam nōn exspectāvit», _Cæsar, when about to set out_ (lit. _about to set out_) _for Rome, did not wait_. 3. «Oppidum captum vīdimus», _we saw the town which had been captured_ (lit. _captured town_). 4. «Imperātor trīduum morātus profectus est», _the general, since_ (_when_, or _after_) _he had delayed_ (lit. _the general, having delayed_) _three days, set out_. 5. «Mīlitēs vīctī terga nōn vertērunt», _the soldiers, though they were conquered_ (lit. _the soldiers conquered_), _did not retreat_. In each of these sentences the literal translation of the participle is given in parentheses. We note, however, that its proper translation usually requires a clause beginning with some conjunction (_when, since, after, though_, etc.), or a relative clause. Consider, in each case, what translation will best bring out the thought, and do not, as a rule, translate the participle literally. «378.» EXERCISES I. 1. Puer timēns nē capiātur fugit. 2. Aquila īrā commōta avīs reliquās interficere cōnāta erat. 3. Mīlitēs ab hostibus pressī tēla iacere nōn potuērunt. 4. Caesar decimam legiōnem laudātūrus ad prīmum agmen prōgressus est. 5. Imperātor hortātus equitēs ut fortiter pugnārent signum proeliō dedit. 6. Mīlitēs hostīs octō milia passuum īnsecūtī multīs cum captīvīs ad castra revertērunt. 7. Sōl oriēns multōs interfectōs vīdit. 8. Rōmānī cōnsilium audāx suspicātī barbaris sēsē nōn commīsērunt. 9. Nāvis ē portū ēgressa nūllō in perīculō erat. II.[3] 1. The army was in very great danger while marching through the enemy’s country. 2. Frightened by the length of the way, they longed for home. 3. When the scouts were about to set out, they heard the shouts of victory. 4. When we had delayed many days, we set fire to the buildings and departed. 5. While living at Rome I heard orators much better than these. 6. The soldiers who are fighting across the river are no braver than we. [Footnote 3: In this exercise use participles for the subordinate clauses.] LESSON LXVII THE IRREGULAR VERBS _VOLŌ_, _NŌLŌ_, _MĀLŌ_ THE ABLATIVE WITH A PARTICIPLE, OR ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE «379.» Learn the principal parts and conjugation of «volō», _wish_; «nōlō» («ne» + «volō»), _be unwilling_; «mālō» («magis» + «volō»), _be more willing, prefer_ (§497). Note the irregularities in the present indicative, subjunctive, and infinitive, and in the imperfect subjunctive. (Cf. §354.) _a._ These verbs are usually followed by the infinitive with or without a subject accusative; as, «volunt venīre», _they wish to come_; «volunt amīcōs venīre», _they wish their friends to come_. The English usage is the same.[1] [Footnote 1: Sometimes the subjunctive of purpose is used after these verbs. (See §366.)] [ Conjugations given in §497: PRINCIPAL PARTS: «volō, velle, voluī», ----, _be willing, will, wish_ «nōlō, nōlle, nōluī», ----, _be unwilling, will not_ «mālō, mālle, māluī», ----, _be more willing, prefer_ INDICATIVE SINGULAR _Pres._ volō nōlō mālō vīs nōn vis māvīs vult nōn vult māvult PLURAL volumus nōlumus mālumus vultis nōn vultis māvul´tis volunt nōlunt mālunt _Impf._ volēbam nōlēbam mālēbam _Fut._ volam, volēs, etc. nōlam, nōlēs, etc. mālam, mālēs, etc. _Perf._ voluī nōluī māluī _Plup._ volueram nōlueram mālueram _F.P._ voluerō nōluerō māluerō SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR _Pres._ velim nōlim mālim velīs nōlīs mālīs velit nōlit mālit PLURAL velī´mus nōlī´mus mālī´mus velī´tis nōlī´tis mālī´tis velint nōlint mālint _Impf._ vellem nōllem māllem _Perf._ voluerim nōluerim māluerim _Plup._ voluissem nōluissem māluissem IMPERATIVE _Pres._ nōlī nōlīte _Fut._ nōlītō, etc. INFINITIVE _Pres._ velle nōlle mālle _Perf._ voluisse nōluisse māluisse PARTICIPLE _Pres._ volēns, -entis nōlēns, -entis ----] «380.» Observe the following sentences: 1. «Magistrō laudante omnēs puerī dīligenter labōrant», _with the teacher praising_, or _since the teacher praises_, or _the teacher praising, all the boys labor diligently._ 2. «Caesare dūcente nēmō prōgredī timet», _with Cæsar leading_, or _when Cæsar leads_, or _if Cæsar leads_, or _Cæsar leading, no one fears to advance._ 3. «Hīs rēbus cognitīs mīlitēs fūgērunt», _when this was known_, or _since this was known_, or _these things having been learned, the soldiers fled._ 4. «Proeliō commissō multī vulnerātī sunt», _after the battle had begun_, or _when the battle had begun_, or _the battle having been joined, many were wounded._ _a._ One of the fundamental ablative relations is expressed in English by the preposition _with_ (cf. §50). In each of the sentences above we have a noun and a participle in agreement in the ablative, and the translation shows that in each instance the ablative expresses _attendant circumstance_. For example, in the first sentence the circumstance attending or accompanying the diligent labor of the boys is the praise of the teacher. This is clearly a _with_ relation, and the ablative is the case to use. _b._ We observe, further, that the ablative and its participle are absolutely independent grammatically of the rest of the sentence. If we were to express the thought in English in a similar way, we should use the nominative independent or absolute. In Latin the construction is called the Ablative Absolute, or the Ablative with a Participle. This form of expression is exceedingly common in Latin, but rather rare in English, so we must not, as a rule, employ the English absolute construction to translate the ablative abolute. The attendant circumstance may be one of _time_ (when or after), or one of _cause_ (since), or one of _concession_ (though), or one of _condition_ (if). In each case try to discover the precise relation, and translate the ablative and its participle by a clause which will best express the thought. «381.» RULE. «Ablative Absolute.» _The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance._ NOTE 1. The verb «sum» has no present participle. In consequence we often find two nouns or a noun and an adjective in the ablative absolute with no participle expressed; as, «tē duce», _you_ (being) _leader_, _with you as leader_; «patre īnfirmō», _my father_ (being) _weak_. NOTE 2. Be very careful not to put in the ablative absolute a noun and participle that form the subject or object of a sentence. Compare _a._ _The Gauls, having been conquered by Cæsar, returned home_ _b._ _The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar, the army returned home_ In _a_ the subject is _The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar_, and we translate, «Gallī ā Caesare victi domum revertērunt» In _b_ the subject is _the army_. _The Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar_ is nominative absolute in English, which requires the ablative absolute in Latin, and we translate, «Gallīs ā Caesare victīs exercitus domum revertit» NOTE 3. The fact that only deponent verbs have a perfect active participle (cf. §375.a) often compels a change of voice when translating from one language to the other. For example, we can translate _Cæsar having encouraged the legions_ just as it stands, because «hortor» is a deponent verb. But if we wish to say _Cæsar having conquered the Gauls_, we have to change the voice of the participle to the passive because «vincō» is not deponent, and say, _the Gauls having been conquered by Cæsar_ (see translation above). «382.» EXERCISES I. 1. Māvīs, nōn vīs, vultis, nōlumus. 2. Ut nōlit, ut vellēmus, ut mālit. 3. Nōlī, velle, nōluisse, mālle. 4. Vult, māvultis, ut nōllet, nōlīte. 5. Sōle oriente, avēs cantāre incēpērunt. 6. Clāmōribus audītīs, barbarī prōgredī recūsābant. 7. Caesare legiōnēs hortātō, mīlitēs paulō fortius pugnāvērunt. 8. Hīs rēbus cognitīs, Helvētiī fīnitimīs persuāsērunt ut sēcum iter facerent. 9. Labōribus cōnfectīs, mīlitēs ā Caesare quaerēbant ut sibi praemia daret. 10. Conciliō convocātō, prīncipēs ita respondērunt. 11. Dux plūrīs diēs in Helvētiōrum fīnibus morāns multōs vīcōs incendit. 12. Magnitūdine Germānōrum cognitā, quīdam ex Rōmānis timēbant. 13. Mercātōribus rogātīs, Caesar nihilō plūs reperīre potuit. II. 1. He was unwilling, lest they prefer, they have wished. 2. You prefer, that they might be unwilling, they wish. 3. We wish, they had preferred, that he may prefer. 4. Cæsar, when he heard the rumor (_the rumor having been heard_), commanded («imperāre») the legions to advance more quickly. 5. Since Cæsar was leader, the men were willing to make the journey. 6. A few, terrified[2] by the reports which they had heard, preferred to remain at home. 7. After these had been left behind, the rest hastened as quickly as possible. 8. After Cæsar had undertaken the business (_Cæsar, the business having been undertaken_), he was unwilling to delay longer.[3] [Footnote 2: Would the ablative absolute be correct here?] [Footnote 3: Not «longius». Why?] LESSON LXVIII THE IRREGULAR VERB _FĪŌ_ · THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT «383.» The verb «fīō», _be made, happen_, serves as the passive of «faciō», _make_, in the present system. The rest of the verb is formed regularly from «faciō». Learn the principal parts and conjugation (§500). Observe that the «i» is long except before «-er» and in «fit». _a._ The compounds of «facio» with prepositions usually form the passive regularly, as, _Active_ «cōnficiō, cōnficere, cōnfēcī, cōnfectus» _Passive_ «cōnficior, cōnficī, cōnfectus sum» [ Conjugation given in §500: PRINCIPAL PARTS «fīō, fierī, factus sum» INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE _Pres._ fīō ---- fīam _2d Pers._ fī fīte fīs ---- fit fīunt _Impf._ fīēbam fierem _Fut._ fīam ---- INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE _Perf._ factus, -a, -um sum factus, -a, -um sim _Plup._ factus, -a, -um eram factus, -a, -um essem _F.P._ factus, -a, -um erō INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES _Pres._ fierī _Perf._ factus, -a, -um _Perf._ factus, -a, -um esse _Ger._ faciendus, -a, -um _Fut._ [[factum īrī]]] «384.» Observe the following sentences: 1. «Terror erat tantus ut omnēs fugerent», _the terror was so great that all fled._ 2. «Terror erat tantus ut nōn facile mīlitēs sēsē reciperent», _the terror was so great that the soldiers did not easily recover themselves._ 3. «Terror fēcit ut omnēs fugerent», _terror caused all to flee_ (lit. _made that all fled_). _a._ Each of these sentences is complex, containing a principal clause and a subordinate clause. _b._ The principal clause names a cause and the subordinate clause states the _consequence_ or _result_ of this cause. _c._ The subordinate clause has its verb in the subjunctive, though it is translated like an indicative. The construction is called the _subjunctive of consequence or result_, and the clause is called a consecutive or result clause. _d._ In the last example the clause of result is the object of the verb «fēcit». _e._ The conjunction introducing the consecutive or result clause is «ut» = _so that_; negative, «ut nōn» = _so that not_. «385.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Result.» _Consecutive clauses of result are introduced by «ut» or «ut nōn» and have the verb in the subjunctive._ «386.» RULE. _Object clauses of result with «ut» or «ut nōn» are found after verbs of «effecting» or «bringing about»._ «387.» «Purpose and Result Clauses Compared.» There is great similarity in the expression of purpose and of result in Latin. If the sentence is affirmative, both purpose and result clauses may be introduced by «ut»; but if the sentence is negative, the purpose clause has «nē» and the result clause «ut nōn». Result clauses are often preceded in the main clause by such words as «tam», «ita», «sic» (_so_), and these serve to point them out. Compare _a._ «Tam graviter vulnerātus est ut caperētur» _He was so severely wounded that he was captured_ _b._ «Graviter vulnerātus est ut caperētur» _He was severely wounded in order that he might be captured_ Which sentence contains a result clause, and how is it pointed out? «388.» EXERCISES I. 1. Fit, fīet, ut fīat, fīēbāmus. 2. Fīō, fīēs, ut fierent, fierī, fīunt. 3. Fīētis, ut fīāmus, fīs, fīemus. 4. Mīlitēs erant tam tardī ut ante noctem in castra nōn pervenīrent. 5. Sōl facit ut omnia sint pulchra. 6. Eius modī perīcula erant ut nēmō proficīscī vellet. 7. Equitēs hostium cum equitātū nostrō in itinere contendērunt, ita tamen[1] ut nostrī omnibus in partibus superiōrēs essent. 8. Virtūs mīlitum nostrōrum fēcit ut hostēs nē ūnum quidem[2] impetum sustinērent. 9. Hominēs erant tam audācēs ut nūllō modō continērī possent. 10. Spatium erat tam parvum ut mīlitēs tēla iacere nōn facile possent. 11. Hōc proeliō factō barbarī ita perterritī sunt ut ab ultimīs gentibus lēgātī ad Caesarem mitterentur. 12. Hoc proelium factum est nē lēgātī ad Caesarem mitterentur. [Footnote 1: «ita tamen», _with such a result however_.] [Footnote 2: «nē ... quidem», _not even_. The emphatic word is placed between.] II. 1. It will happen, they were being made, that it may happen. 2. It happens, he will be made, to happen. 3. They are made, we were being made, lest it happen. 4. The soldiers are so brave that they conquer. 5. The soldiers are brave in order that they may conquer. 6. The fortification was made so strong that it could not be taken. 7. The fortification was made strong in order that it might not be taken. 8. After the town was taken,[3] the townsmen feared that they would be made slaves. 9. What state is so weak that it is unwilling to defend itself? [Footnote 3: Ablative absolute.] LESSON LXIX THE SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC OR DESCRIPTION THE PREDICATE ACCUSATIVE «389.» Akin to the subjunctive of consequence or result is the use of the subjunctive in clauses of characteristic or description. This construction is illustrated in the following sentences: 1. «Quis est quī suam domum nōn amet?» _who is there who does not love his own home?_ 2. «Erant quī hoc facere nōllent», _there were (some) who were unwilling to do this._ 3. «Tū nōn is es quī amīcōs trādās», _you are not such a one as to_, or _you are not the man to, betray your friends._ 4. «Nihil videō quod timeam», _I see nothing to fear_ (nothing of such as character as to fear it). _a._ Each of these examples contains a descriptive relative clause which tells what kind of a person or thing the antecedent is. To express this thought the subjunctive is used. A relative clause that merely states a fact and does not describe the antecedent uses the indicative. Compare the sentences _Cæsar is the man who is leading us_, «Caesar est is quī nōs dūcit» (mere statement of fact, no description, with the indicative) _Cæsar is the man to lead us_, «Caesar est is quī nōs dūcat» (descriptive relative clause with the subjunctive) _b._ Observe that in this construction a demonstrative pronoun and a relative, as is «quī», are translated _such a one as to, the man to_. _c._ In which of the following sentences would you use the indicative and in which the subjunctive? _These are not the men who did this_ _These are not the men to do this_ «390.» RULE. «Subjunctive of Characteristic.» _A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe an antecedent. This is called the «subjunctive of characteristic or description»._ «391.» Observe the sentences 1. Rōmānī «Caesarem cōnsulem» fēcērunt, _the Romans made «Cæsar consul»_. 2. «Caesar cōnsul» ā Rōmānīs factus est, _«Cæsar» was made «consul» by the Romans_. _a._ Observe in 1 that the transitive verb «fēcērunt», _made_, has two objects: (1) the direct object, «Caesarem»; (2) a second object, «cōnsulem», referring to the same person as the direct object and completing the predicate. The second accusative is called a Predicate Accusative. _b._ Observe in 2 that when the verb is changed to the passive both of the accusatives become nominatives, the _direct object_ becoming the _subject_ and the _predicate accusative_ the _predicate nominative_. «392.» RULE. «Two Accusatives.» _Verbs of «making», «choosing», «calling», «showing», and the like, may take a predicate accusative along with the direct object. With the passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives._ «393.» The verbs commonly found with two accusatives are «creo, creāre, creāvī, creātus», _choose_ «appellō, appellāre, appellāvī, appellātus» } «nōminō, nōmināre, nōmināvī, nōminātus» } _call_ «vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātus» } «faciō, facere, fēcī, factus», _make_ «394.» EXERCISES I. 1. In Germāniae silvis sunt[1] multa genera ferārum quae reliquīs in locīs nōn vīsa sint. 2. Erant[1] itinera duo quibus Helvētiī domō discēdere possent. 3. Erat[1] manus nūlla, nūllum oppidum, nūllum praesidium quod sē armīs dēfenderet. 4. Tōtō frūmentō raptō, domī nihil erat quō mortem prohibēre possent. 5. Rōmānī Galbam ducem creāvērunt et summā celeritāte profectī sunt. 6. Neque erat[1] tantae multitūdinis quisquam quī morārī vellet. 7. Germānī nōn iī sunt quī adventum Caesaris vereantur. 8. Cōnsulibus occīsīs erant quī[2] vellent cum rēgem creāre. 9. Pāce factā erat nēmō quī arma trādere nōllet. 10. Inter Helvētiōs quis erat quī nōbilior illō esset? II. 1. The Romans called the city Rome. 2. The city was called Rome by the Romans. 3. The better citizens wished to choose him king. 4. The brave soldier was not the man to run. 5. There was no one [3]to call me friend. 6. These are not the men to[4] betray their friends. 7. There were (some) who called him the bravest of all. [Footnote 1: Remember that when the verb «sum» precedes its subject it is translated _there is_, _there are_, _there were_, etc.] [Footnote 2: «erant quī», _there were_ (some) _who_. A wholly indefinite antecedent of «quī» does not need to be expressed.] [Footnote 3: A relative clause of characteristic or description.] [Footnote 4: See §389.b.] * * * * * «Eighth Review, Lessons LXI-LXIX, §§527-528» * * * * * LESSON LXX THE CONSTRUCTIONS WITH THE CONJUNCTION _CUM_ THE ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION «395.» The conjunction «cum» has the following meanings and constructions: «cum» TEMPORAL = _when_, followed by the indicative or the subjunctive «cum» CAUSAL = _since_, followed by the subjunctive «cum» CONCESSIVE = _although_, followed by the subjunctive As you observe, the mood after «cum» is sometimes indicative and sometimes subjunctive. The reason for this will be made clear by a study of the following sentences: 1. «Caesarem vīdī tum cum in Galliā eram», _I saw Cæsar at the time when I was in Gaul_. 2. «Caesar in eōs impetum fēcit cum pācem peterent», _Cæsar made an attack upon them when they were seeking peace_. 3. «Hoc erat difficile cum paucī sine vulneribus essent», _this was difficult, since only a few were without wounds_. 4. «Cum prīmī ōrdinēs fūgissent, tamen reliquī fortiter cōnsistēbant», _though the front ranks had fled, yet the rest bravely stood their ground_. _a._ The underlying principle is one already familiar to you (cf. §389.a). When the «cum» clause states a fact and simply _fixes the time_ at which the main action took place, the indicative mood is used. So, in the first example, «cum in Galliā eram» fixes the time when I saw Cæsar. _b._ On the other hand, when the «cum» clause _describes the circumstances_ under which the main act took place, the subjunctive mood is used. So, in the second example, the principal clause states that Cæsar made an attack, and the «cum» clause describes the circumstances under which this act occurred. The idea of _time_ is also present, but it is subordinate to the idea of _description_. Sometimes the descriptive clause is one of _cause_ and we translate «cum» by _since_; sometimes it denotes _concession_ and «cum» is translated _although_. «396.» RULE. «Constructions with _Cum_». _The conjunction «cum» means «when», «since», or «although». It is followed by the subjunctive unless it means «when» and its clause fixes the time at which the main action took place._ NOTE. «Cum» in clauses of description with the subjunctive is much more common than its use with the indicative. «397.» Note the following sentences: 1. «Oppidum erat parvum magnitūdine sed magnum multitūdine hominum», _the town was small in size but great in population_. 2. «Homō erat corpore īnfīrmus sed validus animō», _the man was weak in body but strong in courage_. _a._ Observe that «magnitūdine», «multitūdine», «corpore», and «animō» tell _in what respect_ something is true. The relation is one covered by the ablative case, and the construction is called the _ablative of specification_. «398.» RULE. «Ablative of Specification.» _The ablative is used to denote «in what respect» something is true._ «399.» IDIOMS «aliquem certiōrem facere», _to inform some one_ (lit. _to make some one more certain_) «certior fierī», _to be informed_ (lit. _to be made more certain_) «iter dare», _to give a right of way, allow to pass_ «obsidēs inter sē dare», _to give hostages to each other_ «400.» EXERCISES I. 1. Helvētiī cum patrum nostrōrum tempore domō prefectī essent, cōnsulis exercitum in fugam dederant. 2. Cum Caesar in Galliam vēnit, Helvētiī aliōs agrōs petēbant. 3. Caesar cum in citeriōre Gallia esset, tamen dē Helvētiōrum cōnsiliīs certior fīēbat. 4. Cum Helvētiī bellō clārissimī essent, Caesar iter per prōvinciam dare recūsāvit. 5. Lēgātus cum haec audīvisset, Caesarem certiōrem fecit. 6. Cum principēs inter sē obsidēs darent, Rōmānī bellum parāvērunt. 7. Caesar, cum id nūntiātum esset, mātūrat ab urbe proficīscī. 8. Nē virtūte quidem Gallī erant parēs Germānis. 9. Caesar neque corpore neque animō īnfīrmus erat. 10. Illud bellum tum incēpit cum Caesar fuit cōnsul. Observe in each case what mood follows «cum», and try to give the reasons for its use. In the third sentence the «cum» clause is concessive, in the fourth and sixth causal. II. 1. That battle was fought at the time when («tum cum») I was at Rome. 2. Though the horsemen were few in number, nevertheless they did not retreat. 3. When the camp had been sufficiently fortified, the enemy returned home. 4. Since the tribes are giving hostages to each other, we shall inform Cæsar. 5. The Gauls and the Germans are very unlike in language and laws. LESSON LXXI VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE · THE PREDICATE GENITIVE «401.» Review the word lists in §§510, 511. «402.» «The Gerund.» Suppose we had to translate the sentence _By overcoming the Gauls Cæsar won great glory_ We can see that _overcoming_ here is a verbal noun corresponding to the English infinitive in _-ing_, and that the thought calls for the ablative of means. To translate this by the Latin infinitive would be impossible, because the infinitive is indeclinable and therefore has no ablative case form. Latin, however, has another verbal noun of corresponding meaning, called the «gerund», declined as a neuter of the second declension in the _genitive_, _dative_, _accusative_, and _ablative singular_, and thus supplying the cases that the infinitive lacks.[1] Hence, to decline in Latin the verbal noun _overcoming_, we should use the infinitive for the nominative and the gerund for the other cases, as follows: _Nom._ «superāre», _overcoming, to overcome_ INFINITIVE _Gen._ «superandī», _of overcoming_ } _Dat._ «superandō», _for overcoming_ } _Acc._ «superandum», _overcoming_ } GERUND _Abl._ «superandō», _by overcoming_ } Like the infinitive, the gerund governs the same case as the verb from which it is derived. So the sentence given above becomes in Latin «Superandō Gallōs Caesar magnam glōriam reportāvit» [Footnote 1: Sometimes, however, the infinitive is used as an accusative.] «403.» The gerund[2] is formed by adding «-ndī, -ndō, -ndum, -ndō», to the present stem, which is shortened or otherwise changed, as shown below: PARADIGM OF THE GERUND CONJ. I CONJ. II CONJ. III CONJ. IV _Gen._ amandī monendī regendī capiendī audiendī _Dat._ amandō monendō regendō capiendō audiendō _Acc._ amandum monendum regendum capiendum audiendum _Abl._ amandō monendō regendō capiendō audiendō _a._ Give the gerund of «cūrō», «dēleō», «sūmō», «iaciō», «veniō». _b._ Deponent verbs have the gerund of the active voice (see §493). Give the gerund of «cōnor», «vereor», «sequor», «patior», «partior». [Footnote 2: The gerund is the neuter singular of the future passive participle used as a noun, and has the same formation. (Cf. §374.d.)] «404.» «The Gerundive.» The gerundive is the name given to the future passive participle (§374.d) when the participle approaches the meaning of a verbal noun and is translated like a gerund. It is the adjective corresponding to the gerund. For example, to translate _the plan of waging war_, we may use the gerund with its direct object and say «cōnsilium gerendī bellum»; or we may use the gerundive and say «cōnsilium bellī gerendī», which means, literally, _the plan of the war to be waged_, but which came to have the same force as the gerund with its object, and was even preferred to it. «405.» Compare the following parallel uses of the gerund and gerundive: GERUND GERUNDIVE _Gen._ «Spēs faciendī pācem» «Spēs faciendae pācis» _Dat._ «Locus idōneus pugnandō» «Locus idōneus castrīs pōnendīs» _A place suitable for _A place suitable for fighting_ pitching camp_ _Acc._ «Mīsit equitēs ad īnsequendum» «Mīsit equitēs ad īnsequendōs hostīs» _He sent horsemen to pursue_ _He sent horsemen to pursue the enemy_ _Abl._ «Nārrandō fābulās magister «Nārrandīs fābulīs magister puerīs placuit» puerīs placuit» _The teacher pleased the _The teacher pleased the boys by telling stories_ boys by telling stories_ _a._ We observe (1) That the gerund is a noun and the gerundive an adjective. (2) That the gerund, being a noun, may stand alone or with an object. (3) That the gerundive, being an adjective, is used only in agreement with a noun. «406.» RULE. «Gerund and Gerundive.» 1. _The Gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns._ 2. _The Gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual._ «407.» RULE. «Gerund or Gerundive of Purpose.» _The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with_ «ad», _or the genitive with «causā»[3] (= for the sake of), is used to express purpose._ GERUND GERUNDIVE «Ad audiendum vēnērunt» or «Ad urbem videndam vēnērunt» or «Audiendī causā vēnērunt» «Urbis videndae causā vēnērunt» _They came to hear_ _They came to see the city_ [Footnote 3: «causā» always _follows_ the genitive.] NOTE. These sentences might, of course, be written with the subjunctive of purpose,--«vēnērunt ut audīrent»; «vēnērunt ut urbem vidērent.» In short expressions, however, the gerund and gerundive of purpose are rather more common. «408.» We have learned that the word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the genitive, as, «equus Galbae», _Galba’s horse._ If, now, we wish to express the idea _the horse is Galba’s_, Galba remains the possessor, and hence in the genitive as before, but now stands in the predicate, as, «equus est Galbae». Hence this is called the predicate genitive. «409.» RULE. «Predicate Genitive.» _The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, especially after the forms of «sum», and is then called the predicate genitive._ «410.» IDIOMS «alīcui negōtium dare», _to employ someone_ (lit. _to give business to some one_) «novīs rēbus studēre», _to be eager for a revolution_ (lit. _to be eager for new things_) «reī mīlitāris perītissimus», _very skillful in the art of war_ «sē suaque omnia», _themselves and all their possessions_ «411.» EXERCISES I. 1. Caesar cum in Galliā bellum gereret, militibus decimae legiōnis maximē fāvit quia reī mīlitāris perītissimī erant. 2. Sociīs negōtium dedit reī frumentāriae cūrandae. 3. Lēgāti nōn sōlum audiendī causā sed etiam dicendī causā vēnērunt. 4. Imperātor iussit explōrātōres locum idōneum mūnindō reperīre. 5. Nuper hae gentēs novīs rēbus studēbant; mox iīs persuādēbō ut Caesarī sē suaque omnia dēdant. 6. Iubēre est regīnae[4] et pārēre est multitūdinis.[4] 7. Hōc proeliō factō quīdam ex hostibus ad pācem petendam venērunt. 8. Erant quī arma trādere nōllent. 9. Hostēs tam celeriter prōgressī sunt ut spatium pīla in hostīs iaciendī non darētur. 10. Spatium neque arma capiendī[5] neque auxilī petendī[5] datum est. II. 1. These ornaments [6]belong to Cornelia. 2. Men very skillful in the art of war were sent [7]to capture the town. 3. The scouts found a hill suitable for fortifying very near to the river. 4. Soon the cavalry will come [8]to seek supplies. 5. The mind of the Gauls is eager for revolution and for undertaking wars. 6. To lead the line of battle [9]belongs to the general. 7. [10]Whom shall we employ to look after the grain supply? [Footnote 4: Predicate genitive.] [Footnote 5: Which of these expressions is gerund and which gerundive?] [Footnote 6: _belong to_ = _are of_.] [Footnote 7: Use the gerundive with «ad».] [Footnote 8: Use the genitive with «causā». Where should «causā» stand?] [Footnote 9: Compare the first sentence.] [Footnote 10: Compare the second sentence in the Latin above.] LESSON LXXII THE IRREGULAR VERB _EŌ_ · INDIRECT STATEMENTS «412.» Learn the principal parts and the conjugation of «eō», _go_ (§499). _a._ Notice that «ī-», the root of «eō», is changed to «e-» before a vowel, excepting in «iēns», the nominative of the present participle. In the perfect system «-v-» is regularly dropped. [ Conjugation given in §499: PRINCIPAL PARTS «eō, īre, iī (īvī), ĭtum» (n. perf. part.) PRES. STEM ī- PERF. STEM ī- or īv- PART. STEM it- INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE SING. PLUR. _Pres._ eō īmus eam _2d Pers._ ī īte īs ītis it eunt _Impf._ ībam īrem _Fut._ ībō ---- _2d Pers._ ītō ītōte _3d Pers._ ītō euntō _Perf._ iī (īvī) ierim (īverim) _Plup._ ieram (īveram) īssem (īvissem) _F. P._ ierō (īverō) INFINITIVE _Pres._ īre _Perf._ īsse (īvisse) _Fut._ itūrus, -a, -um esse PARTICIPLES _Pres._ iēns, _gen._ euntis (§472) _Fut._ itūrus, -a, -um _Ger._ eundum GERUND _Gen._ eundī _Dat._ eundō _Acc._ eundum _Abl._ eundō SUPINE _Acc._ [[itum]] _Abl._ [[itū]] ] «413.» Learn the meaning and principal parts of the following compounds of «eō» with prepositions: «ad´eō, adī´re, ad´iī, ad´itus», _go to, visit_, with the accusative «ex´eō, exī´re, ex´iī, ex´itus», _go forth_, with «ex» or «dē» and the ablative of the place from which «in´eō, inī´re, in´iī, in´itus», _begin, enter upon_, with the accusative «red´eō, redī´re, red´iī, red´itus», _return_, with «ad» or «in» and the accusative of the place to which «trāns´eō, trānsī´re, trāns´iī, trāns´itus», _cross_, with the accusative «414.» «Indirect Statements in English.» Direct statements are those which the speaker or writer makes himself or which are quoted in his exact language. Indirect statements are those reported in a different form of words from that used by the speaker or writer. Compare the following direct and indirect statements: { 1. The Gauls are brave Direct statements { 2. The Gauls were brave { 3. The Gauls will be brave Indirect statements { 1. _He says_ that the Gauls _are_ brave after a verb in { 2. _He says_ that the Gauls _were_ brave the present tense { 3. _He says_ that the Gauls _will be_ brave Indirect statements { 1. _He said_ that the Gauls _were_ brave after a verb in { 2. _He said_ that the Gauls _had been_ brave a past tense { 3. _He said_ that the Gauls _would be_ brave We see that in English _a._ The indirect statement forms a clause introduced by the conjunction _that_. _b._ The verb is finite (cf. §173) and its subject is in the nominative. _c._ The tenses of the verbs originally used are changed after the past tense, _He said._ «415.» «Indirect Statements in Latin.» In Latin the direct and indirect statements above would be as follows: DIRECT { 1. «Gallī sunt fortēs» STATEMENTS { 2. «Gallī erant fortēs» { 3. «Gallī erunt fortēs» { 1. «Dīcit» or «Dīxit Gallōs esse fortīs» { (_He says_ or _He said_ { _the Gauls to be brave_)[1] INDIRECT { 2. «Dīcit» or «Dīxit Gallōs fuisse fortīs» STATEMENTS { (_He says_ or _He said_ { _the Gauls to have been brave_)[1] { 3. «Dīcit» or «Dīxit Gallōs futūrōs esse fortīs» { (_He says_ or _He said_ { _the Gauls to be about to be brave_)[1] [Footnote 1: These parenthetical renderings are not inserted as translations, but merely to show the literal meaning of the Latin.] Comparing these Latin indirect statements with the English in the preceding section, we observe three marked differences: _a._ There is no conjunction corresponding to _that_. _b._ The verb is in the infinitive and its subject is in the accusative. _c._ The tenses of the infinitive are not changed after a past tense of the principal verb. «416.» RULE. «Indirect Statements.» _When a direct statement becomes indirect, the principal verb is changed to the infinitive and its subject nominative becomes subject accusative of the infinitive._ «417.» «Tenses of the Infinitive.» When the sentences in §415 were changed from the direct to the indirect form of statement, «sunt» became «esse», «erant» became «fuisse», and «erunt» became «futūrōs esse». «418.» RULE. «Infinitive Tenses in Indirect Statements.» _A present indicative of a direct statement becomes present infinitive of the indirect, a past indicative becomes perfect infinitive, and a future indicative becomes future infinitive._ NOTE. When translating into Latin an English indirect statement, first decide what tense of the indicative would have been used in the direct form. That will show you what tense of the infinitive to use in the indirect. «419.» RULE. «Verbs followed by Indirect Statements.» _The accusative-with-infinitive construction in indirect statements is found after verbs of «saying», «telling», «knowing», «thinking», and «perceiving»._ «420.» Verbs regularly followed by indirect statements are: _a_. Verbs of saying and telling: «dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus», _say_ «negō, negāre, negāvī, negātus», _deny, say not_ «nūntiō, nūntiāre, nūntiāvī, nūntiātus», _announce_ «respondeō, respondēre, respondī, respōnsus», _reply_ _b_. Verbs of knowing: «cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvī, cognitus», _learn_, (in the perf.) _know_ «sciō, scīre, scīvī, scītus», _know_ _c_. Verbs of thinking: «arbitror, arbitrārī, arbitrātus sum», _think, consider_ «exīstimō, exīstimāre, exīstimāvī, exīstimātus», _think, believe_ «iūdicō, iūdicāre, iūdicāvi, iūdicātus», _judge, decide_ «putō, putāre, putāvī, putātus», _reckon, think_ «spērō, spērāre, spērāvi, spērātus», _hope_ _d_. Verbs of perceiving: «audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus», _hear_ «sentiō, sentīre, sēnsī, sēnsus», _feel, perceive_ «videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsus», _see_ «intellegō, intellegere, intellēxī, intellēctus», _understand, perceive_ Learn such of these verbs as are new to you. «421.» IDIOMS «postrīdiē eius diēī», _on the next day_ (lit. _on the next day of that day_) «initā aestāte», _at the beginning of summer_ «memoriā tenēre», _to remember_ (lit. _to hold by memory_) «per explōrātōrēs cognōscere», _to learn through scouts_ «422.» EXERCISES I. 1. It, īmus, īte, īre. 2. Euntī, iisse _or_ īsse, ībunt, eunt. 3. Eundi, ut eant, ībitis, īs. 4. Nē īrent, ī, ībant, ierat. 5. Caesar per explorātores cognōvit Gallōs flūmen trānsīsse. 6. Rōmānī audīvērunt Helvētiōs initā aestāte dē fīnibus suīs exitūrōs esse. 7. Legātī respondērunt nēminem ante Caesarem illam īnsulam adīsse. 8. Prīncipēs Gallōrum dīcunt sē nūllum cōnsilium contrā Caesaris imperium initūrōs esse. 9. Arbitrāmur potentiam rēgīnae esse maiōrem quam cīvium. 10. Rōmānī negant se lībertātem Gallīs ēreptūrōs esse. 11. Hīs rēbus cognitīs sēnsimus lēgātōs non vēnisse ad pācem petendam. 12. Helvētii sciunt Rōmānōs priōrēs victōriās memoriā tenēre. 13. Sociī cum intellegerent multōs vulnerārī, statuērunt in suōs fīnīs redīre. 14. Aliquis nūntiāvit Mārcum cōnsulem creātum esse. II. 1. The boy is slow. He says that the boy is, was, (and) will be slow. 2. The horse is, has been, (and) will be strong. He judged that the horse was, had been, (and) would be strong. 3. We think that the army will go forth from the camp at the beginning of summer. 4. The next day we learned through scouts that the enemy’s town was ten miles off.[2] 5. The king replied that the ornaments belonged to[3] the queen. [Footnote 2: _to be off, to be distant_, «abesse».] [Footnote 3: Latin, _were of_ (§409).] [Illustration: TUBA] LESSON LXXIII VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE IRREGULAR VERB _FERŌ_ THE DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS «423.» Review the word lists in §§513, 514. «424.» Learn the principal parts and conjugation of the verb «ferō», _bear_ (§498). 1. Learn the principal parts and meanings of the following compounds of ferō, _bear_: «ad´ferō, adfer´re, at´tulī, adlā´tus», _bring to; report_ «cōn´ferō, cōnfer´re, con´tulī, conlā´tus», _bring together, collect_ «dē´ferō, dēfer´re, dē´tulī, dēlā´tus», _bring to; report; grant, confer_ «īn´ferō, īnfer´re, in´tulī, inlā´tus», _bring in, bring against_ «re´ferō, refer´re, ret´tulī, relā´tus», _bear back, report_ [ Conjugation given in §498: PRINCIPAL PARTS «ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus» PRES. STEM fer- PERF. STEM tul- PART. STEM lāt- INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ ferō ferimus feror ferimur fers fertīs ferris, -re ferimimī fert ferunt fertur feruntur _Impf._ ferēbam ferēbar _Fut._ feram, ferēs, etc. ferar, ferēris, etc. _Perf._ tulī lātus, -a, -um sum _Plup._ tuleram lātus, -a, -um eram _F.P._ tulerō lātus, -a, -um erō SUBJUNCTIVE _Pres._ feram, ferās, etc. ferar, ferāris, etc. _Impf._ ferrem ferrer _Perf._ tulerim lātus, -a, -um sim _Plup._ tulissem lātus, -a, -um essem IMPERATIVE _Pres. 2d Pers._ fer ferte ferre feriminī _Fut. 2d Pers._ fertō fertōte fertor _3d Pers._ fertō ferunto fertor feruntor INFINITIVE _Pres._ ferre ferrī _Perf._ tulisse lātus, -a, -um esse _Fut._ lātūrus, -a, -um esse ---- PARTICIPLES _Pres._ ferēns, -entis _Pres._ ---- _Fut._ lātūrus, -a, -um _Ger._ ferendus, -a, -um _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ lātus, -a, -um GERUND _Gen._ ferendī _Dat._ ferendō _Acc._ ferendum _Abl._ ferendō SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[lātum]] _Abl._ [[lātū]] ] «425.» The dative is the case of the indirect object. Many intransitive verbs take an indirect object and are therefore used with the dative (cf. §153). Transitive verbs take a direct object in the accusative; but sometimes they have an indirect object or dative as well. _The whole question, then, as to whether or not a verb takes the dative, depends upon its capacity for governing an indirect object._ A number of verbs, some transitive and some intransitive, which in their simple form would not take an indirect object, when compounded with certain prepositions, have a meaning which calls for an indirect object. Observe the following sentences: 1. «Haec rēs exercituī magnam calamitātem attulit», _this circumstance brought great disaster to the army._ 2. «Germānī Gallīs bellum īnferunt», _the Germans make war upon the Gauls._ 3. «Hae cōpiae proeliō nōn intererant», _these troops did not take part in the battle._ 4. «Equitēs fugientibus hostibus occurrunt», _the horsemen meet the fleeing enemy._ 5. «Galba cōpiīs fīlium praefēcit», _Galba put his son in command of the troops._ In each sentence there is a dative, and in each a verb combined with a preposition. In no case would the simple verb take the dative. «426.» RULE. «Dative with Compounds.» _Some verbs compounded with «ad», «ante», «con», «dē», «in», «inter», «ob», «post», «prae», «prō», «sub», «super», admit the dative of the indirect object. Transitive compounds may take both an accusative and a dative._ NOTE 1. Among such verbs are[1] «ad´ferō, adfer´re, at´tulī, adlā´tus», _bring to; report_ «ad´sum, ades´se, ad´fuī, adfutū´rus», _assist; be present_ «dē´ferō, dēfer´re, dē´tulī, dēlātus», _report; grant, confer_ «dē´sum, dees´se, dē´fuī,----», _be wanting, be lacking_ «īn´ferō, īnfer´re, in´tulī, inlā´tus», _bring against, bring upon_ «inter´sum, interes´se, inter´fuī, interfutū´rus», _take part in_ «occur´rō, occur´rere, occur´rī, occur´sus», _run against, meet_ «praefi´ciō, praefi´cere, praefē´cī, praefec´tus», _appoint over, place in command of_ «prae´sum, praees´se, prae´fuī, ----», _be over, be in command_ [Footnote 1: But the accusative with «ad» or «in» is used with some of these, when the idea of _motion to_ or _against_ is strong.] «427.» IDIOMS «graviter» or «molestē ferre», _to be annoyed at, to be indignant at_, followed by the accusative and infinitive «sē cōnferre ad» or «in», with the accusative, _to betake one’s self to_ «alicui bellum īnferre», _to make war upon some one_ «pedem referre», _to retreat_ (lit. _to bear back the foot_) «428.» EXERCISES I. 1. Fer, ferent, ut ferant, ferunt. 2. Ferte, ut ferrent, tulisse, tulerant. 3. Tulimus, ferēns, lātus esse, ferre. 4. Cum nāvigia insulae adpropinquārent, barbarī terrōre commōtī pedem referre cōnātī sunt. 5. Gallī molestē ferēbant Rōmānōs agrōs vastāre. 6. Caesar sociīs imperāvit nē fīnitimis suīs bellum īnferrent. 7. Explorātōrēs, qui Caesarī occurrērunt, dīxērunt exercitum hostium vulneribus dēfessum sēsē in alium locum contulisse. 8. Hostes sciēbant Rōmānōs frūmentō egēre et hanc rem Caesarī summum perīculum adlātūram esse. 9. Impedīmentīs in ūnum locum conlātis, aliquī mīlitum flūmen quod nōn longē aberat trānsiērunt. 10. Hōs rēx hortātus est ut ōrāculum adīrent et rēs audītās ad sē referrent. 11. Quem imperātor illī legiōnī praefēcit? Pūblius illī legiōnī pracerat. 12. Cum esset Caesar in citeriōre Galliā, crēbrī ad eum[2] rūmōrēs adferēbantur litterīsque quoque certior fīēbat Gallōs obsidēs inter sē dare. II. 1. The Gauls will make war upon Cæsar’s allies. 2. We heard that the Gauls would make war upon Cæsar’s allies. 3. Publius did not take part in that battle. 4. We have been informed that Publius did not take part in that battle. 5. The man who was in command of the cavalry was wounded and began to retreat. 6. Cæsar did not place you in command of the cohort to bring[3] disaster upon the army. [Footnote 2: Observe that when «adferō» denotes _motion to_, it is not followed by the dative; cf. footnote, p. 182.] [Footnote 3: Not the infinitive. (Cf. §352.)] LESSON LXXIV VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS «429.» Review the word lists in §§517, 518. «430.» When we report a statement instead of giving it directly, we have an indirect statement. (Cf. §414.) So, if we report a question instead of asking it directly, we have an indirect question. DIRECT QUESTION INDIRECT QUESTION _Who conquered the Gauls? He asked who conquered the Gauls_ _a._ An indirect question depends, usually as object, upon a verb of asking (as «petō», «postulō», «quaerō», «rogō») or upon some verb or expression of saying or mental action. (Cf. §420.) «431.» Compare the following direct and indirect questions: DIRECT INDIRECT «Quis Gallōs vincit?» { _a._ «Rogat quis Gallōs vincat» _Who is conquering the_ { _He asks who is conquering the_ _Gauls?_ { _Gauls_ { _b._ «Rogavit quis Gallōs vinceret» { _He asked who was conquering_ { _the Gauls_ { _a._ «Rogat ubi sit Rōma» «Ubī est Rōma?» { _He asks where Rome is_ _Where is Rome?_ { _b._ «Rogāvit ubi esset Rōma» { _He asked where Rome was_ { _a._ «Rogat num Caesar Gallōs vīcerit» { _He asks whether Cæsar conquered_ «Caesarne Gallōs vīcit?» { _the Gauls_ _Did Cæsar conquer the_ { _b._ «Rogāvit num Caesar Gallōs _Gauls?_ { «vīcisset» { _He asked whether Cæsar had_ { _conquered the Gauls_ _a._ The verb in a direct question is in the indicative mood, but the mood is subjunctive in an indirect question. _b._ The tense of the subjunctive follows the rules for tense sequence. _c._ Indirect questions are introduced by the same interrogative words as introduce direct questions, excepting that_yes_-or-_no_ direct questions (cf. §210) on becoming indirect are usually introduced by «num», _whether_. «432.» RULE. «Indirect Questions.» _In an indirect question the verb is in the subjunctive and its tense is determined by the law for tense sequence._ «433.» IDIOMS «dē tertiā vigiliā», _about the third watch_ «iniūriās alicui īnferre», _to inflict injuries upon some one_ «facere verba prō», with the ablative, _to speak in behalf of_ «in reliquum tempus», _for the future_ «434.» EXERCISES I. 1. Rēx rogāvit quid lēgātī postulārent et cūr ad sē vēnissent. 2. Quaesīvit quoque num nec recentīs iniūriās nec dubiam Rōmānōrum amīcitiam memoriā tenērent. 3. Vidētisne quae oppida hostēs oppugnāverint? 4. Nōnne scītis cūr Gallī sub montem sēse contulerint? 5. Audīvimus quās iniūrias tibi Germānī intulissent. 6. Dē tertiā vigiliā imperātor mīsit hominēs quī cognōscerent quae esset nātūra montis. 7. Prō hīs ōrātor verba fēcit et rogāvit cūr cōnsulēs nāvīs ad plēnem summī perīculī locum mittere vellent. 8. Lēgātīs convocātīs dēmōnstrāvit quid fierī vellet. 9. Nūntius referēbat quid in Gallōrum conciliō dē armīs trādendīs dictum esset. 10. Moneō nē in reliquum tempus peditēs et equitēs trāns flūmen dūcās. II. 1. What hill did they seize? I see what hill they seized. 2. Who has inflicted these injuries upon our dependents? 3. They asked who had inflicted those injuries upon their dependents. 4. Whither did you go about the third watch? You know whither I went. 5. At what time did the boys return home? I will ask at what time the boys returned home. LESSON LXXV VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE DATIVE OF PURPOSE, OR END FOR WHICH «435.» Review the word lists in §§521, 522. «436.» Observe the following sentences: 1. «Explōrātōrēs locum castrīs dēlēgērunt», _the scouts chose a place for a camp._ 2. «Hoc erat magnō impedīmentō Gallīs», _this was_ (for) _a great hindrance to the Gauls._ 3. «Duās legiōnēs praesidiō castrīs relīquit», _he left two legions as_ (lit. _for_) _a guard to the camp._ In each of these sentences we find a dative expressing the _purpose or end for which_ something is intended or for which it serves. These datives are «castrīs», «impedīmentō», and «praesidiō». In the second and third sentences we find a second dative expressing the _person or thing affected_ («Gallīs» and «castrīs»). As you notice, these are true datives, covering the relations of _for which_ and _to which_. (Cf. §43.) «437.» RULE. «Dative of Purpose or End.» _The dative is used to denote the «purpose or end for which», often with another dative denoting the «person or thing affected»._ «438.» IDIOMS «cōnsilium omittere», _to give up a plan_ «locum castrīs dēligere», _to choose a place for a camp_ «alicui magnō ūsuī esse», _to be of great advantage to some one_ (lit. _for great advantage to some one_) «439.» EXERCISES I. 1. Rogāvit cūr illae cōpiae relictae essent. Respondērunt illās cōpiās esse praesidiō castrīs. 2. Caesar mīsit explōrātōrēs ad locum dēligendum castrīs. 3. Quisque exīstimāvit ipsum nōmen Caesaris magnō terrōrī barbarīs futūrum esse. 4. Prīmā lūce īdem exercitus proelium ācre commīsit, sed gravia suōrum vulnera magnae cūrae imperātōrī erant. 5. Rēx respondit amīcitiam populī Rōmānī sibi ōrnāmentō et praesidiō dēbēre esse. 6. Quis praeerat equitātuī quem auxiliō Caesarī sociī mīserant? 7. Aliquibus rēs secundae sunt summae calamitātī et rēs adversae sunt mīrō ūsuī. 8. Gallīs magnō ad pugnam erat impedīmentō quod equitātus ā dextrō cornū premēbat. 9. Memoria prīstinae virtūtis nōn minus quam metus hostium erat nostrīs magnō ūsuī. 10. Tam dēnsa erat silva ut prōgredī nōn possent. II. 1. I advise you [1]to give up the plan [2]of making war upon the brave Gauls. 2. Do you know [3]where the cavalry has chosen a place for a camp? 3. The fear of the enemy will be of great advantage to you. 4. Cæsar left three cohorts as (for) a guard to the baggage. 5. In winter the waves of the lake are so great [4]that they are (for) a great hindrance to ships. 6. Cæsar inflicted severe[5] punishment on those who burned the public buildings. [Footnote 1: Subjunctive of purpose. (Cf. §366.)] [Footnote 2: Express by the genitive of the gerundive.] [Footnote 3: Indirect question.] [Footnote 4: A clause of result.] [Footnote 5: «gravis, -e.»] LESSON LXXVI VOCABULARY REVIEW · THE GENITIVE AND ABLATIVE OF QUALITY OR DESCRIPTION «440.» Review the word lists in §§524, 525. «441.» Observe the English sentences (1) _A man «of» great courage_, or (2) _A man «with» great courage_ (3) _A forest «of» tall trees_, or (4) _A forest «with» tall trees_ Each of these sentences contains a phrase of quality or description. In the first two a man is described; in the last two a forest. The descriptive phrases are introduced by the prepositions _of_ and _with_. In Latin the expression of quality or description is very similar. The prepositions _of_ and _with_ suggest the genitive and the ablative respectively, and we translate the sentences above (1) «Vir magnae virtūtis», or (2) «Vir magnā virtūte» (3) «Silva altārum arborum», or (4) «Silva altīs arboribus» There is, however, one important difference between the Latin and the English. In English we may say, for example, _a man of courage_, using the descriptive phrase without an adjective modifier. _In Latin, however, an adjective modifier must always be used_, as above. _a._ Latin makes a distinction between the use of the two cases in that _numerical descriptions of measure are in the genitive_ and _descriptions of physical characteristics are in the ablative._ Other descriptive phrases may be in either case. «442.» EXAMPLES 1. «Fossa duodecim pedum», _a ditch of twelve feet_. 2. «Homō magnīs pedibus et parvō capite», _a man with big feet and a small head_. 3. «Rēx erat vir summā audāciā» or «rēx erat vir summae audāciae», _the king was a man of the greatest boldness_. «443.» RULE. «Genitive of Description.» _Numerical descriptions of measure are expressed by the genitive with a modifying adjective._ «444.» RULE. «Ablative of Description.» _Descriptions of physical characteristics are expressed by the ablative with a modifying adjective._ «445.» RULE. «Genitive or Ablative of Description.» _Descriptions involving neither numerical statements nor physical characteristics may be expressed by either the genitive or the ablative with a modifying adjective._ «446.» IDIOMS «Helvētiīs in animō est», _the Helvetii intend_, (lit. _it is in mind to the Helvetians_) «in mātrimōnium dare», _to give in marriage_ «nihil posse», _to have no power_ «fossam perdūcere», _to construct a ditch_ (lit. _to lead a ditch through_) «447.» EXERCISES I. 1. Mīlitēs fossam decem pedum per eōrum fīnīs perdūxērunt. 2. Prīnceps Helvētiōrum, vir summae audāciae, prīncipibus gentium fīnitimārum sorōrēs in mātrimōnium dedit. 3. Eōrum amīcitiam cōnfīrmāre voluit quō facilius Rōmānīs bellum īnferret. 4. Germanī et Gallī nōn erant eiusdem gentis. 5. Omnēs ferē Germānī erant magnīs corporum vīribus.[1] 6. Gallī qui oppidum fortiter dēfendēbant saxa ingentis magnitūdinis dē mūrō iaciēbant. 7. Cum Caesar ab explōrātōribus quaereret quī illud oppidum incolerent, explōrātōrēs respondērunt eōs esse homines summā virtūte et magnō cōnsiliō. 8. Moenia vīgintī pedum ā sinistrā parte, et ā dextrā parte flūmen magnae altitūdinis oppidum dēfendēbant. 9. Cum Caesar in Galliam pervēnisset, erat rūmor Helvētiīs in animō esse iter per prōvinciam Rōmānam facere. 10. Caesar, ut eōs ab fīnibus Rōmānis prohibēret, mūnītiōnem [2]multa mīlia passuum longam fēcit. II. 1. Cæsar was a general of much wisdom and great boldness, and very skillful in the art of war. 2. The Germans were of great size, and thought that the Romans had no power. 3. Men of the highest courage were left in the camp as (for) a guard to the baggage. 4. The king’s daughter, who was given in marriage to the chief of a neighboring state, was a woman of very beautiful appearance. 5. The soldiers will construct a ditch of nine feet around the camp. 6. A river of great width was between us and the enemy. [Footnote 1: From «vīs». (Cf. §468.)] [Footnote 2: Genitives and ablatives of description are adjective phrases. When we use an _adverbial_ phrase to tell _how long_ or _how high_ or _how deep_ anything is, we must use the accusative of extent. (Cf. §336.) For example, in the sentence above «multa mīlia passuum» is an adverbial phrase (accusative of extent) modifying «longam». If we should omit «longam» and say _a fortification of many miles_, the genitive of description (an adjective phrase) modifying «mūnītiōnem» would be used, as «mūnītiōnem multōrum mīlium passuum».] [Illustration: GLADII] LESSON LXXVII REVIEW OF AGREEMENT, AND OF THE GENITIVE, DATIVE, AND ACCUSATIVE «448.» There are four agreements: 1. That of the predicate noun or of the appositive with the noun to which it belongs (§§76, 81). 2. That of the adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle with its noun (§65). 3. That of a verb with its subject (§28). 4. That of a relative pronoun with its antecedent (§224). «449.» The relation expressed by the «genitive» is, in general, denoted in English by the preposition _of_. It is used to express { _a._ As attributive (§38). 1. Possession { { _b._ In the predicate (§409). 2. The whole of which a part is taken (partitive genitive) (§331). 3. Quality or description (§§443, 445). «450.» The relation expressed by the «dative» is, in general, denoted in English by the prepositions _to_ or _for_ when they do not imply motion through space. It is used to express { _a._ With intransitive verbs and with { transitive verbs in connection with a { direct object in the accusative (§45). 1. The indirect object { _b_. With special intransitive verbs (§154). { _c_. With verbs compounded with «ad», «ante», { «con», «dē», «in», «inter», «ob», «post», { «prae», «prō», «sub», «super» (§426). 2. The object to which the quality of an adjective is directed (§143). 3. The purpose, or end for which, often with a second dative denoting the person or thing affected (§437). «451.» The «accusative» case corresponds, in general, to the English objective. It is used to express 1. The direct object of a transitive verb (§37). 2. The predicate accusative together with the direct object after verbs of _making, choosing, falling, showing_, and the like (§392). 3. The subject of the infinitive (§214). 4. The object of prepositions that do not govern the ablative (§340). 5. The duration of time and the extent of space (§336). 6. The place to which (§§263, 266). «452.» EXERCISES I. 1. Mīlitēs quōs vīdimus dīxērunt imperium bellī esse Caesaris imperātōris. 2. Helvētiī statuērunt quam[1] maximum numerum equōrum et carrōrum cōgere. 3. Tōtīus Galliae Helvētiī plūrimum valuērunt. 4. Multās hōrās ācriter pugnātum est neque quisquam poterat vidēre hostem fugientem. 5. Virī summae virtūtis hostīs decem mīlia passuum īnsecūtī sunt. 6. Caesar populō Rōmānō persuāsit ut sē cōnsulem creāret. 7. Victōria exercitūs erat semper imperātōrī grātissima. 8. Trīduum iter fēcērunt et Genāvam, in oppidum[2] hostium, pervēnērunt. 9. Caesar audīvit Germānōs bellum Gallīs intulisse. 10. Magnō ūsuī mīlitibus Caesaris erat quod priōribus proeliīs sēsē exercuerant. II. 1. One[3] of the king’s sons and many of his men were captured. 2. There was no one who wished[4] to appoint her queen. 3. The grain supply was always a care (for a care) to Cæsar, the general. 4. I think that the camp is ten miles distant. 5. We marched for three hours through a very dense forest. 6. The plan [5]of making war upon the allies was not pleasing to the king. 7. When he came to the hill he fortified it [6]by a twelve-foot wall. [Footnote 1: What is the force of «quam» with superlatives?] [Footnote 2: «urbs» or «oppidum», appositive to a name of a town, takes a preposition.] [Footnote 3: What construction is used with numerals in preference to the partitive genitive?] [Footnote 4: What mood? (Cf. §390.)] [Footnote 5: Use the gerund or gerundive.] [Footnote 6: Latin, _by a wall of twelve feet._] LESSON LXXVIII REVIEW OF THE ABLATIVE «453.» The relations of the ablative are, in general, expressed in English by the prepositions _with_ (or _by_), _from_ (or _by_), and _in_ (or _at_). The constructions growing out of these meanings are I. Ablative rendered _with_ (or _by_): 1. Cause (§102) 2. Means (§103) 3. Accompaniment (§104) 4. Manner (§105) 5. Measure of difference (§317) 6. With a participle (ablative absolute) (§381) 7. Description or quality (§§444, 445) 8. Specification (§398) II. Ablative rendered _from_ (or _by_): 1. Place from which (§§179, 264) 2. Ablative of separation (§180) 3. Personal agent with a passive verb (§181) 4. Comparison without «quam» (§309) III. Ablative rendered _in_ (or _at_): 1. Place at or in which (§§265, 266) 2. Time when or within which (§275) «454.» EXERCISES I. 1. Gallī locīs superiōribus occupātīs itinere exercitum prohibēre cōnantur. 2. Omnēs oppidānī ex oppidō ēgressī salūtem fugā petere incēpērunt. 3. Caesar docet sē mīlitum vītam suā salūte habēre multō cāriōrem. 4. Cum celerius omnium opīniōne pervēnisset, hostēs ad eum obsidēs mīsērunt 5. Vīcus in valle positus montibus altissimīs undique continētur. 6. Plūrimum inter Gallōs haec gēns et virtūte et hominum numerō valēbat. 7. Secundā vigiliā nūllō certō ōrdine neque imperiō ē castrīs ēgressī sunt. 8. Duābus legiōnibus Genāvae relictīs, proximō diē cum reliquīs domum profectus est. 9. Erant itinera duo quibus itineribus Helvētiī domō exīre possent. 10. Rēx erat summā audāciā et magnā apud populum potentiā. 11. Gallī timōre servitūtis commōtī bellum parābant. 12. Caesar monet lēgātōs ut contineant militēs, nē studiō pugnandī aut spē praedae longius[1] prōgrediantur. 13. Bellum ācerrimum ā Caesare in Gallōs gestum est. II. 1. The lieutenant after having seized the mountain restrained his (men) from battle. 2. All the Gauls differ from each other in laws. 3. This tribe is much braver than the rest. 4. This road is [2]ten miles shorter than that. 5. In summer Cæsar carried on war in Gaul, in winter he returned to Italy. 6. At midnight the general set out from the camp with three legions. 7. I fear that you cannot protect[3] yourself from these enemies. 8. [4]After this battle was finished peace was made by all the Gauls. [Footnote 1: «longius», _too far_. (Cf. §305.)] [Footnote 2: Latin, _by ten thousands of paces_.] [Footnote 3: «dēfendere».] [Footnote 4: Ablative absolute.] LESSON LXXIX REVIEW OF THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE, THE INFINITIVE, AND THE SUBJUNCTIVE «455.» The gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns (§§402, 406.1). «456.» The gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object, excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual (§406.2). «457.» The infinitive is used: I. As in English. _a._ As subject or predicate nominative (§216). _b._ To complete the predicate with verbs of incomplete predication (complementary infinitive) (§215). _c._ As object with subject accusative after verbs of _wishing, commanding, forbidding_, and the like (§213). II. In the principal sentence of an indirect statement after verbs of _saying _and _mental action_. The subject is in the accusative (§§416, 418, 419). «458.» The subjunctive is used: 1. To denote purpose (§§349, 366, 372). 2. To denote consequence or result (§§385, 386). 3. In relative clauses of characteristic or description (§390). 4. In «cum» clauses of time, cause, and concession (§396). 5. In indirect questions (§432). «459.» EXERCISES I. 1. Caesar, cum pervēnisset, militēs hortābātur nē cōnsilium oppidī capiendi omitterent. 2. Rēx, castrīs prope oppidum positīs, mīsit explōrātōrēs quī cognōscerent ubi exercitus Rōmanus esset. 3. Nēmo relinquēbātur quī arma ferre posset. 4. Nūntiī vīdērunt ingentem armōrum multitudinem dē mūrō in fossani iactam esse. 5. Dux suōs trānsīre flūmen iussit. Trānsīre autem hoc flūmen erat difficillimum. 6. Rōmānī cum hanc calamitātem molestē ferrant, tamen terga vertere recūsāvērunt. 7. Hōc rūmōre audītō, tantus terror omnium animōs occupāvit ut nē fortissimī quidem proelium committere vellent. 8. Erant quī putārent tempus annī idōneum nōn esse itinerī faciendō. 9. Tam ācriter ab utraque parte pugnābātur ut multa mīlia hominum occīderentur. 10. Quid timēs? Timeō nē Rōmānīs in animō sit tōtam Galliam superāre et nōbīs iniūriās inferre. II. 1. Do you not see who is standing on the wall? 2. We hear that the plan of taking the town has been given up. 3. Since the Germans thought that the Romans could not cross the Rhine, Cæsar ordered a bridge to be made. 4. When the bridge was finished, the savages were so terrified that they hid themselves. 5. They feared that Cæsar would pursue them. 6. Cæsar [1]asked the traders what the size of the island was. 7. The traders advised him not [2]to cross the sea. 8. He sent scouts [3]to choose a place for a camp. [Footnote 1: «quaerere ab».] [Footnote 2: Not infinitive.] [Footnote 3: Use the gerundive with «ad».] READING MATTER INTRODUCTORY SUGGESTIONS «How to Translate.» You have already had considerable practice in translating simple Latin, and have learned that the guide to the meaning lies in the endings of the words. If these are neglected, no skill can make sense of the Latin. If they are carefully noted and accurately translated, not many difficulties remain. Observe the following suggestions: 1. Read the Latin sentence through to the end, noting endings of nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc. 2. Read it again and see if any of the words you know are nominatives or accusatives. This will often give you what may be called the backbone of the sentence; that is, subject, verb, and object. 3. Look up the words you do not know, and determine their use in the sentence from their endings. 4. If you cannot yet translate the sentence, put down the English meanings of all the words _in the same order as the Latin words_. You will then generally see through the meaning of the sentence. 5. Be careful to _a._ Translate adjectives with the nouns to which they belong. _b._ Translate together prepositions and the nouns which they govern. _c._ Translate adverbs with the words that they modify. _d._ _Make sense._ If you do not make sense, you have made a mistake. One mistake will spoil a whole sentence. 6. When the sentence is correctly translated, read the Latin over again, and try to understand it as Latin, without thinking of the English translation. «The Parts of a Sentence.» You will now meet somewhat longer sentences than you have had before. To assist in translating them, remember, first of all, that every sentence conveys a meaning and either tells us something, asks a question, or gives a command. Every sentence must have a subject and a verb, and the verb may always have an adverb, and, if transitive, will have a direct object. However long a sentence is, you will usually be able to recognize its subject, verb, and object or predicate complement without any difficulty. These will give you the leading thought, and they must never be lost sight of while making out the rest of the sentence. The chief difficulty in translating arises from the fact that instead of a single adjective, adverb, or noun, we often have a phrase or a clause taking the place of one of these; for Latin, like English, has adjective, adverbial, and substantive clauses and phrases. For example, in the sentence _The idle boy does not study_, the word _idle_ is an adjective. In _The boy wasting his time does not study_, the words _wasting his time_ form an adjective phrase modifying _boy_. In the sentence _The boy who wastes his time does not study_, the words _who wastes his time_ form an adjective clause modifying _boy_, and the sentence is complex. These sentences would show the same structure in Latin. In translating, it is important to keep the parts of a phrase and the parts of a clause together and not let them become confused with the principal sentence. To distinguish between the subordinate clauses and the principal sentence is of the first importance, and is not difficult if you remember that a clause regularly contains a word that marks it as a clause and that this word usually stands first. These words join clauses to the words they depend on, and are called _subordinate conjunctions_. They are not very numerous, and you will soon learn to recognize them. In Latin they are the equivalents for such words as _when, while, since, because, if, before, after, though, in order that, that_, etc. Form the habit of memorizing the Latin subordinate conjunctions as you meet them, and of noting carefully the mood of the verb in the clauses which they introduce. [Illustration: HERCULES] THE LABORS OF HERCULES Hercules, a Greek hero celebrated for his great strength, was pursued throughout his life by the hatred of Juno. While yet an infant he strangled some serpents sent by the goddess to destroy him. During his boyhood and youth he performed various marvelous feats of strength, and on reaching manhood he succeeded in delivering the Thebans from the oppression of the Minyæ. In a fit of madness, sent upon him by Juno, he slew his own children; and, on consulting the Delphic oracle as to how he should cleanse himself from this crime, he was ordered to submit himself for twelve years to Eurystheus, king of Tiryns, and to perform whatever tasks were appointed him. Hercules obeyed the oracle, and during the twelve years of his servitude accomplished twelve extraordinary feats known as the Labors of Hercules. His death was caused, unintentionally, by his wife Deiani´ra. Hercules had shot with his poisoned arrows a centaur named Nessus, who had insulted Deianira. Nessus, before he died, gave some of his blood to Deianira, and told her it would act as a charm to secure her husband’s love. Some time after, Deianira, wishing to try the charm, soaked one of her husband’s garments in the blood, not knowing that it was poisoned. Hercules put on the robe, and, after suffering terrible torments, died, or was carried off by his father Jupiter. [Illustration: HERCULES ET SERPENTES] LIII.[1] THE INFANT HERCULES AND THE SERPENTS Dī[2] grave supplicium sūmmit de malīs, sed iī quī lēgibus[3] deōrum pārent, etiam post mortem cūrantur. Illa vīta dīs[2] erat grātissima quae hominibus miserīs ūtilissima fuerat. Omnium autem praemiōrum summum erat immortālitās. Illud praemium Herculī datum est. Herculis pater fuit Iuppiter, māter Alcmēna, et omnium hominum validissimus fuisse dīcitur. Sed Iūnō, rēgīna deōrum, eum, adhūc īnfantem, interficere studēbat; nam eī[1] et[2] Herculēs et Alcmēna erant invīsī. Itaque mīsit duās serpentīs, utramque saevissimam, quae mediā nocte domum[3] Alcmēnae vēnērunt. Ibi Herculēs, cum frātre suō, nōn in lectulō sed in scūtō ingentī dormiēbat. Iam audācēs serpentēs adpropinquāverant, iam scūtum movēbant. Tum frāter, terrōre commōtus, magnā vōce mātrem vocāvit, sed Herculēs ipse, fortior quam frāter, statim ingentīs serpentīs manibus suīs rapuit et interfēcit. [Footnote 1: This number refers to the lesson after which the selection may be read.] [Footnote 2: «Dī» and «dīs» are from «deus». Cf. §468.] [Footnote 3: «lēgibus», §501.14.] [Footnote 1: «eī», _to her_, referring to Juno.] [Footnote 2: «et ... et», _both ... and_.] [Footnote 3: «domum», §501.20.] LIV. HERCULES CONQUERS THE MINYÆ Herculēs ā puerō[1] corpus suum gravissimīs et difficillimīs labōribus exercēbat et hōc modō vīrēs[2] suās cōnfirmāvit. Iam adulēscēns Thēbīs[3] habitābat. Ibi Creōn quīdam erat rēx. Minyae, gēns validissima, erant fīnitimī Thēbānīs, et, quia ōlim Thēbānōs vīcerant, quotannīs lēgātōs mittēbant et vectīgal postulābant. Herculēs autem cōnstituit cīvīs suōs hōc vectīgālī līberāre et dixit rēgī, “Dā mihi exercitum tuum et ego hōs superbōs hostīs superābō.” Hanc condiciōnem rēx nōn recūsāvit, et Herculēs nūntiōs in omnīs partis dīmīsit et cōpiās coēgit.[4] Tum tempore opportūnissimō proelium cum Minyīs commīsit. Diū pugnātum est, sed dēnique illī impetum Thēbānōrum sustinēre nōn potuērunt et terga vertērunt fugamque cēpērunt. [Footnote 1: «ā puerō», _from boyhood_.] [Footnote 2: «virēs», from «vīs». Cf. §468.] [Footnote 3: «Thēbīs», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 4: «coēgit», from «cōgō».] HE COMMITS A CRIME AND GOES TO THE DELPHIAN ORACLE TO SEEK EXPIATION Post hoc proelium Creōn rēx, tantā victōriā laetus, fīliam suam Herculī in mātrimōnium dedit. Thēbīs Herculēs cum uxōre suā diū vīvēbat et ab omnibus magnopere amābātur; sed post multōs annōs subitō [1]in furōrem incidit et ipse suā manū līberōs suōs interfēcit. Post breve tempus [2]ad sānitātem reductus tantum scelus expiāre cupiēbat et cōnstituit ad ōrāculum Delphicum iter facere. Hoc autem ōrāculum erat omnium clārissimum. Ibi sedēbat fēmina quaedam quae Pȳthia appellābātur. Ea cōnsilium dabat iīs quī ad ōrāculum veniēbant. [Footnote 1: «in furōrem incidit», _went mad_.] [Footnote 2: «ad sānitātem reductus», lit. _led back to sanity_. What in good English?] [Illustration: HERCULES LEONEM SUPERAT] LV. HERCULES BECOMES SUBJECT TO EURYSTHEUS[1] · HE STRANGLES THE NEME´AN LION Itaque Herculēs Pȳthiae tōtam rem dēmonstrāvit nec scelus suum abdidit. Ubi iam Herculēs fīnem fēcit, Pȳthia iussit eum ad urbem Tīryntha[2] discēdere et ibi rēgī Eurystheō sēsē committere. Quae[3] ubi audīvit, Herculēs ad illam urbem statim contendit et Eurystheō sē in servitūtem trādidit et dīxit, “Quid prīmum, Ō rēx, mē facere iubēs?” Eurystheus, quī perterrēbātur vī et corpore ingentī Herculis et eum occidī[4] studēbat, ita respondit: “Audī, Herculēs! Multa mira[5] nārrantur dē leōne saevissimō quī hōc tempore in valle Nemaeā omnia vāstat. Iubeō tē, virōrum omnium fortissimum, illō mōnstrō hominēs līberāre.” Haec verba Herculī maximē placuērunt. “Properābo,” inquit, “et parēbō imperiō[6] tuō.” Tum in silvās in quibus leō habitābat statim iter fēcit. Mox feram vīdit et plūrīs impetūs fēcit; frūstrā tamen, quod neque sagittīs neque ūllō aliō tēlō mōnstrum vulnerāre potuit. Dēnique Herculēs saevum leōnem suīs ingentibus bracchiīs rapuit et faucīs eius omnibus vīribus compressit. Hōc modō brevī tempore eum interfēcit. Tum corpus leōnis ad oppidum in umerīs reportāvit et pellem posteā prō[7] veste gerēbat. Omnēs autem quō eam regiōnem incolēbant, ubi fāmam dē morte leōnis ingentis accēpērunt, erant laetissimī et Herculem laudābant verbīs amplissimīs. [Footnote 1: «Eu-rys´theus» (pronounced _U-ris´thūs_) was king of _Tī´ryns_, a Grecian city, whose foundation goes back to prehistoric times.] [Footnote 2: «Tīryntha», the acc. case of «Tīryns», a Greek noun.] [Footnote 3: «Quae», obj. of «audīvit». It is placed first to make a close connection with the preceding sentence. This is called a connecting relative.] [Footnote 4: «occīdī», pres. pass. infin.] [Footnote 5: «mīra», _marvelous things_, the adj. being used as a noun. Cf. «omnia», in the next line.] [Footnote 6: «imperiō», §501.14.] [Footnote 7: «prō», _for, instead of_.] LVI. SLAYING THE LERNE´AN HYDRA Deinde Herculēs ab Eurystheō iussus est Hydram occīdere. Itaque cum amīcō Iolāō[1] contendit ad palūdem Lernaeam ubi Hydra incolēbat. Hoc autem mōnstrum erat serpēns ingēns quae novem capita habēbat. Mox is mōnstrum repperit et summō[2] cum perīculō collum eius sinistrā manū rapuit et tenuit. Tum dextrā manū capita novem abscīdere incēpit, sed frūstrā labōrābat, quod quotiēns hoc fēcerat totiēns alia nova capita vidēbat. Quod[3] ubi vīdit, statuit capita ignī cremāre. Hōc modō octō capita dēlēvit, sed extrēmum caput vulnerārī nōn potuit, quod erat immortāle. Itaque illud sub ingentī saxō Herculēs posuit et ita victōriam reportāvit. [Footnote 1: «Iolāō», abl. of _I-o-lā´us_, the hero’s best friend.] [Footnote 2: Note the emphatic position of this adjective.] [Footnote 3: «Quod ubi», _when he saw this_, another instance of the connecting relative. Cf. p. 199, l. 3.] LVII. THE ARCADIAN STAG AND THE ERYMANTHIAN BOAR Postquam Eurystheō mors Hydrae nuntiata est, summus terror animum eius occupavit. Itaque iussit Herculem capere et ad sē reportāre cervum quendam; nam minimē cupīvit tantum virum in rēgnō suō tenēre. Hie autem cervus dīcēbātur aurea cornua et pedēs multō[1] celeriōrēs ventō[2] habēre. Prīmum Herculēs vestīgia animālis petīvit, deinde, ubi cervum ipsum vīdit, omnibus vīribus currere incēpit. Per plūrimōs diēs contendit nec noctū cessāvit. Dēnique postquam per tōtum annum cucurrerat--ita dīcitur--cervum iam dēfessum cēpit et ad Eurystheum portāvit. Tum vērō iussus est Herculēs aprum quendam capere quī illō tempore agrōs Erymanthiōs vāstābat et hominēs illīus locī magnopere perterrēbat. Herculēs laetē negōtium suscēpit et in Arcadiam celeriter sē recēpit. Ibi mox aprum repperit. Ille autem; simul atque Herculem vīdit, statim quam[3] celerrimē fūgit et metū perterritus in fossam altam sēsē abdidit. Herculēs tamen summā cum difficultāte eum extrāxit, nec aper ūllō modō sēsē līberāre potuit, et vīvus ad Eurystheum portātus est. [Footnote 1: «multō», §501.27.] [Footnote 2: «ventō», §501.34.] [Footnote 3: «quam». What is the force of «quam» with a superlative?] LVIII. HERCULES CLEANS THE AUGE´AN STABLES AND KILLS THE STYMPHALIAN BIRDS Deinde Eurystheus Herculī hunc labōrem multō graviōrem imperāvit. Augēās[1] quīdam, quī illō tempore rēgnum Ēlidis[2] obtinēbat, tria mīlia boum[3] habēbat. Hī[4] ingentī stabulō continēbantur. Hoc stabulum, quod per trīgintā annōs nōn pūrgātum erat, Herculēs intrā spatium ūnīus diēī pūrgāre iussus est. llle negōtium alacriter suscēpit, et prīmum labōre gravissimō maximam fossam fōdit per quam flūminis aquam dē montibus ad mūrum stabulī dūxit. Tum partem parvam mūrī dēlēvit et aquam in stabulum immīsit. Hōc modō fīnm operis fēcit ūnō diē facillimē. Post paucōs diēs Herculēs ad oppidum Stymphālum iter fēcit; nam Eurystheus iusserat eum avis Stymphālidēs occīdere. Hae avēs rōstra ferrea habēbant et hominēs miserōs dēvorābant. Ille, postquam ad locum pervēnit, lacum vīdit in quō avēs incolēbant. Nūllō tamen modō Herculēs avibus adpropinquāre potuit; lacus enim nōn ex aquā sed ē līmō cōnstitit.[5] Dēnique autem avēs [6]dē aliquā causā perterritae in aurās volāvērunt et magna pars eārum sagittīs Herculis occīsa est. [Footnote 1: «Augēās», pronounced in English _Aw-jē´as_.] [Footnote 2: «Ēlidis», gen. case of «Ēlis», a district of Greece.] [Footnote 3: «boum», gen. plur. of «bōs». For construction see §501.11.] [Footnote 4: «ingentī stabulō», abl. of means, but in our idiom we should say _in a huge stable_.] [Footnote 5: «cōnstitit», from «consto».] [Footnote 6: «dē aliquā causā perterritae», _frightened for some reason_.] [Illustration: HERCULES ET TAURUS] LIX. HERCULES CAPTURES THE CRETAN BULL AND CARRIES HIM LIVING TO EURYSTHEUS Tum Eurystheus iussit Herculem portāre vīvum ex īnsulā Crētā taurum quendam saevissimum. Ille igitur nāvem cōnscendit--nam ventus erat idōneus--atque statim solvit. Postquam trīduum nāvigavit, incolumis īnsulae adpropinquāvit. Deinde, postquam omnia parāta sunt, contendit ad eam regiōnem quam taurus vexābat. Mox taurum vīdit ac sine ūllō metū cornua eius corripuit. Tum ingentī labōre mōnstrum ad nāvem trāxit atque cum hāc praedā ex īnsulā discessit. THE FLESH-EATING HORSES OF DIOME´DES Postquam ex īnsulā Crētā domum pervēnit, Hercules ab Eurystheō in Thrāciam missus est. Ibi Diomēdēs quīdam, vir saevissimus, rēgnum obtinēbat et omnīs ā fīnibus suīs prohibēbat. Herculēs iussus erat equōs Diomedis rapere et ad Eurystheum dūcere. Hī autem equī hominēs miserrimōs dēvorābant dē quibus rēx supplicium sūmere cupiēbat. Herculēs ubi pervēnit, prīmum equōs ā rēge postulāvit, sed rēx eōs dēdere recūsāvit. Deinde ille īrā commōtus rēgem occīdit et corpus eius equīs trādidit. Itaque is quī anteā multōs necāverat, ipse eōdem suppliciō necātus est. Et equī, nūper saevissima animālia, postquam dominī suī corpus dēvorāvērunt, mānsuētī erant. LX. THE BELT OF HIPPOL´YTE, QUEEN OF THE AMAZONS Gēns Amāzonum[1] dīcitur[2] omnīnō ex mulieribus fuisse. Hae cum virīs proelium committere nōn verēbantur. Hippolytē, Amāzonum rēgīna, balteum habuit pulcherrimum. Hunc balteum possidēre fīlia Eurystheī vehementer cupiēbat. Itaque Eurystheus iussit Herculem impetum in Amāzonēs facere. Ille multīs cum cōpiīs nāvem cōnscendīt et paucis diēbus in Amāzonum fīnīs pervēnit, ac balteum postulāvit. Eum trādere ipsa Hipporytē quidem cupīvit; reliquīs tamen Amazonibus[3] persuādēre nōn potuit. Postrīdiē Herculēs proelium commīsit. Multās hōrās utrimque quam fortissimē pugnātum est Dēnique tamen mulieres terga vertērunt et fugā salūtem petiērunt. Multae autem captae sunt, in quō numerō erat ipsa Hippolytē. Herculēs postquam balteum accēpit, omnibus captīvīs lībertātem dedit. [Footnote 1: A fabled tribe of warlike women living in Asia Minor.] [Footnote 2: «omnīnō», etc., _to have consisted entirely of women._] [Footnote 3: «Amāzonibus», §501.14.] [Illustration: HERCULES ET CERBERUS] THE DESCENT TO HADES AND THE DOG CER´BERUS Iamque ūnus modo ē duodecim labōribus relinquēbātur sed inter omnīs hic erat difficillimus. Iussus est enim canem Cerberum[4] ex Orcō in lūcem trahere. Ex Orcō autem nēmō anteā reverterat. Praetereā Cerberus erat mōnstrum maximē horribile et tria capita habēbat. Herculēs postquam imperia Eurystheī accēpit, statim profectus est et in Orcum dēscendit. Ibi vērō nōn sine summō periculō Cerberum manibus rapuit et ingentī cum labōre ex Orcō in lūcem et adurbem Eurystheī trāxit. Sic duodecim laborēs illī[5] intrā duodecim annōs cōnfectī sunt. Dēmum post longam vītam Herculēs ā deīs receptus est et Iuppiter fīliō suō dedit immortālitātem. [Footnote 4: The dog Cerberus guarded the gate of Orcus, the abode of the dead.] [Footnote 5: «illī», _those famous._] [Illustration: PUERI ROMANI] P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS: THE STORY OF A ROMAN BOY[1] LXI. PUBLIUS IS BORN NEAR POMPE´II P. Cornēlius Lentulus,[2] adulēscēns Rōmānus, amplissimā familiā[3] nātus est; nam pater eius, Mārcus, erat dux perītissimus, cuius virtūte[4] et cōnsiliō multae victōriae reportātae erant; atque mater eius, lūlia, ā clārissimīs maiōribus orta est. Nōn vērō in urbe sed rūrī[5] Pūblius nātus est, et cum mātre habitābat in vīllā quae in maris lītore et sub radīcibus magnī montis sita erat. Mōns autem erat Vesuvius et parva urbs Pompēiī octō mīlia[6] passuum[7] aberat. In Italiā antīquā erant plūrimae quidem villae et pulchrae, sed inter hās omnīs nūlla erat pulchrior quam villa Mārcī Iūliaeque. Frōns vīllae mūrō a maris fluctibus mūniēbātur. Hinc mare et lītora et īnsulae longē lātēque cōnspicī[8] ac saepe nāvēs longae et onerāriae poterant. Ā tergō et ab utrōque latere agrī ferācissimī patēbant. Undique erat magna variōrum flōrum cōpia et multa ingentium arborum genera quae aestāte[9] umbram dēfessīs agricolīs grātissimam adferēbant. Praetereā erant[10] in agrīs stabulīsque multa animālium genera, nōn sōlum equī et bovēs sed etiam rārae avēs. Etiam erat[10] magna piscīna plēna piscium; nam Rōmānī piscīs dīligenter colēbant. [Footnote 1: This story is fiction with certain historical facts in Cæsar’s career as a setting. However, the events chronicled might have happened, and no doubt did happen to many a Roman youth.] [Footnote 2: A Roman had three names, as, «Pūblius» (given name), «Cornēlius» (name of the _gēns_ or clan), «Lentulus» (family name).] [Footnote 3: Abl. of source, which is akin to the abl. of separation (§501.32).] [Footnote 4: «virtūte», §501.24.] [Footnote 5: «rūrī», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 6: «mīlia», §501.21.] [Footnote 7: «passuum», §501.11.] [Footnote 8: «cōnspicī», infin. with poterant, §215. Consult the map of Italy for the approximate location of the villa.] [Footnote 9: «aestāte», §501.35.] [Footnote 10: How are the forms of «sum» translated when they precede the subject?] [Illustration: CASA ROMANA] LXII. HIS LIFE ON THE FARM Huius vīllae Dāvus, servus Mārcī, est vīlicus[1] et cum Lesbiā uxōre omnia cūrat. Vīlicus et uxor in casā humilī, mediīs in agrīs sitā, habitant. Ā prīmā lūce ūsque ad vesperum sē[2] gravibus labōribus exercent ut omnī rēs bene gerant.[3] Plūrima enim sunt officia Dāvī et Lesbiae. Vīlicus servōs regit nē tardī sint[3]; mittit aliōs quī agrōs arent,[3] aliōs quī hortōs inrigent,[3] et opera in[4] tōtum diem impōnit. Lesbia autem omnibus vestīmenta parat, cibum coquit, pānem facit. Nōn longē ab hōrum casā et in summō colle situm surgēbat domicilium ipsīus dominī dominaeque amplissimum. Ibi plūrīs annōs[5] Pūblius cum mātre vītam fēlīcem agēbat; nam pater eius, Mārcus, in terrīs longinquīs gravia reī pūblicae bella gerēbat nec domum[6] revertī poterat. Neque puerō quidem molestum est rūrī[7] vīvere. Eum multae rēs dēlectant. Magnopere amat silvās, agrōs, equōs, bovēs, gallīnās, avīs, reliquaque animālia. Saepe plūrīs hōrās[8] ad mare sedet quō[9] melius fluctūs et nāvīs spectet. Nec omnīnō sine comitibus erat, quod Lȳdia, Dāvī fīlia, quae erat eiusdem aetātis, cum eō adhūc infante lūdēbat, inter quōs cum annīs amīcitia crēscēbat. Lȳdia nūllum alium ducem dēligēbat et Pūblius ab puellae latere rārō discēdēbat. Itaque sub clārō Italiae sōle Pūblius et Lȳdia, amīcī fidēlissimī, per campōs collīsque cotīdiē vagābantur. Modo in silvā fīnitimā lūdebant ubi Pūblius sagittīs[10] celeribus avis dēiciēbat et Lȳdia corōnīs variōrum flōrum comās suās ōrnābat; modo aquam et cibum portābant ad Dāvum servōsque dēfessōs quī agrōs colēbant: modo in casā parvā aut hōrās lactās in lūdō cōnsūmēbant aut auxilium dabant Lesbiae, quae cibum virō et servīs parābat vel aliās rēs domesticās agēbat. [Footnote 1: The «vīlicus» was a slave who acted as overseer of a farm. He directed the farming operations and the sale of the produce.] [Footnote 2: «se», reflexive pron., object of «exercent».] [Footnote 3: For the construction, see §501.40.] [Footnote 4: «in», _for_.] [Footnote 5: «annōs», §501.21.] [Footnote 6: «domum», §501.20.] [Footnote 7: «rūrī», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 8: «hōrās», cf. «annōs», line 17.] [Footnote 9: «quō ... spectet», §§349, 350.] [Footnote 10: «sagittis», §501.24.] LXIII. MARCUS LENTULUS, THE FATHER OF PUBLIUS, IS SHIPWRECKED · JULIA RECEIVES A LETTER FROM HIM Iam Pūblius[1] decem annōs habēbat cum M.Cornēlius Lentulus, pater eius, quī quīnque annōs[2] grave bellum in Asiā gerēbat, non sine glōriā domum[3] revertēbātur. Namque multa secunda proelia fēcerat, maximās hostium cōpiās dēlēverat, multās urbīs populo[4] Rōmānō inimīcās cēperat. Primum nūntius pervēnit quī ā Lentulō[5] missus erat[6] ut profectiōnem suam nūntiāret. Deinde plūrīs diēs[7] reditum virī optimī māter fīliusque exspectābant et animīs[8] sollicitis deōs immortālīs frūstrā colēbant. Tum dēmum hās litterās summo cum gaudiō accēpērunt: [9]“Mārcus Iūliae suac salūtem dīcit. Sī valēs, bene est; ego valeō. Ex Graeciā, quō[10] praeter spem et opīniōnem hodiē pervēnī, hās litterās ad tē scribō. Namque nāvis nostra frācta est; nōs autem--[11]dīs est gratia--incolumes sumus. Ex Asiae[12] portū nāvem lēnī ventō solvimus. Postquam[13] altum mare tenuimus [14]nec iam ūllae terrae appāruērunt, caelum undique et undique fluctūs, subitō magna tempestās coorta est et nāvem vehementissimē adflīxit. Ventīs fluctibusque adflīctātī[15] nec sōlem discernere nec cursum tenēre poterāmus et omnia praesentem mortem intentābant. Trīs diēs[16] et trīs noctīs[16] sine rēmīs vēlīsque agimur. Quārtō diē[17] prīmum terra vīsa est et violenter in saxa, quae nōn longē ā lītore aberant, dēiectī sumus. Tum vērō maiōra perīcula timēbāmus; sed nauta quīdam, vir fortissimus, ex nāve in fluctūs īrātōs dēsiluit [18]ut fūnem ad lītus portāret; quam rem summō labōre vix effēcit. Ita omnēs servātī sumus. Grātiās igitur et honōrem Neptūnō dēbēmus, quī deus nōs ē perīculō ēripuit. Nunc Athēnīs[19] sum, quō cōnfūgī ut mihi paucās hōrās ad quiētem darem.[20] Quam prīmum autem aliam nāvem condūcam ut iter ad Italiam reliquum cōnficiam et domum[21] ad meōs cārōs revertar. Salūtā nostrum Pūblium amīcissimē et valētūdinem tuam cūrā dīligenter. [22]Kalendīs Mārtiīs.” [Footnote 1: _was ten years old_.] [Footnote 2: «annōs», §501.21.] [Footnote 3: «domum», §501.20.] [Footnote 4: «populō», dat. with inimīcās, cf. §501.16.] [Footnote 5: «Lentulō», §501.33.] [Footnote 6: «ut ... nūntiāret», §501.40.] [Footnote 7: «diēs», cf. annōs, 1. 9.] [Footnote 8: «animīs», abl. of manner. Do you see one in line 15?] [Footnote 9: This is the usual form for the beginning of a Latin letter. First we have the greeting, and then the expression Sī valēs, etc. The date of the letter is usually given at the end, and also the place of writing, if not previously mentioned in the letter.] [Footnote 10: «quō», _where_.] [Footnote 11: «dīs est grātia», _thank God_, in our idiom.] [Footnote 12: Asia refers to the Roman province of that name in Asia Minor.] [Footnote 13: «altum mare tenuimus», _we were well out to sea._] [Footnote 14: «nec iam», _and no longer_.] [Footnote 15: «adflīctātī», perf. passive part. _tossed about_.] [Footnote 16: What construction?] [Footnote 17: «diē», §501.35.] [Footnote 18: «ut ... portāret», §501.40.] [Footnote 19: «Athēnīs», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 20: «darem», cf. «portāret», l. 6.] [Footnote 21: Why not «ad domum»?] [Footnote 22: «Kalendīs Mārtiīs», _the Calends_ or _first of March_; abl. of time, giving the date of the letter.] LXIV. LENTULUS REACHES HOME · PUBLIUS VISITS POMPEII WITH HIS FATHER Post paucōs diēs nāvis M. Cornēlī Lentulī portum Mīsēnī[1] petiit, quī portus nōn longē ā Pompēiīs situs est; quō in portū classis Rōmānā pōnēbātur et ad pugnās nāvālīs ōrnābātur. Ibi nāvēs omnium generum cōnspicī poterant. Iamque incrēdibilī celeritāte nāvis longa quā Lentulus vehēbātur lītorī adpropinquāvit; nam nōn sōlum ventō sed etiam rēmīs impellēbātur. In altā puppe stābat gubernātor et nōn procul aliquī mīlitēs Rōmānī cum armīs splendidīs, inter quōs clārissimus erat Lentulus. Deinde servī rēmīs contendere cessāvērunt[2]; nautae vēlum contrāxērunt et ancorās iēcērunt. Lentulus statim ē nāvī ēgressus est et[3] ad villam suam properāvit. Eum Iūlia, Pūblius, tōtaque familia excēpērunt. [4]Quī complexūs, quanta gaudia fuērunt! Postrīdiē eius diēī Lentulus fīliō suō dīxit, “Venī, mī Pūblī, mēcum. Pompēiōs iter hodiē faciam. Māter tua suādet[5] ut frūctūs et cibāria emam. Namque plūrīs amīcōs ad cēnam vocāvimus et multīs rēbus[6] egēmus. Ea hortātur ut quam prīmum proficīscāmur.” “Libenter, mī pater,” inquit Pūblius. “Tēcum esse mihi semper est grātum; nec Pompēiōs umquam vīdī. Sine morā proficīscī parātus sum.” Tum celeriter currum cōnscendērunt et ad urbis mūrōs vectī sunt. Stabiānā portā[7] urbem ingressī sunt. Pūblius strātās viās mīrātur et saxa altiōra quae in mediō disposita erant et altās orbitās quās rotae inter haec saxa fēcerant. Etiam strepitum mīrātur, multitūdinem, carrōs, fontīs, domōs, tabernās, forum[8] cum statuīs, templīs, reliquīsque aedificiīs pūblicīs. [Footnote 1: Misenum had an excellent harbor, and under the emperor Augustus became the chief naval station of the Roman fleet. See map of Italy.] [Footnote 2: Why is the infinitive used with «cessāvērunt»?] [Footnote 3: See Plate I, Frontispiece.] [Footnote 4: Observe that these words are exclamatory.] [Footnote 5: What construction follows «suādeō»? §501.41.] [Footnote 6: «rēbus», §501.32.] [Footnote 7: This is the abl. of the _way by which_ motion takes place, sometimes called the abl. of route. The construction comes under the general head of the abl. of means. For the scene here described, see Plate II, p. 53, and notice especially the stepping-stones for crossing the street («saxa quae in mediō disposita erant»).] [Footnote 8: The forum of Pompeii was surrounded by temples, public halls, and markets of various sorts. Locate Pompeii on the map.] LXV. A DAY AT POMPEII Apud forum ē currū dēscendērunt et Lentulus dīxit, “Hīc sunt multa tabernārum genera, mī Pūblī. Ecce, trāns viam est popīna! [1]Hoc genus tabernārum cibāria vēndit. Frūctūs quoque ante iānuam stant. Ibi cibāria mea emam.” “Optimē,” respondit Pūblius. “At ubi, mī pater, crūstula emere possumus? Namque māter nōbīs imperāvit [2]ut haec quoque parārēmus. Timeō ut[3] ista popīna vēndat crūstula.” “Bene dīcis,” inquit Lentulus. “At nōnne vidēs illum fontem ā dextrā ubi aqua per leōnis caput fluit? In illō ipsō locō est taberna pīstōris quī sine dubiō vēndit crūstula.” Brevī tempore[4] omnia erant parāta, iamque [5]quīnta hōra erat. Deinde Lentulus et fīlius ad caupōnam properāvērunt, quod famē[6] et sitī[7] urgēbantur. Ibi sub arboris umbrā sēdērunt et puerō imperāvērunt ut sibi[8] cibum et vīnum daret. Huic imperiō[9] puer celeriter pāruit. Tum laetī sē[10] ex labōre refēcērunt. Post prandium prefectī sunt ut alia urbis spectācula vidērent. Illō tempore fuērunt Pompēiīs[11] multa templa, duo theātra, thermae magnumque amphitheātrum, quae omnia post paucōs annōs flammīs atque incendiīs Vesuvī et terrae mōtū dēlēta sunt. Ante hanc calamitātem autem hominēs [12]nihil dē monte veritī sunt. In amphitheātrō quidem Pūblius morārī cupīvit ut spectācula gladiātōria vidēret, quae in[13] illum ipsum diem prōscrīpta erant et iam [14]rē vērā incēperant. Sed Lentulus dīxit, “Morārī, Pūblī, [15]vereor ut possīmus. Iam decima hōra est et via est longa. Tempus suādet ut quam prīmum domum revertāmur.” Itaque servō imperāvit ut equōs iungeret, et sōlis occāsū[16] ad vīllam pervēnērunt. [Footnote 1: We say, _this kind of shop_; Latin, _this kind of shops_.] [Footnote 2: «ut ... parārēmus», §501.41.] [Footnote 3: How is «ut» translated after a verb of fearing? How «nē»? Cf. §501.42.] [Footnote 4: «tempore», §501.35.] [Footnote 5: «quīnta hōra». The Romans numbered the hours of the day consecutively from sunrise to sunset, dividing the day, whether long or short, into twelve equal parts.] [Footnote 6: «famē» shows a slight irregularity in that the abl. ending «-e» is long.] [Footnote 7: «sitis», _thirst_, has «-im» in the acc. sing., «-ī» in the abl. sing., and no plural.] [Footnote 8: Observe that the reflexive pronoun «sibi» does not here refer to the subject of the subordinate clause in which it stands, but to the subject of the main clause. This so-called _indirect_ use of the reflexive is often found in object clauses of purpose.] [Footnote 9: What case? Cf. §501.14.] [Footnote 10: «sē», cf. p. 205, l. 7, and note.] [Footnote 11: «Pompēiīs», §501.36.1.] [Footnote 12: «nihil ... veritī sunt», _had no fears of the mountain_.] [Footnote 13: «in», _for_.] [Footnote 14: «rē vērā», _in fact_.] [Footnote 15: «vereor ut», §501.42.] [Footnote 16: «occāsū», §501.35.] LXVI. LENTULUS ENGAGES A TUTOR FOR HIS SON Ā prīmīs annīs quidem Iūlia ipsa fīlium suum docuerat, et Pūblius nōn sōlum [1]pūrē et Latīnē loquī poterat sed etiam commodē legēbat et scrībēbat. Iam Ennium[2] aliōsque poētās lēgerat. Nunc vērō Pūblius [3]duodecim annōs habēbat; itaque eī pater bonum magistrum, [4]virum omnī doctrīnā et virtūte ōrnātissimum, parāvit, [5]quī Graeca, mūsicam, aliāsque artīs docēret. [6]Namque illīs temporibus omnēs ferē gentēs Graecē loquēbantur. Cum Pūbliō aliī puerī, Lentulī amīcōrum fīliī,[7] discēbant. Nam saepe apud Rōmānōs mōs erat [8]nōn in lūdum fīliōs mittere sed domī per magistrum docēre. Cotīdiē discipulī cum magistrō in peristȳlō[9] Mārcī domūs sedēbant. Omnēs puerī bullam auream, orīginis honestae signum, in collō gerēbant, et omnēs togā praetextā amictī erant, [10]quod nōndum sēdecim annōs[11] nātī sunt. [Footnote 1: «pūrē ... poterat», freely, _could speak Latin well_. What is the literal translation?] [Footnote 2: «Ennium», the father of Latin poetry.] [Footnote 3: «duodecim ... habēbat», cf. p. 206, l. 8, and note.] [Footnote 4: «virum», etc., _a very well-educated and worthy man_. Observe the Latin equivalent.] [Footnote 5: «quī ... docēret», a relative clause of purpose. Cf. §§ 349, 350.] [Footnote 6: In Cæsar’s time Greek was spoken more widely in the Roman world than any other language.] [Footnote 7: «fīliī», in apposition with «puerī».] [Footnote 8: «nōn ... mittere». This infinitive clause is the subject of «erat». Cf. §216. The same construction is repeated in the next clause, «domī ... docēre». The object of «docēre» is «fīliōs» understood.] [Footnote 9: The peristyle was an open court surrounded by a colonnade.] [Footnote 10: At the age of sixteen a boy laid aside the _bulla_ and the _toga praetexta_ and assumed _toga virīlis_ or manly gown.] [Footnote 11: «annōs», §501.21. The expression «nōndum sēdecim annōs nātī sunt» means literally, _they were born not yet sixteen years_. This is the usual expression for age. What is the English equivalent?] [Illustration: TABULA ET STILUS] SCENE IN SCHOOL · AN EXERCISE IN COMPOSITION DISCIPULĪ. Salvē, magister. MAGISTER. Vōs quoque omnēs, salvēte. [1]Tabulāsne portāvistis et stilōs? D. Portāvimus. M. Iam fābulam Aesōpī[2] discēmus. Ego legam, vōs in tabulīs scrībite. Et tū, Pūblī, dā mihi ē capsā[3] Aesōpī volūmen.[4] Iam audīte omnēs: _Vulpēs et Ūva_. Vulpēs ōlim famē coācta ūvam dēpendentem vīdit. Ad ūvam saliēbat, sūmere cōnāns. Frūstrā diū cōnāta, tandem īrāta erat et salīre cessāns dīxit: “Illa ūva est acerba; acerbam ūvam [5]nihil moror.” Omnia´ne scrīpsistis, puerī? D. Omnia, magister. [Footnote 1: Tablets were thin boards of wood smeared with wax. The writing was done with a stylus, a pointed instrument like a pencil, made of bone or metal, with a knob at the other end. The knob was used to smooth over the wax in making erasures and corrections.] [Footnote 2: «Aesōpī», the famous Greek to whom are ascribed most of the fables current in the ancient world.] [Footnote 3: A cylindrical box for holding books and papers, shaped like a hatbox.] [Footnote 4: Ancient books were written on rolls made of papy´rus.] [Footnote 5: «nihil moror», _I care nothing for_.] LXVII. PUBLIUS GOES TO ROME TO FINISH HIS EDUCATION Iamque Pūblius, [1]quīndecim annōs nātus, [2]prīmīs litterārum elementīs cōnfectīs, Rōmam petere voluit ut scholās grammaticōrum et philosophōrum frequentāret. Et facillimē patrī[3] suō, qui ipse philosophiae studiō tenēbātur, persuāsit. Itaque [4]omnibus rēbus ad profectiōnem comparātīs, pater fīliusque equīs animōsīs vectī[5] ad magnam urbem profectī sunt. Eōs proficīscentīs Iūlia tōtaque familia vōtīs precibusque prōsecūtae sunt. Tum per loca[6] plāna et collis silvīs vestītōs viam ingressī sunt ad Nōlam, quod oppidum eōs hospitiō modicō excēpit. Nōlae[7] duās hōrās morātī sunt, quod sōl merīdiānus ārdēbat. Tum rēctā viā[8] circiter vīgintī mīlia[9] passuum[9] Capuam,[9] ad īnsignem Campāniae urbem, contendērunt. Eō[10] multā nocte dēfessī pervēnērunt. [11]Postrīdiē eius diēī, somnō et cibō recreātī, Capuā discessērunt et [13]viam Appiam ingressī, quae Capuam tangit et ūsque ad urbem Rōmam dūcit, ante merīdiem Sinuessam pervēnērunt, quod oppidum tangit mare. Inde prīmā lūce proficīscentēs Formiās[13] properāvērunt, ubi Cicerō, ōrātor clarissimus, quī forte apud vīllam suam erat, eōs benignē excēpit. Hinc [14]itinere vīgintī quīnque mīlium passuum factō, Tarracīnam, oppidum in saxīs altissimīs situm, vīdērunt. Iamque nōn longē aberant palūdēs magnae, quae multa mīlia passuum undique patent. Per eās pedestris via est gravis et in nāve viātōrēs vehuntur. Itaque [15]equīs relictīs Lentulus et Pūblius nāvem cōnscendērunt, et, ūnā nocte in trānsitū cōnsūmptā, Forum Appī vēnērunt. Tum brevī tempore Arīcia eōs excēpit. Hoc oppidum, in colle situm, ab urbe Romā sēdecim mīlia passuum abest. Inde dēclivis via ūsque ad latum campum dūcit ubi Rōma stat. Quem ad locum ubi Pūblius vēnit et Rōmam adhūc remōtam, maximam tōtīus orbis terrārum urbem, cōnspēxit, summā admīrātiōne et gaudiō adfectus est. Sine morā dēscendērunt, et, mediō intervāllō quam celerrimē superātō, urbem portā Capēnā ingressī sunt. [Footnote 1: «quīndecim», etc., cf. p. 210, l. 5, and note.] [Footnote 2: «prīmīs ... cōnfectīs», abl. abs. Cf. §501.28.] [Footnote 3: «patrī», dat. with «persuāsit».] [Footnote 4: «omnibus ... comparātīs», cf. note 2.] [Footnote 5: «vectī», perf. pass. part. of «vehō».] [Footnote 6: What is there peculiar about the gender of this word?] [Footnote 7: «Nōlae», locative case, §501.36.2.] [Footnote 8: «viā», cf. «portā», p. 208, l. 7, and note.] [Footnote 9: What construction?] [Footnote 10: «Eō», adv. _there_.] [Footnote 11: «Postrīdiē eius diēī», _on the next day_.] [Footnote 12: «viam Appiam», the most famous of all Roman roads, the great highway from Rome to Tarentum and Brundisium, with numerous branches. Locate on the map the various towns that are mentioned in the lines that follow.] [Footnote 13: «Formiās», _Formiæ_, one of the most beautiful spots on this coast, and a favorite site for the villas of rich Romans.] [Footnote 14: «itinere ... factō», abl. abs. The gen. «mīlium» modifies «itinere».] [Footnote 15: «equīs relictīs». What construction? Point out a similar one in the next line.] [Illustration: BULLA] LXVIII. PUBLIUS PUTS ON THE TOGA VIRILIS Pūblius iam tōtum annum Rōmae morābātur[1] multaque urbis spectācula vīderat et multōs sibi[2] amīcōs parāverat. Eī[3] omnēs favēbant; [4]dē eō omnēs bene spērāre poterant. Cotīdiē Pūblius scholas philosophōrum et grammaticōrum tantō studiō frequentābat [5]ut aliīs clārum exemplum praebēret. Saepe erat cum patre in cūriā[6]; quae rēs effēcit [7]ut summōs reī pūblicae virōs et audīret et vidēret. Ubi [8]sēdecim annōs natus est, bullam[9] auream et togam praetextam mōre Rōmānō dēposuit atque virīlem togam sūmpsit. Virīlis autem toga erat omnīnō alba, sed praetexta clāvum purpureum in margine habēbat. [10]Dēpōnere togam praetextam et sūmere togam virīlem erat rēs grātissima puerō Rōmānō, quod posteā vir et cīvis Rōmānus habēbātur. [11]Hīs rēbus gestīs Lentulus ad uxōrem suam hās litterās scrīpsit: [12]“Mārcus Iūliae suae salūtem dīcit. Sī valēs, bene est; ego valeō. Accēpī tuās litterās. Hās nunc Rōmā per servum fidēlissimum mittō ut dē Pūbliō nostrō quam celerrimē sciās. Nam hodiē eī togam virīlem dedī. Ante lucem surrēxī[13] et prīmum bullam auream dē collō eius remōvī. Hāc Laribus[14] cōnsecrātā et sacrīs factīs, eum togā virīlī vestīvī. Interim plūrēs amīcī cum multitūdine optimōrum cīvium et honestōrum clientium pervēnerant [15]quī Pūblium domō in forum dēdūcerent. Ibi in cīvitātem receptus est et nōmen, Pūblius Cornēlius Lentulus, apud cīvīs Rōmānōs ascrīptum est. Omnēs eī amīcissimī fuērunt et magna[16] de eō praedīcunt. Sapientior enim aequālibus[17] est et magnum ingenium habet. [18]Cūrā ut valeās.” [Footnote 1: «morābātur», translate as if pluperfect.] [Footnote 2: «sibi», _for himself_.] [Footnote 3: «Eī», why dat.?] [Footnote 4: «dē ... poterant», in English, _all regarded him as a very promising youth;_ but what does the Latin say?] [Footnote 5: «ut... praebēret», §501.43.] [Footnote 6: «cūriā», a famous building near the Roman Forum.] [Footnote 7: «ut ... audīret et vidēret», §501.44.] [Footnote 8: «sēdecim, etc.», cf. p. 210, l. 5, and note.] [Footnote 9: «bullam», cf. p. 210, l. 3, and note 4.] [Footnote 10: These infinitive clauses are the subject of «erat». Cf. §216.] [Footnote 11: «Hīs rēbus gestīs», i.e. the assumption of the _toga virilis_ and attendant ceremonies.] [Footnote 12: Compare the beginning of this letter with the one on page 206.] [Footnote 13: «surrēxī», from «surgō».] [Footnote 14: The Lares were the spirits of the ancestors, and were worshiped as household gods. All that the house contained was confided to their care, and sacrifices were made to them daily.] [Footnote 15: «quī ... dēdūcerent», §350.] [Footnote 16: «magna», _great things_, a neuter adj. used as a noun.] [Footnote 17: «aequālibus», §501.34.] [Footnote 18: «Cūrā ut valeās», _take good care of your health_. How does the Latin express this idea?] LXIX. PUBLIUS JOINS CÆSAR’S ARMY IN GAUL Pūblius iam adulēscēns postquam togam virīlem sūmpsit, aliīs rēbus studēre incēpit et praesertim ūsū[1] armōrum sē[2] dīligenter exercuit. Magis magisque amāvit illās artīs quae mīlitārem animum dēlectant. Iamque erant [3]quī eī cursum mīlitārem praedīcerent. Nec sine causā, quod certē patris īsigne exemplum [4]ita multum trahēbat. [5]Paucīs ante annīs C. Iūlius Caesar, ducum Rōmānōrum maximus, cōnsul creātus erat et hōc tempore in Galliā bellum grave gerēbat. Atque in exercitū eius plūrēs adulēscentēs mīlitābant, apud quōs erat amīcus quīdam Pūblī. Ille Pūblium crēbrīs litterīs vehementer hortābātur [6]ut iter in Galliam faceret. Neque Pūblius recūsāvit, et, multīs amīcīs ad portam urbis prōsequentibus, ad Caesaris castra profectus est. Quārtō diē postquam iter ingressus est, ad Alpīs, montīs altissimōs, pervēnit. Hīs summā difficultāte superātīs, tandem Gallōrum in fīnibus erat. Prīmō autem veritus est ut[7] castrīs Rōmānīs adpropinquāre posset, quod Gallī, maximīs cōpiīs coāctīs, Rōmānōs obsidēbant et viās omnīs iam clauserant. Hīs rēbus commōtus Pūblius vestem Gallicam induit nē ā Gallīs caperētur, et ita per hostium cōpiās incolumis ad castra pervenīre potuit. Intrā mūnītiōnes acceptus, ā Caesare benignē exceptus est. Imperātor fortem adulēscentem amplissimīs verbīs laudāvit et eum [8]tribūnum mīlītum creāvit. [Footnote 1: Abl. of means.] [Footnote 2: «sē», reflexive object of «exercuit».] [Footnote 3: «quī ... praedīcerent», §501.45.] [Footnote 4: «ita multum trahēbat», _had a great influence in that direction_.] [Footnote 5: «Paucīs ante annīs», _a few years before_; in Latin, _before by a few years_, «ante» being an adverb and «annīs» abl. of degree of difference.] [Footnote 6: «ut ... faceret», §501.41.] [Footnote 7: «ut», how translated here? See §501.42.] [Footnote 8: The _military tribune_ was a commissioned officer nearly corresponding to our rank of colonel. The tribunes were often inexperienced men, so Cæsar did not allow them much responsibility.] [Illustration: IMPEDIMENTA] HOW THE ROMANS MARCHED AND CAMPED Exercitus quī in hostium fīnibus bellum genit multīs perīcuīs circumdatus est. [1]Quae perīcula ut vītāret, Rōmāni summam cūram adhībēre solēbant. Adpropinquanteēs cōpiīs hostium agmen ita dispōnēbant [2]ut imperātor ipse cum plāribus legiōnibus expedītīs[3] prīmum agmen dūceret. Post eās cōpiās impedīmenta[4] tōtīus exercitūs conlocābant. [5]Tum legiōnēs quae proximē cōnscrīptae erant tōtum agmen claudēbant. Equitēs quoque in omnīs partīs dīmittēbantur quī loca explōrārent; et centuriōnēs praemittēbantur ut locum castrīs idōneum dēligerent. Locus habēbatur idōneus castrīs [6]quī facile dēfendī posset et prope aquam esset. Quā dē causā castra[7] in colle ab utrāque parte arduō, ā fronte lēniter dēclīvī saepe pōnēbantur; vel locus palūdibus cīnctus vel in flūminis rīpīs situs dēligēbātur. Ad locum postquam exercitus pervēnit, aliī mīlitum [8]in armīs erant, aliī castra mūnīre incipiēbant. Nam [9]quō tūtiōrēs ab hostibus mīlitēs essent, nēve incautī et imparātī opprimerentur, castra fossā lātā et vāllō altō mūniēbant. In castrīs portae quattuor erant ut ēruptiō mīlitum omnīs in partīs fierī posset. In angulīs castrōrum erant turrēs dē quibus tēla in hostīs coniciēbantur. [10]Tālibus in castrīs quālia dēscrīpsimus Pūblius ā Caesare exceptus est. [Footnote 1: «Quae perīcula», object of «vītārent». It is placed first to make a proper connection with the preceding sentence.] [Footnote 2: «ut ... dūceret», §501.43.] [Footnote 3: «expedītīs», i.e. without baggage and ready for action.] [Footnote 4: «impedīmenta». Much of the baggage was carried in carts and on beasts of burden, as is shown above; but, besides this, each soldier (unless «expedītus») carried a heavy pack. See also picture, p. 159.] [Footnote 5: The newest legions were placed in the rear, because they were the least reliable.] [Footnote 6: «quī ... posset ... esset», §501.45.] [Footnote 7: «castra», subject of «pōnēbantur».] [Footnote 8: «in armīs erant», _stood under arms_.] [Footnote 9: «quō ... essent». When is «quō» used to introduce a purpose clause? See §350.I.] [Footnote 10: «Tālibus in castrīs quālia», _in such a camp as_. It is important to remember the correlatives «tālis ... quālis», _such ... as_.] [Illustration: CENTURIO] LXX. THE RIVAL CENTURIONS Illīs in castrīs erant duo centuriōnēs,[1] fortissimī virī, T. Pullō et L. Vorēnus, quōrum neuter alterī virtūte[2] cēdere volēbat. Inter eōs iam multōs annōs īnfēnsum certāmen gerēbātur. Tum dēmum fīnis contrōversiae hōc modō[3] factus est. Diē tertiō postquam Pūblius pervēnit, hostēs, maiōribus cōpiīs coāctīs, ācerrimum impetum in castra fēcērunt. Tum Pullō, [4]cum Rōmānī tardiōrēs[5] vidērentur, “Cūr dubitās,” inquit, “Vorēne? Quam commodiōrem occāsiōnem exspectās? Hic diēs dē virtūte nostrā iūdicābit.” Haec[6] cum dīxisset, extrā mūnītiōnēs prōcessit et in eam hostium partem quae cōfertissima [7]vidēbātur inrūpit. Neque Vorēnus quidem tum vāllō[8] sēsē continet, sed Pullōnem subsequitur. Tum Pullō pīlum in hostīs immittit atque ūnum ex multitūdine prōcurrentem trāicit. Hunc percussum et exanimātum hostēs scūtīs prōtegunt et in Pullōnem omnēs tēla coniciunt. Eius scūtum trānsfīgitur et tēlum in balteō dēfīgitur. Hic cāsus vāgīnam āvertit et dextram manum eius gladium ēdūcere cōnantis[9] morātur. Eum ita impedītum hostēs circumsistunt. Tum vēro [10]eī labōrantī Vorēnus, cum sit inimīcus, tamen auxilium dat. Ad hunc cōnfestim [11]ā Pullōne omnis multitūdō sē convertit. Gladiō comminus pugnat Vorēnus, atque, ūnō interfectō, reliquōs paulum prōpellit. Sed īnstāns cupidius[12] īnfēlīx, [13]pede sē fallente, concidit. Huic rūrsus circumventō auxilium dat Pullō, atque ambō incolumēs, plūribus interfectīs, summā cum laude intrā mūnītiōnēs sē recipiunt. Sic inimīcōrum alter alterī auxilium dedit nec de eōrum virtūte quisquam iūdicāre potuit. [Footnote 1: A centurion commanded a company of about sixty men. He was a common soldier who had been promoted from the ranks for his courage and fighting qualities. The centurions were the real leaders of the men in battle. There were sixty of them in a legion. The centurion in the picture (p. 216) has in his hand a staff with a crook at one end, the symbol of his authority.] [Footnote 2: «virtūte», §501.30.] [Footnote 3: Abl. of manner.] [Footnote 4: «cum ... vidērentur», §501.46.] [Footnote 5: «tardiōrēs», _too slow_, a not infrequent translation of the comparative degree.] [Footnote 6: «Haec», obj. of «dīxisset». It is placed before «cum» to make a close connection with the preceding sentence. What is the construction of «dīxisset»?] [Footnote 7: «vidēbatur, inrūpit». Why is the imperfect used in one case and the perfect in the other? Cf. §190.] [Footnote 8: «vāllō», abl. of means, but in English we should say _within the rampart_. Cf. «ingentī stabulō», p. 201, l. 13, and note.] [Footnote 9: «cōnantis», pres. part. agreeing with «eius».] [Footnote 10: «eī labōrantī», indir. obj. of dat.] [Footnote 11: «ā Pullōne», _from Pullo_, abl. of separation.] [Footnote 12: «cupidius», _too eagerly_.] [Footnote 13: «pede sē fallente», lit. _the foot deceiving itself_; in our idiom, _his foot slipping_.] LXXI. THE ENEMY BESIEGING THE CAMP ARE REPULSED Cum iam sex hōrās pugnatum esset[1] ac nōn sōlum vīrēs sed etiam tēla Rōmānōs dēficerent[1], atque hostēs ācrius instārent,[1] et vāllum scindere fossamque complēre incēpissent,[1] Caesar, vir reī mīlitāris perītissimus, suīs imperāvit ut proelium paulisper intermitterent,[2] et, signō datō, ex castrīs ērumperent.[2] [3]Quod iussī sunt faciunt, et subitō ex omnibus portīs ērumpunt. Atque tam celeriter mīlitēs concurrērunt et tam propinquī erant hostēs[4] ut spatium pīla coniciendī[5] nōn darētur. Itaque reiectīs pīlīs [6]comminus gladiīs pugnātum est. Diū et audācter hostēs restitērunt et in extrēmā spē salūtis tantam virtūtem praestitērunt ut ā dextrō cornū vehementer [7]multitūdine suōrum aciem Rōmanam premerent. [8]Id imperātor cum animadvertisset, Pūblium adulēscentem cum equitātū mīsit quī labōrantibus[9] auxilium daret. Eius impetum sustinēre nōn potuērunt hostēs[10] et omnēs terga vertērunt. Eōs in fugam datōs Pūblius subsecūtus est ūsque ad flūmen Rhēnum, quod ab eō locō quīnque mīlia passuum aberat. Ibi paucī salūtem sibi repperērunt. Omnibus reliquīs interfectīs, Pūblius et equitēs in castra sēsē recēpērunt. Dē hāc calamitāte fīnitimae gentēs cum certiōrēs factae essent, ad Caesarem lēgātōs mīsērunt et sē suaque omnia dēdidērunt. [Footnote 1: «pugnātum esset, dēficerent, īnstārent, incēpissent». These are all subjunctives with «cum». Cf. §501.46.] [Footnote 2: «intermitterent, ērumperent». What use of the subjunctive?] [Footnote 3: «Quod», etc., _they do as ordered_. The antecedent of «quod» is «id» understood, which would be the object of «faciunt».] [Footnote 4: «ut ... darētur». Is this a clause of purpose or of result?] [Footnote 5: «coniciendī», §402.] [Footnote 6: «comminus gladiīs pugnātum est», _a hand-to-hand conflict was waged with swords_.] [Footnote 7: «multitūdine suōrum», _by their numbers_. «suōrum» is used as a noun. What is the literal translation of this expression?] [Footnote 8: «Id imperātor. Id» is the obj. and «imperātor» the subj. of «animadvertisset».] [Footnote 9: «labōrantibus». This participle agrees with «iīs» understood, the indir. obj. of «daret; qui ... daret» is a purpose clause, §501.40.] [Footnote 10: «hostēs», subj. of «potuērunt».] LXXII. PUBLIUS GOES TO GERMANY · ITS GREAT FORESTS AND STRANGE ANIMALS Initā aestāte Caesar litterīs certior fīēbat et per explōrātōrēs cognōscēbat plūrīs cīvitātēs Galliae novīs rēbus studēre,[1] et contrā populum Rōmānum coniūrāre[1] obsidēsque [2]inter sē dare,[1] atque cum hīs Germānōs quōsdam quoque sēsē coniūnctūrōs esse.[1] Hīs litterīs nūntiīsque commōtus Caesar cōnstituit quam celerrimē in Gallōs proficīscī,[3] ut eōs inopīnantīs opprimeret, et Labiēnum lēgātum cum duābus legiōnibus peditum et duōbus mīlibus equitum in Germānōs mittere.[3] [4]Itaque rē frūmentāriā comparātā castra mōvit. Ab utrōque[5] rēs bene gesta est; nam Caesar tam celeriter in hostium fīnīs pervēnit ut spatium [6]cōpiās cōgendī nōn darētur[4]; et Labiēnus dē Germānīs tam grave supplicium sūmpsit ut nēmō ex eā gente in reliquum tempus Gallīs auxilium dare audēret.[7] Hoc iter in Germāniam Pūblius quoque fēcit et, [8]cum ibi morārētur, multa mīrābilia vīdit. Praesertim vērō ingentem silvam mīrābātur, quae tantae magnitūdinis esse dīcēbātur [9]ut nēmō eam trānsīre posset, nec quisquam scīret aut initium aut fīnem. Quā dē rē plūra cognōverat ā mīlite quōdam quī ōlim captus ā Germānīs multōs annōs ibi incoluit. Ille[10] dē silvā dīcēns, “Īnfīnītae magnitūdinis est haec silva,” inquit; “nee quisquam est [11]huius Germāniae [12]quī initium eius sciat aut ad fīnem adierit. Nāscuntur illīc multa tālia animālium genera quālia reliquīs in locīs nōn inveniuntur. Sunt bovēs quī ūnum[13] cornū habent; sunt etiam animālia quae appellantur alcēs. Hae nūllōs crūrum[14] articulōs habent. Itaque, sī forte concidērunt, sēsē ērigere nūllō modō possunt. Arborēs habent prō[15] cubīlibus; ad eās sē applicant atque ita reclīnātae quiētem capiunt. Tertium est genus eōrum quī ūrī appellantur. Hī sunt paulō minōrēs elephantīs.[16] Magna vis eōrum est et magna vēlōcitās. Neque hominī neque ferae parcunt.[17]” [Footnote 1: Observe that all these infinitives are in indirect statements after «certior fīēbat», _he was informed_, and «cognōscēbat», _he learned_. Cf. §501.48, 49.] [Footnote 2: «inter sē», _to each other_.] [Footnote 3: «proficīscī, mittere». These infinitives depend upon «cōnstituit».] [Footnote 4: Before beginning a campaign, food had to be provided. Every fifteen days grain was distributed. Each soldier received about two pecks. This he carried in his pack, and this constituted his food, varied occasionally by what he could find by foraging.] [Footnote 5: Abl. of personal agent, §501.33.] [Footnote 6: «cōpiās cōgendī», §501.37.1.] [Footnote 7: «darētur, audēret», §501.43. «audēret» is not from «audiō».] [Footnote 8: «cum ... morārētur», §501.46.] [Footnote 9: «ut ... posset, ... scīret», §501.43.] [Footnote 10: «Ille», subj. of «inquit».] [Footnote 11: «huius Germāniae», _of this part of Germany_.] [Footnote 12: «quī ... scīat ... adierit», §501.45.] [Footnote 13: «ūnum», _only one_.] [Footnote 14: «crūrum», from «crūs».] [Footnote 15: «prō», _for, in place of_.] [Footnote 16: «elephantīs», §501.34.] [Footnote 17: «parcunt». What case is used with this verb?] [Illustration: VINEA] LXXIII. THE STORMING OF A CITY Pūblius plūrīs diēs in Germāniā morātus[1] in Galliam rediit, et ad Caesaris castra sē contulit. Ille quia molestē ferēbat Gallōs[2] eius regiōnis obsidēs dare recūsāvisse et exercituī frūmentum praebēre nōluisse, cōnstituit eīs[3] bellum īnferre. Agrīs vāstātīs, vīcīs incēnsīs, pervēnit ad oppidum validissimum quod et nātūrā et arte mūnītum erat. Cingēbātur mūrō vīgintī quīnque pedēs[4] altō. Ā lateribus duōsitum, praeruptō fastīgiō ad plānitiem vergēgat; ā quārtō tantum[5] latere aditus erat facilis. Hoc oppidum oppugnāre, [6]cum opus esset difficillimum, tamen cōnstituit Caesar. Et castrīs mūnītīs Pūbliō negōtium dedit ut rēs [7]ad oppugnandum necessāriās parāret. Rōmānōrum autem oppugnātiō est haec.[8] Prīmum turrēs aedificantur quibus mīlitēs in summum mūrum ēvādere possint[9]; vīneae[10] fīunt quibus tēctī mīlitēs ad mūrum succēdant; pluteī[11] parantur post quōs mīlitēs tormenta[12] administrent; sunt quoque arietēs quī mūrum et portās discutiant. Hīs omnibus rēbus comparātīs, deinde [13]agger ab eā parte ubi aditus est facillimus exstruitur et cum vīneīs ad ipsum oppidum agitur. Tum turris in aggere prōmovētur; arietibus quī sub vīneīs conlocātī erant mūrus et portae discutiuntur; ballistīs, catapultīs, reliquīsque tormentīs lapidēs et tēla in oppidum coniciuntur. Postrēmō cum iam turris et agger altitūdinem mūrī adaequant et arietēs moenia perfrēgērunt,[14] signō datō mīlitēs inruunt et oppidum expugnant. [Footnote 1: «morātus». Is this part. active or passive in meaning?] [Footnote 2: «Gallōs», subj. acc. of the infins. «recūsāvisse» and «nōluisse». The indirect statement depends upon «molestē ferēbat».] [Footnote 3: «eīs», §501.15.] [Footnote 4: «pedēs», §501.21.] [Footnote 5: «tantum», adv. _only_.] [Footnote 6: «cum ... esset», a clause of concession, §501.46.] [Footnote 7: «ad oppugnandum», a gerund expressing purpose.] [Footnote 8: «haec», _as follows_.] [Footnote 9: «possint», subjv. of purpose. Three similar constructions follow.] [Footnote 10: «vīneae». These «vīneae» were wooden sheds, open in front and rear, used to protect men who were working to take a fortification. They were about eight feet high, of like width, and double that length, covered with raw hides to protect them from being set on fire, and moved on wheels or rollers.] [Footnote 11: «pluteī», large screens or shields with small wheels attached to them. These were used to protect besiegers while moving up to a city or while serving the engines of war.] [Footnote 12: «tormenta». The engines of war were chiefly the catapult for shooting great arrows, and the ballista, for hurling large stones. They had a range of about two thousand feet and were very effective.] [Footnote 13: The «agger», or mound, was of chief importance in a siege. It was begun just out of reach of the missiles of the enemy, and then gradually extended towards the point to be attacked. At the same time its height gradually increased until on a level with the top of the wall, or even higher. It was made of earth and timber, and had covered galleries running through it for the use of the besiegers. Over or beside the _agger_ a tower was moved up to the wall, often with a battering-ram (_aries_) in the lowest story. (See picture, p. 221.)] [Footnote 14: «perfrēgērunt», from «perfringō».] [Illustration: BALLISTA] [Illustration: TURRES, ARIETES, VINEA] LXXIV. THE CITY IS TAKEN · THE CAPTIVES ARE QUESTIONED Omnibus rēbus necessāriīs ad oppugnandum ā Pūbliō comparātīs, dēlīberātur in conciliō quod cōnsilium [1]oppidī expugnandī ineant.[2] Tum ūnus[3] ex centuriōnibus, vir reī mīlitāris perītissimus, “Ego suādeō,” inquit, “ut ab eā parte, ubi aditus sit[5] facillimus, aggerem exstruāmus[4] et turrim prōmoveāmus[6] atque ariete admōtō simul mūrum discutere cōnēmur.[5]” [6]Hoc cōnsilium cum omnibus placēret, Caesar concilium dīmīsit. Deinde mīlitēs hortātus ut priōrēs victōriās memoriā[7] tenērent, iussit aggerem exstruī, turrim et arietem admovērī. Neque oppidānīs[8] cōnsilium dēfuit. Aliī ignem et omne genus tēlōrum dē mūrō in turrim coniēcērunt, aliī ingentia saxa in vīneās et arietem dēvolvērunt. Diū utrimque ācerrimē pugnātum est. Nē vulnerātī quidem pedem rettulērunt. Tandem, [9]dē tertiā vigiliā, Pūblius, quem Caesar illī operī[10] praefēcerat, nūntiāvit partem[11] mūrī ictibus arietis labefactam concidisse. Quā rē audītā Caesar signum dat; mīlitēs inruunt et magnā cum caede hostium oppidum capiunt. Postrīdiē eius diēī, hōc oppidō expugnātō, [12]captīvōrum quī nōbilissimī sunt ad imperātōrem ante praetōrium[13] addūcuntur. Ipse, lōrīcā aurātā et paludāmentō purpureō īnsignis, captīvōs per interpretem in hunc modum interrogat:[14] Vōs quī estis[15]? INTERPRES. Rogat imperātor quī sītis. CAPTĪVĪ. Fīliī rēgis sumus. INTERPRES. Dīcunt sē fīliōs esse rēgis. IMPERĀTOR. Cūr mihi tantās iniūriās intulistis? INTERPRES. Rogat cūr sibi tantās iniūriās intuleritis. CAPTĪVĪ. Iniūriās eī nōn intulimus sed prō patriā bellum gessimus. Semper voluimus Rōmānīs esse amīcī, sed Rōmānī sine causā nōs domō patriāque expellere cōnātī sunt. INTERPRES. [16]Negant sē iniūriās tibi intulisse, sed prō patriā bellum gessisse. [17]Semper sē voluisse amīcōs Rōmānīs esse, sed Rōmānōs sine causā sē domō patriāque expellere cōnātōs esse. IMPERĀTOR. [18]Manēbitisne in reliquum tempus in fidē, hāc rebelliōne condōnātā? Tum vērō captīvī multīs cum lacrimīs iūrāvērunt sē in fidē mānsūrōs esse, et Caesar eōs incolumīs domum dīmīsit. [Footnote 1: «oppidī expugnandī». Is this a gerund or a gerundive construction? Cf. §501.37.] [Footnote 2: «ineant». §501.50.] [Footnote 3: «ūnus». subj. of «inquit».] [Footnote 4: «sit». This is a so-called subjunctive by attraction, which means that the clause beginning with «ubi» stands in such close connection with the subjv. clause beginning with «ut», that its verb is attracted into the same mood.] [Footnote 5: All these verbs are in the same construction.] [Footnote 6: «Hoc cōnsilium», subj. of «placēret». For the order cf. «Haec cum», etc., p. 215, l. 22, and note; «Id imperātor cum», p. 217, l. 8.] [Footnote 7: «memoriā», abl. of means.] [Footnote 8: «oppidānīs», §501.15.] [Footnote 9: Between twelve and three o’clock in the morning. The night was divided into four watches.] [Footnote 10: «operī», §501.15.] [Footnote 11: «partem», subj. acc. of «concidisse».] [Footnote 12: «captīvōrum ... sunt», _the noblest of the captives_.] [Footnote 13: The general’s headquarters.] [Footnote 14: Study carefully these direct questions, indirect questions, and indirect statements.] [Footnote 15: See Plate III, p. 148.] [Footnote 16: «Negant», etc., _they say that they have not_, etc. «Negant» is equivalent to «dīcunt nōn», and the negative modifies «intulisse», but not the remainder of the indirect statement.] [Footnote 17: «Semper», etc., _that they have always_, etc.] [Footnote 18: «Manēbitisne in fidē», _will you remain loyal?_] LXXV. CIVIL WAR BREAKS OUT BETWEEN CÆSAR AND POMPEY THE BATTLE OF PHARSALIA Nē cōnfectō[1] quidem bellō Gallicō, [2]bellum cīvīle inter Caesarem et Pompēium exortum est. Nam Pompēius, quī summum imperium petēbat, senātuī persuāserat ut Caesarem reī pūblicae hostem[3] iūdicāret et exercitum eius dīmittī iubēret. Quibus cognitīs rēbus Caesar exercitum suum dīmittere recūsāvit, atque, hortātus mīlitēs ut ducem totiēns victōrem ab inimīcōrum iniūriīs dēfenderent, imperāvit ut sē Rōmam sequerentur. Summā cum alacritāte mīlitēs pāruērunt, et trānsitō Rubicōne[4] initium bellī cīvīlis factum est. Italiae urbēs quidem omnēs ferē [5]rēbus Caesaris favēbant et eum benignē excēpērunt. Quā rē commōtus Pompēius ante Caesaris adventum Rōmā excessit et Brundisium[6] pervēnit, inde [7]paucīs post diēbus cum omnibus cōpiīs ad Ēpīrum mare trānsiit. Eum Caesar cum septem legiōnibus et quīngentīs equitibus secūtus est, et īnsignis inter Caesaris comitātum erat Pūblius. Plūribus leviōribus proeliīs factīs, tandem cōpiae adversae ad Pharsālum[8] in Thessaliā sitam castra posuērunt. Cum Pompeī exercitus esset bis tantus quantus Caesaris, tamen erant multī quī veterānās legiōnēs quae Gallōs et Germānōs superāverant vehementer timēbant. Quōs[9] [10]ante proelium commissum Labiēnus[11] lēgātus, quī ab Caesare nūper dēfēcerat, ita adlocūtus est: “[12]Nōlīte exīstimāre hunc esse exercitum veterānōrum mīlitum. Omnibus interfuī proeliīs[13] neque temerē incognitam rem prōnūntiō. Perexigua pars illīus exercitūs quī Gallōs superāvit adhūc superest. Magna pars occīsa est, multī domum discessērunt, multī sunt relictī in Italiā. Hae cōpiae quās vidētis in [14]citeriōre Galliā nūper cōnscrīptae sunt.” Haec[15] cum dīxisset, iūrāvit sē nisi victōrem in castra nōn reversūrum esse. [16]Hoc idem Pompēius et omnēs reliquī iūrāvērunt, et magnā spē et laetitiā, sīcut certam ad victōriam, cōpiae ē castrīs exiērunt. Item Caesar, animō[17] ad dīmicandum parātus, exercitum suum ēdūxit et septem cohortibus [18]praesidiō castrīs relictīs cōpiās triplicī aciē īnstrūxit. Tum, mīlitibus studiō pugnae ārdentibus, tubā signum dedit. Mīlitēs prōcurrērunt et pīlīs missīs gladiōs strīnxērunt. Neque vērō virtūs hostibus dēfuit. Nam et tēla missa sustinuērunt et impetum gladiōrum excēpērunt et ōrdinēs cōnservāvērunt. Utrimque diū et ācriter pugnātum est nec quisquam pedem rettulit. Tum equitēs Pompēī aciem Caesaris circumīre cōnātī sunt. Quod[19] ubi Caesar animadvertit, tertiam aciem,[20] quae ad id tempus quiēta fuerat, prōcurrere iussit. Tum vērō integrōrum impetum[21] dēfessī hostēs sustinēre nōn potuērunt et omnēs terga vertērunt. Sed Pompēius dē fortūnīs suīs dēspērāns sē in castra equō contulit, inde mox cum paucīs equitibus effūgit. [Footnote 1: With «nē ... quidem» the emphatic word stands between the two.] [Footnote 2: The Civil War was caused by the jealousy and rivalry between Cæsar and Pompey. It resulted in the defeat and subsequent death of Pompey and the elevation of Cæsar to the lordship of the Roman world.] [Footnote 3: «hostem», predicate accusative, §501.22.] [Footnote 4: The Rubicon was a small stream in northern Italy that marked the boundary of Cæsar’s province. By crossing it with an armed force Cæsar declared war upon Pompey and the existing government. Cæsar crossed the Rubicon early in the year 49 B.C.] [Footnote 5: «rēbus Caesaris favēbant», _favored Cæsar’s side_. In what case is «rēbus»?] [Footnote 6: «Brundisium», a famous port in southern Italy whence ships sailed for Greece and the East. See map.] [Footnote 7: «paucīs post diēbus», _a few days later_; literally, _afterguards by a few days_. Cf. «paucīs ante annīs», p. 213, l. 12, and note.] [Footnote 8: The battle of Pharsalia was fought on August 9, 48 B.C. In importance it ranks as one of the great battles of the world.] [Footnote 9: «Quōs», obj. of «adlocūtus est».] [Footnote 10: «ante proelium commissum», _before the beginning of the battle_.] [Footnote 11: «Labiēnus», Cæsar’s most faithful and skillful lieutenant in the Gallic War. On the outbreak of the Civil War, in 49 B.C., he deserted Cæsar and joined Pompey. His defection caused the greatest joy among the Pompeian party; but he disappointed the expectations of his new friends, and never accomplished anything of importance. He fought against his old commander in several battles and was slain at the battle of Munda in Spain, 45 B.C.] [Footnote 12: «Nōlīte exīstimāre», _don´t think_.] [Footnote 13: «proeliīs», §501.15.] [Footnote 14: «citeriōre Galliā». This name is applied to Cisalpine Gaul, or Gaul south of the Alps.] [Footnote 15: «Haec», obj. of «dīxisset».] [Footnote 16: «Hoc idem», obj. of «iūrāvērunt».] [Footnote 17: «animō», §501.30.] [Footnote 18: «praesidiō castrīs», §501.17.] [Footnote 19: «Quod», obj. of «animadvertit».] [Footnote 20: «aciem», subj. of «prōcurrere».] [Footnote 21: «impetum», obj. of «sustinēre».] [Illustration: SIGNIFER] LXXVI. THE TRIUMPH OF CAESAR Pompēiō amīcīsque eius superātīs atque omnibus hostibus ubīque victīs, Caesar imperātor Rōmam rediit et [1]extrā moenia urbis in campō Mārtiō castra posuit. Tum vērō amplissimīs honōribus adfectus est. Dictātor creātus est, et eī triumphus ā senātū est dēcrētus. [2]Quō diē de Gallīs triumphum ēgit, tanta multitūdō hominum in urbem undique cōnflūxit [3]ut omnia loca essent cōnferta. Templa patēbant, ārae fūmābant, columnae sertīs ōrnātae erant. [4]Cum vērō pompa urbem intrāret, quantus hominum fremitus ortus est! Prīmum per portam ingressī sunt senātus et magistrātūs. Secūtī sunt tībīcinēs, signiferī, peditēs laureā corōnātī canentēs: “Ecce Caesar nunc triumphat, quī subēgit Galliam,” et “Mīlle, mīlle, mīlle, mīlle Gallōs trucīdāvimus.” Multī praedam captārum urbium portābant, arma, omnia bellī īnstrūmenta. Secūtī sunt equitēs, animōsīs atque splendidissimē ōrnātīs equīs vectī, inter quōs Pūblius adulēscēns fortissimus habēbātur. Addūcēbantur taurī, arietēs, [5]quī dīs immortālibus immolārentur. Ita longō agmine prōgrediēns exercitus [6]sacrā viā per forum in Capitōlium perrēxit. Imperātor ipse cum urbem intrāret, undique laetō clāmōre multitūdinis salūtātus est. Stābat in currū aureō quem quattuor albī equī vehēbant. Indūtus [7]togā pictā, alterā manū habēnās et lauream tenēbat, alterā eburneum scēptrum. Post eum servus in currū stāns auream corōnam super caput eius tenēbat. Ante currum miserrimī captīvī, rēgēs prīncipēsque superātārum gentium, catēnīs vīnctī, prōgrediēbantur; et vīgintī quattuor līctōrēs[8] laureatās fascīs ferentēs et signiferī currum Caesaris comitābantur. Conclūdit agmen multitūdō captīvōrum, quī, in servitūtem redāctī,[9] dēmissō vultū, vīnctīs[10] bracchiīs, sequuntur; quibuscum veniunt longissimō ōrdine mīlitēs, etiam hī praedam vel insignia mīlitāria ferentēs. [Illustration: LICTORES CUM FASCIBUS] Caesar cum Capitōlium ascendisset, in templō Iovī Capitōlīnō sacra fēcit. Simul[11] captivōrum quī nōbilissimī erant, abductī in carcerem,[12] interfectī sunt. Sacrīs factīs Caesar dē Capitōliō dēscendit et in forō mīitibus suīs honōrēs mīlitārīs dedit eīsque pecūniam ex bellī praedā distribuit. Hīs omnibus rēbus cōnfectīs, Pūblius Caesarem valēre[13] iussit et quam celerrimē ad vīllam contendit ut patrem mātremque salūtāret. [14]Dē rēbus gestīs P. Cornēlī Lentulī hāctenus. [Footnote 1: A victorious general with his army was not allowed to enter the city until the day of his triumph. A triumph was the greatest of all military honors.] [Footnote 2: «Quō diē», _on the day that_, abl. of time.] [Footnote 3: «ut ... essent», §501.43.] [Footnote 4: «Cum ... intrāret», §501.46.] [Footnote 5: «quī ... immolārentur», §501.40.] [Footnote 6: The Sacred Way was a noted street running along one side of the Forum to the base of the Capitoline Hill, on whose summit stood the magnificent temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. This route was always followed by triumphal processions.] [Footnote 7: The «toga picta» worn by a general in his triumph was a splendid robe of Tyrian purple covered with golden stars. See Plate IV, p. 213.] [Footnote 8: The lictors were a guard of honor that attended the higher magistrates and made a way for them through the streets. On their shoulders they carried the _fasces_, a bundle of rods with an ax in the middle, symbolizing the power of the law.] [Footnote 9: «dēmissō vultū», _with downcast countenance_.] [Footnote 10: «vīnctīs», from «vinciō».] [Footnote 11: «Simul», etc., _At the same time those of the captives who were the noblest._] [Footnote 12: The prison was a gloomy dungeon on the lower slopes of the Capitoline Hill.] [Footnote 13: «valēre iussit», _bade farewell to_.] [Footnote 14: This sentence marks the end of the story.] APPENDIX I DECLENSIONS, CONJUGATIONS, NUMERALS, ETC. NOUNS «460.» Nouns are inflected in five declensions, distinguished by the final letter of the stem and by the termination of the genitive singular. FIRST DECLENSION--«Ā-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-ae» SECOND DECLENSION--«O-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-ī» THIRD DECLENSION--Consonant stems and «I-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-is» FOURTH DECLENSION--«U-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-ūs» FIFTH DECLENSION--«Ē-»stems, Gen. Sing. «-ē̆ī» «461.» FIRST DECLENSION. _Ā_-STEMS «domina», _lady_ STEM «dominā-» BASE «domin-» SINGULAR PLURAL TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS _Nom._ domina -a dominae -ae _Gen._ dominae -ae dominārum -ārum _Dat._ dominae -ae dominīs -īs _Acc._ dominam -am dominās -ās _Abl._ dominā -ā dominīs -īs _a._ «Dea» and «fīlia» have the termination «-ābus» in the dative and ablative plural. «462.» SECOND DECLENSION. _O_-STEMS _a._ MASCULINES IN -us «dominus», _master_ STEM «domino-» BASE «domin-» SINGULAR PLURAL TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS _Nom._ dominus -us dominī -ī _Gen._ dominī -ī dominōrum -ōrum _Dat._ dominō -ō dominīs -īs _Acc._ dominum -um dominōs -ōs _Abl._ dominō -ō dominīs -īs 1. Nouns in «-us» of the second declension have the termination «-e» in the vocative singular, as «domine». 2. Proper names in «-ius», and «filius», end in «-ī» in the vocative singular, and the accent rests on the penult, as «Vergi´lī, fīlī». _b._ NEUTERS IN -um «pīlum», _spear_ STEM «pīlo-» BASE «pīl-» SINGULAR PLURAL TERMINATIONS TERMINATIONS _Nom._ pīlum -um pīla -a _Gen._ pīlī -ī pīlōrum -ōrum _Dat._ pīlō -ō pīlīs -īs _Acc._ pīlum -um pīla -a _Abl._ pīlō -ō pīlīs -īs 1. Masculines in «-ius» and neuters in «-ium» end in «-ī» in the genitive singular, _not_ in «-iī», and the accent rests on the penult. _c._ MASCULINES IN -er AND -ir «puer», _boy_ «ager», _field_ «vir», _man_ STEMS «puero-» «agro-» «viro-» BASES «puer-» «agr-» «vir-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ puer ager vir -- _Gen._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Dat._ puerō agrō virō -ō _Acc._ puerum agrum virum -um _Abl._ puerō agrō virō -ō PLURAL _Nom._ puerī agrī virī -ī _Gen._ puerōrum agrōrum virōrum -ōrum _Dat._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs _Acc._ puerōs agrōs virōs -ōs _Abl._ puerīs agrīs virīs -īs «463.» THIRD DECLENSION. CLASSIFICATION I. Consonant Stems 1. Stems that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular: masculines and feminines only. 2. Stems that add no termination in the nominitive singular: _a._ masculines and feminines; _b._ neuters. II. _I_-Stems. Masculines, feminines, and neuters. «464.» I. CONSONANT STEMS 1. _Nouns that add «-s» to the base to form the nominative singular: masculines and feminines only_ «prīnceps», «mīles», m., «lapis», m., m., _chief_ _soldier_ _stone_ BASES | OR | «prīncip-» «mīlit-» «lapid-» STEMS | SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ prīnceps mīles lapis -s _Gen._ prīncipis mīlitis lapidis -is _Dat._ prīncipī mīlitī lapidī -ī _Acc._ prīncipem mīlitem lapidem -em _Abl._ prīncipe mīlite lapide -e PLURAL _Nom._ prīncipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs _Gen._ prīncipum mīlitum lapidum -um _Dat._ prīncipibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus _Acc._ prīncipēs mīlitēs lapidēs -ēs _Abl._ prīncipibus mīlitibus lapidibus -ibus «rēx», m., «iūdex», m., «virtūs», f., _king_ _judge_ _virtue_ BASES | OR | «rēg-» «iūdic-» «virtūt-» STEMS | SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ rēx iūdex virtūs -s _Gen._ rēgis iūdicis virtūtis -is _Dat._ rēgī iūdicī virtūtī -ī _Acc._ rēgem iūdicem virtūtem -em _Abl._ rēge iūdice virtūte -e PLURAL _Nom._ rēgēs iūdicēs virtūtēs -ēs _Gen._ rēgum iūdicum virtūtum -um _Dat._ rēgibus iūdicibus virtūtibus -ibus _Acc._ rēgēs iūdicēs virtūtēs -es _Abl._ rēgibus iūdicibus virtūtibus -ibus NOTE. For consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. §233.3. 2. _Nouns that have no termination in the nominative singular_ _a._ MASCULINES AND FEMININES «cōnsul», m., «legiō», f., «ōrdō», «pater», m., _consul_ _legion_ m., _row_ _father_ BASES | OR | «consul-» «legiōn-» «ōrdin-» «patr-» STEMS | SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ cōnsul legiō ōrdō pater -- _Gen._ cōnsulis legiōnis ōrdinis patris -is _Dat._ cōnsulī legiōnī ōrdinī patrī -ī _Acc._ cōnsulem legiōnem ōrdinem patrem -em _Abl._ cōnsule legiōne ōrdine patre -e PLURAL _Nom._ cōnsulēs legiōnēs ōrdinēs patrēs -ēs _Gen._ cōnsulum legiōnum ōrdinum patrum -um _Dat._ cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus _Acc._ cōnsulēs legiōnēs ōrdinēs patrēs -ēs _Abl._ cōnsulibus legiōnibus ōrdinibus patribus -ibus NOTE. For vowel and consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. §236.1-3. _b._ NEUTERS «flūmen», «tempus», «opus», «caput», n., _river_ n., _time_ n., _work_ n., _head_ BASES | OR | «flūmin-» «tempor-» «oper-» «capit-» STEMS | SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ flūmen tempus opus caput -- _Gen._ flūminis temporis operis capitis -is _Dat._ flūminī temporī operī capitī -ī _Acc._ flūmen tempus opus caput -- _Abl._ flūmine tempore opere capite -e PLURAL _Nom._ flūmina tempora opera capita -a _Gen._ flūminum temporum operum capitum -um _Dat._ flūminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus _Acc._ flūmina tempora opera capita -a _Abl._ flūminibus temporibus operibus capitibus -ibus NOTE. For vowel and consonant changes in the nominative singular, cf. §238.2, 3. «465.» II. _I_-STEMS _a._ MASCULINES AND FEMININES «caedēs», f., «hostis», «urbs», f., «cliēns», m., _slaughter_ m., _enemy_ _city_ _retainer_ STEMS «caedi-» «hosti-» «urbi-» «clienti-» BASES «caed-» «host-» «urb-» «client-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ caedēs hostis urbs cliēns -s, -is, _or_ -ēs _Gen._ caedis hostis urbis clientis -is _Dat._ caedī hostī urbī clientī -ī _Acc._ caedem hostem urbem clientem -em (-im) _Abl._ caede hoste urbe cliente -e (-ī) PLURAL _Nom._ caedēs hostēs urbēs clientēs -ēs _Gen._ caedium hostium urbium clientium -ium _Dat._ caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus _Acc._ caedīs, -ēs hostīs, -ēs urbīs, -ēs clientīs, -ēs -īs, -ēs _Abl._ caedibus hostibus urbibus clientibus -ibus 1. «Avis», «cīvis», «fīnis», «ignis», «nāvis», have the abl. sing. in «-ī» or «-e». 2. «Turris» has accusative «turrim» and ablative «turrī» or «turre». _b._ NEUTERS «īnsigne», n., «animal», n., «calcar», _decoration_ _animal_ n., _spur_ STEMS «īnsigni-» «animāli-» «calcāri-» BASES «īnsign-» «animāl-» «calcār-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ īnsigne animal calcar -e _or_ -- _Gen._ īnsignis animālis calcāris -is _Dat._ īnsignī animālī calcārī -ī _Acc._ īnsigne animal calcar -e _or_ -- _Abl._ īnsignī animālī calcārī -ī PLURAL _Nom._ īnsignia animālia calcāria -ia _Gen._ īnsignium animālium calcārium -ium _Dat._ īnsignibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus _Acc._ īnsignia animālia calcāria -ia _Abl._ īnsignibus animālibus calcāribus -ibus «466.» THE FOURTH DECLENSION. _U_-STEMS «adventus», m., «cornū», n., _horn_ _arrival_ STEMS «adventu-» «cornu-» BASES «advent-» «corn-» TERMINATIONS SINGULAR MASC. NEUT. _Nom._ adventus cornū -us -ū _Gen._ adventūs cornūs -ūs -ūs _Dat._ adventuī (ū) cornū -uī (ū) -ū _Acc._ adventum cornū -um -ū _Abl._ adventū cornū -ū -ū PLURAL _Nom._ adventūs cornua -ūs -ua _Gen._ adventuum cornuum -uum -uum _Dat._ adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus _Acc._ adventūs cornua -ūs -ua _Abl._ adventibus cornibus -ibus -ibus «467.» THE FIFTH DECLENSION. _Ē_-STEMS «diēs», m., _day_ «rēs», f., _thing_ STEMS «diē-» «rē-» BASES «di-» «r-» SINGULAR TERMINATIONS _Nom._ diēs rēs -ēs _Gen._ diēī reī -ē̆ī _Dat._ diēī reī -ē̆ī _Acc._ diem rem -em _Abl._ diē rē -ē PLURAL _Nom._ diēs rēs -ēs _Gen._ diērum rērum -ērum _Dat._ diēbus rēbus -ēbus _Acc._ diēs rēs -ēs _Abl._ diēbus rēbus -ēbus «468.» SPECIAL PARADIGMS «deus», «domus», f., «vīs», f., «iter», m., _god_ _house_ _strength_ n., _way_ STEMS «deo-» «domu-» «vī-» and «iter-» and «vīri-» «itiner-» BASES «de-» «dom-» «v-» and «iter-» and «vīr-» «itiner-» SINGULAR _Nom._ deus domus vīs iter _Gen._ deī domūs vīs (rare) itineris _Dat._ deō domuī, -ō vī (rare) itinerī _Acc._ deum domum vim iter _Abl._ deō domō, -ū vī itinere PLURAL _Nom._ deī, dī domūs vīrēs itinera _Gen._ deōrum, deum domuum, -ōrum vīrium itinerum _Dat._ deīs, dīs domibus vīribus itineribus _Acc._ deōs domōs, -ūs vīrīs, -ēs itinera _Abl._ deīs, dīs domibus vīribus itineribus _a._ The vocative singular of «deus» is like the nominative. _b._ The locative of «domus» is «domī». ADJECTIVES «469.» FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. _O_- AND _Ā_-STEMS _a._ ADJECTIVES IN -us «bonus», _good_ STEMS «bono-» m. and n., «bona-» f. BASE «bon-» SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ bonus bona bonum _Gen._ bonī bonae bonī _Dat._ bonō bonae bonō _Acc._ bonum bonam bonum _Abl._ bonō bonā bonō PLURAL _Nom._ bonī bonae bona _Gen._ bonōrum bonārum bonōrum _Dat._ bonīs bonīs bonīs _Acc._ bonōs bonās bona _Abl._ bonīs bonīs bonīs _b._ ADJECTIVES IN «-er» «līber», _free_ STEMS «lībero-» m. and n., «līberā-» f. BASE «līber-» SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ līber lībera līberum _Gen._ līberī līberae līberī _Dat._ līberō līberae līberō _Acc._ līberum līberam līberum _Abl._ līberō līberā līberō PLURAL _Nom._ līberī līberae lībera _Gen._ līberōrum līberārum līberōrum _Dat._ līberīs līberīs līberīs _Acc._ līberōs līberās lībera _Abl._ līberīs līberīs līberīs «pulcher», _pretty_ STEMS «pulchro-» m. and n., «pulchrā-» f. BASE «pulchr-» SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ pulcher pulchra pulchrum _Gen._ pulchrī pulchrae pulchrī _Dat._ pulchrō pulchrae pulchrō _Acc._ pulchrum pulchram pulchrum _Abl._ pulchrō pulchrā pulchrō PLURAL _Nom._ pulchrī pulchrae pulchra _Gen._ pulchrōrum pulchrārum pulchrōrum _Dat._ pulchrīs pulchrīs pulchrīs _Acc._ pulchrōs pulchrās pulchra _Abl._ pulchrīs pulchrīs pulchrīs «470.» THE NINE IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES «alius», _another_ STEMS «alio-» m. and n., «aliā-» f. BASE «ali-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ alius alia aliud aliī aliae alia _Gen._ alīus alīus alīus aliōrum aliārum aliōrum _Dat._ aliī aliī aliī aliīs aliīs aliīs _Acc._ alium aliam aliud aliōs aliās alia _Abl._ aliō aliā aliō aliīs aliīs aliīs «ūnus», _one, only_ STEMS «ūno-» m. and n., «ūnā-» f. BASE «ūn-» MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ūnus ūna ūnum ūnī ūnae ūna _Gen._ ūnīus ūnīus ūnīus ūnōrum ūnārum ūnōrum _Dat._ ūnī ūnī ūnī ūnīs ūnīs ūnīs _Acc._ ūnum ūnam ūnum ūnōs ūnās ūna _Abl._ ūnō ūnā ūnō ūnīs ūnīs ūnīs _a._ For the complete list see §108. «471.» ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. _I_-STEMS I. THREE ENDINGS «ācer, ācris, ācre», _keen, eager_ STEM «ācri-» BASE «ācr-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ācer ācris ācre ācrēs ācrēs ācria _Gen._ ācris ācris ācris ācrium ācrium ācrium _Dat._ ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus _Acc._ ācrem ācrem ācre ācrīs, -ēs ācrīs, -ēs ācria _Abl._ ācrī ācrī ācrī ācribus ācribus ācribus II. TWO ENDINGS «omnis, omne», _every, all_ STEM «omni-» BASE «omn-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ omnis omne omnēs omnia _Gen._ omnis omnis omnium omnium _Dat._ omnī omnī omnibus omnibus _Acc._ omnem omne omnīs, -ēs omnia _Abl._ omnī omnī omnibus omnibus III. ONE ENDING «pār», _equal_ STEM «pari-» BASE «par-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ pār pār parēs paria _Gen._ paris paris parium parium _Dat._ parī parī paribus paribus _Acc._ parem pār parīs, -ēs paria _Abl._ parī parī paribus paribus 1. Observe that all i-stem adjectives have «-ī» in the ablative singular. [Transcriber’s Note: This sentence appears to be a footnote, but there is no footnote tag on the page.] «472.» PRESENT ACTIVE PARTICIPLES «amāns», _loving_ STEM «amanti-» BASE «amant-» SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ amāns amāns amantēs amantia _Gen._ amantis amantis amantium amantium _Dat._ amantī amantī amantibus amantibus _Acc._ amantem amāns amantīs, -ēs amantia _Abl._ amante, -ī amante, -ī amantibus amantibus «iēns», _going_ STEM «ienti-, eunti-» BASE «ient-, eunt-» _Nom._ iēns iēns euntēs euntia _Gen._ euntis euntis euntium euntium _Dat._ euntī euntī euntibus euntibus _Acc._ euntem iēns euntīs, -ēs euntia _Abl._ eunte, -ī eunte, -ī euntibus euntibus «473.» REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE MASC. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. altus (alto-) altior altius altissimus -a -um līber (lībero-) līberior līberius līberrimus -a -um pulcher (pulchro-) pulchrior pulchrius pulcherrimus -a -um audāx (audāci-) audācior audācius audācissimus -a -um brevis (brevi-) brevior brevius brevissimus -a -um ācer (ācri-) ācrior ācrius ācerrimus -a -um «474.» DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES «altior», _higher_ SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ altior altius altiōrēs altiōra _Gen._ altiōris altiōris altiōrum altiōrum _Dat._ altiōrī altiōrī altiōribus altiōribus _Acc._ altiōrem altius altiōrēs altiōra _Abl._ altiōre altiōre altiōribus altiōribus «plūs», _more_ _Nom._ ---- plūs plūrēs plūra _Gen._ ---- plūris plūrium plūrium _Dat._ ---- ---- plūribus plūribus _Acc._ ---- plūs plūrīs (-ēs) plūra _Abl._ ---- plūre plūribus plūribus «475.» IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE bonus, -a, -um, melior, melius, optimus, -a, -um, _good_ _better_ _best_ malus, -a, -um, peior, peius, pessimus, -a, -um, _bad_ _worse_ _worst_ magnus, -a, -um, maior, maius, maximus, -a, -um, _great_ _greater_ _greatest_ multus, -a, -um, ----, plūs, _more_ plūrimus, -a, -um, _much_ _most_ parvus, -a, -um, minor, minus, minimus, -a, -um,_ _small_ _smaller_ _smallest senex, senis, senior maximus nātū _old_ iuvenis, -e, iūnior minimus nātū _young_ vetus, veteris, vetustior, -ius veterrimus, -a, -um _old_ facilis, -e, facilior, -ius facillimus, -a, -um _easy_ difficilis, -e, difficilior, -ius difficillimus, -a, -um _difficult_ similis, -e, similior, -ius simillimus, -a, -um _similar_ dissimilis, -e, dissimilior, -ius dissimillimus, -a, -um _dissimilar_ humilis, -e, _low_ humilior, -ius humillimus, -a, -um gracilis, -e, gracilior, -ius gracillimus, -a, -um _slender_ exterus, _outward_ exterior, extrēmus, extimus, _outer, exterior_ _outermost, last_ īnferus, _below_ īnferior, _lower_ īnfimus, īmus, _lowest_ posterus, posterior, _later_ postrēmus, postumus, _following_ _last_ superus, _above_ superior, suprēmus, summus, _higher_ _highest_ [[cis, citrā,]] citerior, _hither_ citimus, _hithermost_ [[_on this side_]] [[in, intrā,]] interior, _inner_ intimus, _inmost_ [[_in, within_]] [[prae, prō,]] prior, _former_ prīmus, _first_ [[_before_]] [[prope, _near_]] propior, _nearer_ proximus, _next_ [[ultrā, _beyond_]] ulterior, _further_ ultimus, _furthest_ «476.» REGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE cārē (cārus), _dearly_ cārius cārissimē miserē (miser), _wretchedly_ miserius miserrimē ācriter (ācer), _sharply_ ācrius ācerrimē facile (facilis), _easily_ facilius facillimē «477.» IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE diū, _long, a long time_ diūtius diūtissimē bene (bonus), _well_ melius, _better_ optimē, _best_ male (malus), _ill_ peius, _worse_ pessimē, _worst_ magnopere, _greatly_ magis, _more_ maximē, _most_ multum (multus), _much_ plūs, _more_ plūrimum, _most_ parum, _little_ minus, _less_ minimē, _least_ saepe, _often_ saepīus saepissimē «478.» NUMERALS The cardinal numerals are indeclinable excepting «ūnus», «duo», «trēs», the hundreds above one hundred, and «mīlle» used as a noun. The ordinals are declined like «bonus, -a, -um». CARDINALS ORDINALS (_How many_) (_In what order_) 1, ūnus, -a, -um, _one_ prīmus, -a, -um _first_ 2, duo, duae, duo _two_ secundus (_or_ alter) _second_ 3, trēs, tria _three_, tertius _third_, 4, quattuor etc. quārtus etc. 5, quīnque quīntus 6, sex sextus 7, septem septimus 8, octō octāvus 9, novem nōnus 10, decem decimus 11, ūndecim ūndecimus 12, duodecim duodecimus 13, tredecim (decem (et) trēs) tertius decimus 14, quattuordecim quārtus decimus 15, quīndecim quīntus decimus 16, sēdecim sextus decimus 17, septendecim septimus decimus 18, duodēvīgintī (octōdecim) duodēvīcēnsimus 19, ūndēvīgintī (novendecim) ūndēvīcēnsimus 20, vīgintī vīcēnsimus 21, {vīgintī ūnus _or_ {vīcēnsimus prīmus _or_ {ūnus et vīgintī, etc. {ūnus et vīcēnsimus, etc. 30, trīgintā trīcēnsimus 40, quadrāgintā quadrāgēnsimus 50, quīnquāgintā quīnquāgēnsimus 60, sexāgintā sexāgēnsimus 70, septuāgintā septuāgēnsimus 80, octōgintā octōgēnsimus 90, nōnāgintā nōnāgēnsimus 100, centum centēnsimus 101, centum (et) ūnus, etc. centēnsimus (et) prīmus, etc. 120, centum (et) vīgintī centēnsimus vīcēnsimus 121, centum (et) vīgintī ūnus, centēnsimus (et) vīcēnsimus prīmus, etc. etc. 200, ducentī, -ae, -a ducentēnsimus 300, trecentī trecentēnsimus 400, quadringentī quadringentēnsimus 500, quīngentī quīngentēnsimus 600, sescentī sescentēnsimus 700, septingentī septingentēnsimus 800, octingentī octingentēnsimus 900, nōngentī nōngentēnsimus 1000, mīlle mīllēnsimus «479.» Declension of «duo», _two_, «trēs», _three_, and «mīlle», _a thousand_. MASC. FEM. NEUT. M. AND F. NEUT. SING. PLUR. _N._ duo duae duo trēs trīa mīlle mīlia _G._ duōrum duārum duōrum trium trium mīlle mīlium _D._ duōbus duābus duōbus tribus tribus mīlle mīlibus _A._ duōs duās duo trīs tria mīlle mīlia _or_ duo duās duo _or_ trēs tria _A._ duōbus duābus duōbus tribus tribus mīlle mīlibus NOTE. «Mīlle» is used in the plural as a noun with a modifying genitive, and is occasionally so used in the nominative and accusative singular. For the declension of «ūnus» cf. §470. PRONOUNS «480.» PERSONAL ego, _I_ tū, _you_ suī, _of himself,_ _etc._ SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. _Nom._ ego nōs tū vōs ---- ---- _Gen._ meī nostrum, -trī tuī vestrum, -trī suī suī _Dat._ mihi nōbīs tibi vōbīs sibi sibi _Acc._ mē nōs tē vōs sē, sēsē sē, sēsē _Abl._ mē nōbīs tē vōbīs sē, sēsē sē, sēsē Note that «suī» is always reflexive. «481.» DEMONSTRATIVE Demonstratives belong to the first and second declensions, but have the pronominal endings «-ī̆us» and «-ī» in the gen. and dat. sing. «ipse», _self_ SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ ipse ipsa ipsum ipsī ipsae ipsa _Gen._ ipsī´us ipsī´us ipsī´us ipsōrum ipsārum ipsōrum _Dat._ ipsī ipsī ipsī ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs _Acc._ ipsum ipsam ipsum ipsōs ipsās ipsa _Abl._ ipsō ipsā ipsō ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs «hic», _this_ (here), _he_ _Nom._ hic haec hoc hī hae haec _Gen._ huius huius huius hōrum hārum hōrum _Dat._ huic huic huic hīs hīs hīs _Acc._ hunc hanc hoc hōs hās haec _Abl._ hōc hāc hōc hīs hīs hīs «iste», _this, that_ (of yours), _he_ _Nom._ iste ista istud istī istae ista _Gen._ istī´us istī´us istī´us istōrum istārum istōrum _Dat._ istī istī istī istīs istīs istīs _Acc._ istum istam istud istōs istās ista _Abl._ istō istā istō istīs istīs istīs «ille», _that_ (yonder), _he_ _Nom._ ille illa illud illī illae illa _Gen._ illī´us illī´us illī´us illōrum illārum illōrum _Dat._ illī illī illī illīs illīs illīs _Acc._ illum illam illud illōs illās illa _Abl._ illō illā illō illīs illīs illīs «is», _this, that, he_ _Nom._ is ea id iī, eī eae ea _Gen._ eius eius eius eōrum eārum eōrum _Dat._ eī eī eī iīs, eīs iīs, eīs iīs, eīs _Acc._ eum eam id eōs eās ea _Abl._ eō eā eō iīs, eīs iīs, eīs iīs, eīs «īdem», _the same_ _Nom._ īdem e´adem idem iī´dem eae´dem e´adem eī´dem _Gen._ eius´dem eius´dem eius´dem eōrun´dem eārun´dem eōrun´dem _Dat._ eī´dem eī´dem eī´dem iīs´dem iīs´dem iīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem _Acc._ eun´dem ean´dem idem eōs´dem eās´dem e´adem _Abl._ eō´dem eā´dem eō´dem iīs´dem iīs´dem iīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem eīs´dem NOTE. In the plural of «is» and «īdem» the forms with two i’s are preferred, the two i’s being pronounced as one. «482.» RELATIVE «quī», _who, which, that_ SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ quī quae quod quī quae quae _Gen._ cuius cuius cuius quōrum quārum quōrum _Dat._ cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus _Acc._ quem quam quod quōs quās quae _Abl._ quō quā quō quibus quibus quibus «483.» INTERROGATIVE «quis», substantive, _who, what_ SINGULAR PLURAL MASC. & FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ quis quid qui quae quae _Gen._ cuius cuius quōrum quārum quōrum _Dat._ cui cui quibus quibus quibus _Acc._ quem quid quōs quās quae _Abl._ quō quō quibus quibus quibus The interrogative adjective «quī, quae, quod», is declined like the relative. «484.» INDEFINITES «quis» and «quī», as declined above,[1] are used also as indefinites (_some, any_). The other indefinites are compounds of «quis» and «quī». «quisque», _each_ SUBSTANTIVE ADJECTIVE MASC. & FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ quisque quidque quisque quaeque quodque _Gen._ cuius´que cuius´que cuius´que cuius´que cuius´que _Dat._ cuique cuique cuique cuique cuique _Acc._ quemque quidque quemque quamque quodque _Abl._ quōque quōque quōque quāque quōque [Footnote 1: «qua» is generally used instead of «quae» in the feminine nominative singular and in the neuter nominative and accusative plural.] «485.» «quīdam», _a certain one, a certain_ Observe that in the neuter singular the adjective has «quoddam» and the substantive «quiddam». SINGULAR MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ quīdam quaedam quoddam, quiddam (_subst._) _Gen._ cuius´dam cuius´dam cuius´dam _Dat._ cuidam cuidam cuidam _Acc._ quendam quandam quoddam, quiddam (_subst._) _Abl._ quōdam quādam quōdam PLURAL _Nom._ quīdam quaedam quaedam _Gen._ quōrun´dam quārun´dam quōrun´dam _Dat._ quibus´dam quibus´dam quibus´dam _Acc._ quōsdam quāsdam quaedam _Abl._ quibus´dam quibus´dam quibus´dam «486.» «quisquam», substantive, _any one_ (at all) MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ quisquam quicquam (quidquam) _Gen._ cuius´quam cuius´quam _Dat._ cuiquam cuiquam _Acc._ quemquam quicquam (quidquam) _Abl._ quōquam quōquam «487.» «aliquis», substantive, _some one_. «aliquī», adjective, _some_ SINGULAR SUBSTANTIVE ADJECTIVE MASC. AND FEM. NEUT. MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ aliquis aliquid aliquī aliqua aliquod _Gen._ alicu´ius alicu´ius alicu´ius alicu´ius alicu´ius _Dat._ alicui alicui alicui alicui alicui _Acc._ aliquem aliquid aliquem aliquam aliquod _Abl._ aliquō aliquō aliquō aliquā aliquō PLURAL FOR BOTH SUBSTANTIVE AND ADJECTIVE MASC. FEM. NEUT. _Nom._ aliquī aliquae aliqua _Gen._ aliquō´rum aliquā´rum aliquō´rum _Dat._ ali´quibus ali´quibus ali´quibus _Acc._ aliquōs aliquās aliqua _Abl._ ali´quibus ali´quibus ali´quibus _a._ «quis (quī)», _any one, any_, is the least definite (§297.b). «aliquis (aliquī)», _some one, some_, is more definite than «quis». «quisquam», _any one_ (at all), and its adjective «ūllus», _any_, occur mostly with a negative, expressed or implied, and in clauses of comparison. REGULAR VERBS «488.» FIRST CONJUGATION. _Ā_-VERBS. _AMŌ_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «amō, amāre, amāvī, amātus» PRES. STEM amā- PERF. STEM amāv- PART. STEM amāt- ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT _I love, am loving,_ _I am loved_, etc. _do love_, etc. amō amāmus amor amāmur amās amātis amāris, -re amāminī amat amant amātur amantur IMPERFECT _I loved, was loving_, _I was loved_, etc. _did love_, etc. amābam amābāmus amābar amābāmur amābās amābātis amābāris, -re amābāminī amābat amābant amābātur amābantur FUTURE _I shall love_, etc. _I shall be loved_, etc. amābō amābimus amābor amābimur amābis amābitis amāberis, -re amābiminī amābit amābunt amābitur amābuntur PERFECT _I have loved, loved,_ _I have been (was) loved_, etc. _did love_, etc. amāvi amāvimus amātus, {sum amātī, {sumus amāvistī amāvistis -a, -um {es -ae, -a {estis amāvit amāvērunt, -re {est {sunt PLUPERFECT _I had loved_, etc. _I had been loved_, etc. amāveram amāverāmus amātus, {eram amātī, {erāmus amāverās amāverātis -a, -um {erās -ae, -a {erātis amāverat amāverant {erat {erant FUTURE PERFECT _I shall have loved_, etc. _I shall have been loved_, etc. amāverō amāverimus amātus, {erō amātī, {erimus amāveris amāveritis -a, -um {eris -ae, -a {eritis amāverit amāverint {erit {erunt SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT amem amēmus amer amēmur amēs amētis amēris, -re amēminī amet ament amētur amentur IMPERFECT amārem amāremus amārer amārēmur amārēs amārētis amārēris, -re amārēminī amāret amārent amārētur amārentur PERFECT amāverim amāverimus amātus, {sim amātī, {sīmus amāveris amāveritis -a, -um {sīs -ae, -a {sītis amāverit amāverint {sit {sint PLUPERFECT amāvissem amāvissēmus amātus, {essem amātī, {essēmus amāvissēs amāvissētis -a, -um {essēs -ae, -a {essētis amāvisset amāvissent {esset {essent IMPERATIVE PRESENT amā, _love thou_ amāre, _be thou loved_ amāte, _love ye_ amāminī, _be ye loved_ FUTURE amātō, _thou shalt love_ amātor, _thou shalt be loved_ amātō, _he shall love_ amātor, _he shall be loved_ amātōte, _you shall love_ ---- amantō, _they shall love_ amantor, _they shall be loved_ INFINITIVE _Pres._ amāre, _to love_ amārī, _to be loved_ _Perf._ amāvisse, amātus, -a, -um esse, _to have loved_ _to have been loved_ _Fut._ amātūrus, -a, -um [[amātum īrī]], _to be about to be loved_ esse, _to be_ _about to love_ PARTICIPLES _Pres._ amāns, -antis, _Pres._ ---- _loving_ _Fut._ amātūrus, -a, -um, _Gerundive[1]_ amandus, -a, -um, _to be _about to love_ loved_ _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ amātus, -a, -um, _having been loved, loved_ GERUND _Nom._ ---- _Gen._ amandī, _of loving_ _Dat._ amandō, _for loving_ _Acc._ amandum, _loving_ _Abl._ amandō, _by loving_ SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[amātum]], _to love_ _Abl._ [[amātū]], _to love, in the loving_ [Footnote 1: Sometimes called the future passive participle.] «489.» SECOND CONJUGATION. _Ē_-VERBS. _MONEŌ_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «moneō, monēre, monuī, monitus» PRES. STEM monē- PERF. STEM monu- PART. STEM monit- ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT _I advise_, etc., _I am advised,_ etc. moneō monēmus moneor monēmur monēs monētis monēris, -re monēminī monet monent monētur monentur IMPERFECT _I was advising_, etc., _I was advised_, etc. monēbam monēbāmus monēbar monēbāmur monēbās monēbātis monēbāris, -re monēbāminī monēbat monēbant monēbātur monēbāntur FUTURE _I shall advise_, etc., _I shall be advised_, etc. monēbō monēbimus monēbor monēbimur monēbis monēbitis monēberis, -re monēbiminī monēbit monēbunt monēbitur monēbuntur PERFECT _I have advised,_ _I have been (was) advised_, etc. _I advised_, etc. monuī monuimus {sum {sumus monuistī monuistis monitus, {es monitī, {estis monuit monuērunt, -re -a, -um {est -ae, -a {sunt PLUPERFECT _I had advised_, etc., _I had been advised_, etc. monueram monuerāmus {eram {erāmus monuerās monuerātis monitus, {eras monitī, {eratis monuerat monuerant -a, -um {erat -ae, -a {erant FUTURE PERFECT _I shall have advised_, _I shall have been advised_, etc. etc. monuerō monuerimus {erō {erimus monueris monuerītis monitus, {eris monitī, {eritis monuerit monuerīnt -a, -um {erit -ae, -a {erunt SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT moneam moneāmus monear moneāmur moneās moneātis moneāris, -re moneāminī moneat moneant moneātur moneantur IMPERFECT monērem monērēmus monērer monērēmur monērēs monērētis monērēris, -re monērēminī monēret monērent monērētur monērentur PERFECT monuerim monuerimus {sim {sīmus monueris monueritis monitus, {sīs monitī, {sītis monuerit monuerint -a, -um {sit -ae, -a {sint PLUPERFECT monuissem monuissēmus {essem {essēmus monuissēs monuissētis monitus, {essēs monitī, {essētis monuisset monuissent -a, -um {esset -ae, -a {essent IMPERATIVE PRESENT monē, _advise thou_ monēre, _be thou advised_ monēte, _advise ye_ monēminī, _be ye advised_ FUTURE monētō, _thou shall_ monētor, _thou shalt be advised_ _advise_ monētō, _he shall advise_ monētor, _he shall be advised_ monētōte, _you shall advise_ ---- monentō, _they shall_ monentor, _they shall be advised_ _advise_ INFINITIVE _Pres._ monēre, _to advise_ monērī, _to be advised_ _Perf._ monuisse, _to have_ monitus, -a, -um esse, _advised_ _to have been advised_ _Fut._ monitūrus, -a, -um [[monitum īrī]], esse, _to be_ _to be about to be advised_ _about to advise_ PARTICIPLES _Pres._ monēns, -entis, _Pres._ ---- _advising_ _Fut._ monitūrus, -a, -um, _Ger._ monendus, -a, -um, _about to advise_ _to be advised_ _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ monitus, -a, -um, _having been advised, advised_ GERUND _Nom._ ---- _Gen._ monendī, _of advising_ _Dat._ monendō, _for advising_ _Acc._ monendum, _advising_ _Abl._ monendō, _by advising_ SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[monitum]], _to advise_ _Abl._ [[monitū]], _to advise, in the advising_ «490.» THIRD CONJUGATION. _Ĕ_-VERBS. _REGŌ_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «regō, regere, rexī, rēctus» PRES. STEM rege- PERF. STEM rēx- PART. STEM rēct- ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT _I rule_, etc. _I am ruled_, etc. regō regimus re´gor re´gimur regis regitis re´geris, -re regi´minī regit regunt re´gitur regun´tur IMPERFECT _I was ruling_, etc. _I was ruled_, etc. regēbam regēbāmus regē´bar regēbā´mur regēbās regēbātis regēbā´ris, -re regēbā´minī regēbat regēbant regēbā´tur regēban´tur FUTURE _I shall rule_, etc. _I shall be ruled_, etc. regam regēmus re´gar regē´mur regēs regētis regē´ris, -re regē´minī reget regent regē´tur regen´tur PERFECT _I have ruled_, etc. _I have been ruled_, etc. rēxī rēximus {sum {sumus rēxistī rēxistis rēctus, {es rēctī, {estis rēxit rēxērunt, -re -a, -um {est -ae, -a {sunt PLUPERFECT _I had ruled_, etc. _I had been ruled_, etc. rēxeram rēxerāmus {eram {erāmus rēxerās rēxerātis rēctus, {eras rēctī, {erātis rēxerat rēxerant -a, -um {erat -ae, -a {erant FUTURE PERFECT _I shall have ruled_, etc. _I shall have been ruled_, etc. rēxerō rēxerimus {erō {erimus rēxeris rēxeritis rēctus, {eris rēctī, {eritis rēxerit rēxerint -a, -um {erit -ae, -a {erunt SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT regam regāmus regar regāmur regās regātis regāris, -re regāminī regat regant regātur regantur IMPERFECT regerem regerēmus regerer regerēmur regerēs regerētis regerēris, -re regerēminī regeret regerent regerētur regerentur PERFECT rēxerim rēxerimus {sim {sīmus rēxeris rēxeritis rēctus, {sīs rēcti, {sītis rēxerit rēxerint -a, -um {sit -ae, -a {sint PLUPERFECT rēxissem rēxissēmus {essem {essēmus rēxissēs rēxissētis rēctus, {essēs rēcti, {essētis rēxisset rēxissent -a, -um {esset -ae, -a {essent IMPERATIVE PRESENT rege, _rule thou_ regere, _be thou ruled_ regite, _rule ye_ regiminī, _be ye ruled_ FUTURE regitō, _thou shalt rule_ regitor, _thou shalt be ruled_ regitō _he shall rule_ regitor, _he shall be ruled_ regitōte, _ye shall rule_ ---- reguntō, _they shall rule_ reguntor, _they shall be ruled_ INFINITIVE _Pres._ regere, _to rule_ regī, _to be ruled_ _Perf._ rēxisse, _to have_ rēctus, -a, -um esse, _ruled_ _to have been ruled_ _Fut._ rēctūrus, -a, -um [[rēctum īrī]], esse, _to be_ _to be about to be ruled_ _about to rule_ PARTICIPLES _Pres._ regēns, -entis, _Pres._ ---- _ruling_ _Fut._ rēctūrus, -a, -um, _Ger._ regendus, -a, -um, _to be ruled_ _about to rule_ _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ rēctus, -a, -um, _having been ruled, ruled_ GERUND _Nom._ ---- _Gen._ regendī, _of ruling_ _Dat._ regendō, _for ruling_ _Acc._ regendum, _ruling_ _Abl._ regendō, _by ruling_ SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[rēctum]], _to rule_ _Abl._ [[rēctū]], _to rule, in the ruling_ «491.» FOURTH CONJUGATION. _Ī_-VERBS. _AUDIŌ_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus» PRES. STEM audī- PERF. STEM audīv- PART. STEM audīt- ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT _I hear_, etc. _I am heard_, etc. audiō audīmus au´dior audī´mur audīs audītis audī´ris, -re audī´minī audit audiunt audī´tur audiun´tur IMPERFECT _I was hearing_, etc. _I was heard_, etc. audiēbam audiēbāmus audiē´bar audiēbā´mur audiēbās audiēbātis audiēbā´ris, -re audiēbā´minī audiēbat audiēbant audiēbā´tur audiēban´tur FUTURE _I shall hear_, etc. _I shall be heard_, etc. audiam audiēmus au´diar audiē´mur audiēs audiētis audiē´ris, -re audiē´minī audiet audient audiē´tur audien´tur PERFECT _I have heard_, etc. _I have been heard_, etc. audīvī audīvimus {sum {sumus audīvistī audīvistis audītus, {es audītī, {estis audīvit audīvērunt, -re -a, -um {est -ae, -a {sunt PLUPERFECT _I had heard_, etc. _I had been heard_, etc. audīveram audīverāmus {eram {erāmus audīverās audīverātis audītus, {eras audītī, {erātis audīverat audīverant -a, -um {erat -ae, -a {erant FUTURE PERFECT _I shall have heard_, etc. _I shall have been heard_, etc. audīverō audīverimus {erō {erimus audīveris audīveritis audītus, {eris audītī, {eritis audīverit audīverint -a, -um {erit -ae, -a {erunt SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT audiam audiāmus audiar audiāmur audiās audiātis audiāris, -re audiāminī audiat audiant audiātur audiantur IMPERFECT audīrem audīrēmus audīrer audīrēmur audīrēs audīrētis audīrēris, -re audīrēminī audīret audīrent audīrētur audīrentur PERFECT audīverim audīverimus {sim {sīmus audīveris audīveritis audītus, {sīs audīti, {sītis audīverit audīverint -a, -um {sit -ae, -a {sint PLUPERFECT audīvissem audīvissēmus {essem {essēmus audīvissēs audīvissētis audītus, {essēs audīti, {essētis audīvisset audīvissent -a, -um {esset -ae, -a {essent IMPERATIVE PRESENT PRESENT audī, _hear thou_ audīre, _be thou heard_ audīte, _hear ye_ audīminī, _be ye heard_ FUTURE audītō, _thou shalt hear_ audītor, _thou shalt be heard_ audītō _he shall hear_ audītor, _he shall be heard_ audītōte, _ye shall hear_ ---- auduntō, _they shall hear_ audiuntor, _they shall be heard_ INFINITIVE _Pres._ audīre, _to hear_ audīrī, _to be heard_ _Perf._ audīvisse, audītus, -a, -um esse, _to have heard_ _to have been heard_ _Fut._ audītūrus, -a, -um [[audītum īrī]], esse, _to be_ _to be about to be heard_ _about to hear_ PARTICIPLES _Pres._ audiēns, -entis, _Pres._ ---- _hearing_ _Fut._ audītūrus, -a, -um, _Ger._ audiendus, -a, -um, _to be heard_ _about to hear_ _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ audītus, -a, -um, _having been heard, heard_ GERUND _Nom._ ---- _Gen._ audiendī, _of hearing_ _Dat._ audiendō, _for hearing_ _Acc._ audiendum, _hearing_ _Abl._ audiendō, _by hearing_ SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[audītum]], _to hear_ _Abl._ [[audītu]], _to hear, in the hearing_ «492.» THIRD CONJUGATION. VERBS IN _-IŌ_. _CAPIŌ_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «capiō, capere, cēpī, captus» PRES. STEM cape- PERF. STEM cēp- PART. STEM capt- ACTIVE PASSIVE INDICATIVE PRESENT capiō capimus ca´pior ca´pimur capis capitis ca´peris, -re capi´minī capit capiunt ca´pitur capiun´tur IMPERFECT capiēbam capiebamus capiē´bar capiēbā´mur capiēbas capiēbātis capiēba´ris, -re capiēbā´minī capiēbat capiēbant capiēbā´tur capieban´tur FUTURE capiam capiēmus ca´piar capiē´mur capiēs capiētis capiē´ris, -re capiē´minī capiet capient capiē´tur capien´tur PERFECT cēpī, cēpistī, cēpit, etc. captus, -a, -um sum, es, est, etc. PLUPERFECT cēperam, cēperās, cēperat, captus, -a, -um eram, erās, erat, etc. etc. FUTURE PERFECT cēperō, cēperis, cēperit, captus, -a, -um erō, eris, erit, etc. etc. SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT capiam, capiās, capiat, capiar, -iāris, -re, -iātur, etc. etc. IMPERFECT caperem, caperēs, caperet, caperer, -erēris, -re, -erētur, etc. etc. PERFECT cēperim, cēperis, cēperit, captus, -a, -um sim, sīs, sit, etc. etc. PLUPERFECT cēpissem, cēpissēs, captus, -a, -um essem, essēs, esset, cēpisset, etc. etc. IMPERATIVE PRESENT _2d Pers._ cape capite capere capiminī FUTURE _2d Pers._ capitō capitōte capitor ---- _3rd Pers._ capitō capiuntō capitor capiuntor INFINITIVE _Pres._ capere capī _Perf._ cēpisse captus, -a, -um esse _Fut._ captūrus, -a, -um [[captum īrī]] esse PARTICIPLES _Pres._ capiēns, -ientis _Pres._ ---- _Fut._ captūrus, -a, -um _Ger._ capiendus, -a, -um _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ captus, -a, -um GERUND _Gen._ capiendī etc. SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[captum]] _Abl._ [[captū]] «493.» DEPONENT VERBS [Transcriber’s Note: Asterisks in this section are from the original text (“marked with a star”).] PRINCIPAL PARTS I. «hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum», _urge_ II. «vereor, verērī, veritus sum», _fear_ III. «sequor, sequī, secūtus sum», _follow_ IV. «partior, partīrī, partītus sum», _share, divide_ NOTE. In addition to the passive conjugation, deponent verbs use certain forms from the active. These are marked with a star. Deponent -iō verbs of the third conjugation are inflected like the passive of capiō. INDICATIVE _Pres._ hortor vereor sequor partior hortāris, -re verēris, -re sequeris, -re partīris, -re hortātur verētur sequitur partītur hortāmur verēmur sequimur partīmur hortāminī verēminī sequiminī partīminī hortantur verentur sequuntur partiuntur _Impf._ hortābar verēbar sequēbar partiēbar _Fut._ hortābor verēbor sequar partiar _Perf._ hortātus sum veritus sum secūtus sum partītus sum _Plup._ hortātus eram veritus eram secūtus eram partītus eram _F.P._ hortātus erō veritus erō secūtus erō partītus erō SUBJUNCTIVE _Pres._ horter verear sequar partiar _Impf._ hortārer verērer sequerer partīrer _Perf._ hortātus sim veritus sim secūtus sim partītus sim _Plup._ hortātus essem veritus essem secūtus essem partītus essem IMPERATIVE _Pres._ hortāre verēre sequere partīre _Fut._ hortātor verētor sequitor partītor INFINITIVE _Pres._ hortārī verērī sequī partīrī _Perf._ hortātus esse veritus esse secūtus esse partītus esse _Fut._ *hortātūrus *veritūrus *secūtūrus *partītūrus esse esse esse esse PARTICIPLES _Pres._ *hortāns *verēns *sequēns *partiēns _Fut._ *hortāturus *veritūrus *secūtūrus *partītūrus _Perf._ hortātus veritus secūtus partītus _Ger._ hortandus verendus sequendus partiendus GERUND *hortandī, etc. *verendī, etc. *sequendī, etc. *partiendī, etc. SUPINE *[[hortātus, -tū]] *[[veritum, -tū]] *[[secūtum, -tū]] *[[partītum, -tū]] IRREGULAR VERBS «494.» «sum», _am, be_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «sum, esse, fuī, futūrus» PRES. STEM es- PERF. STEM fu- PART. STEM fut- INDICATIVE PRESENT SINGULAR PLURAL sum, _I am_ sumus, _we are_ es, _thou art_ estis, _you are_ est, _he (she, it) is_ sunt, _they are_ IMPERFECT eram, _I was_ erāmus, _we were_ erās, _thou wast_ erātis, _you were_ erat, _he was_ erant, _they were_ FUTURE erō, _I shall be_ erimus, _we shall be_ eris, _thou wilt be_ eritis, _you will be_ erit, _he will be_ erunt, _they will be_ PERFECT fuī, _I have been, was_ fuimus, _we have been, were_ fuistī, _thou hast been, wast_ fuistis, _you have been, were_ fuit, _he has been, was_ fuērunt, fuēre, _they have been, were_ PLUPERFECT fueram, _I had been_ fuerāmus, _we had been_ fuerās, _thou hadst been_ fuerātis, _you had been_ fuerat, _he had been_ fuerant, _they had been_ FUTURE PERFECT fuerō, _I shall have been_ fuerimus, _we shall have been_ fueris, _thou wilt have been_ fueritis, _you will have been_ fuerit, _he will have been_ fuerint, _they will have been_ SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT IMPERFECT SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL sim sīmus essem essēmus sīs sītis essēs essētis sit sint esset essent PERFECT PLUPERFECT fuerim fuerimus fuissem fuissēmus fueris fueritis fuissēs fuissētis fuerit fuerint fuisset fuissent IMPERATIVE PRESENT _2d Pers. Sing._ es, _be thou_ _2d Pers. Plur._ este, _be ye_ FUTURE _2d Pers. Sing._ estō, _thou shalt be_ _3d Pers. Sing._ estō, _he shall be_ _2d Pers. Plur._ estōte, _ye shall be_ _3d Pers. Plur._ suntō, _they shall be_ INFINITIVE _Pres._ esse, _to be_ _Perf._ fuisse, _to have been_ _Fut._ futūrus, -a, -um esse or «fore», _to be about to be_ PARTICIPLE futūrus, -a, -um, _about to be_ «495.» «possum», _be able, can_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «possum, posse, potuī, ----» INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL _Pres._ possum pos´sumus possim possī´mus potes potes´tis possīs possī´tis potest possunt possit possint _Impf._ poteram poterāmus possem possē´mus _Fut._ poterō poterimus ---- ---- _Perf._ potuī potuimus potuerim potuerimus _Plup._ potueram potuerāmus potuissem potuissēmus _F.P._ potuerō potuerimus ---- ---- INFINITIVE _Pres._ posse _Perf._ potuisse PARTICIPLE _Pres._ potens, _gen._ -entis, (adjective) _powerful_ «496.» «prōsum», _benefit_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «prōsum, prōdesse, prōfuī, prōfutūrus» PRES. STEM «prōdes-» PERF. STEM «prōfu-» PART. STEM «prōfut-» INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL _Pres._ prōsum prō´sumus prōsim prōsī´mus prōdes prōdes´tis prōsīs prōsī´tis prōdest prōsunt prōsit prōsint _Impf._ prōderam prōderāmus prōdessem prodessē´mus _Fut._ prōderō prōderimus ---- ---- _Perf._ prōfuī prōfuimus prōfuerim prōfuerimus _Plup._ prōfueram prōfuerāmus prōfuissem prōfuissēmus _F.P._ prōfuerō prōfuerimus ---- ---- IMPERATIVE _Pres. 2d Pers._ prōdes, prōdeste _Fut. 2d Pers._ prōdestō, prōdestōte INFINITIVE _Pres._ prōdesse _Perf._ prōfuisse _Fut._ prōfutūrus, -a, -um esse FUTURE PARTICIPLE prōfutūrus, -a, -um «497.» [ «volō», «nōlō», «mālō»] PRINCIPAL PARTS: «volō, velle, voluī», ----, _be willing, will, wish_ «nōlō, nōlle, nōluī», ----, _be unwilling, will not_ «mālō, mālle, māluī», ----, _be more willing, prefer_ «Nōlō» and «mālō» are compounds of «volō». «Nōlō» is for «ne» (_not_) + «volō», and «mālō» for «mā» (from «magis», _more_) + «volō». The second person «vīs» is from a different root. INDICATIVE SINGULAR _Pres._ volō nōlō mālō vīs nōn vis māvīs vult nōn vult māvult PLURAL volumus nōlumus mālumus vultis nōn vultis māvul´tis volunt nōlunt mālunt _Impf._ volēbam nōlēbam mālēbam _Fut._ volam, volēs, etc. nōlam, nōlēs, etc. mālam, mālēs, etc. _Perf._ voluī nōluī māluī _Plup._ volueram nōlueram mālueram _F.P._ voluerō nōluerō māluerō SUBJUNCTIVE SINGULAR _Pres._ velim nōlim mālim velīs nōlīs mālīs velit nōlit mālit PLURAL velī´mus nōlī´mus mālī´mus velī´tis nōlī´tis mālī´tis velint nōlint mālint _Impf._ vellem nōllem māllem _Perf._ voluerim nōluerim māluerim _Plup._ voluissem nōluissem māluissem IMPERATIVE _Pres._ nōlī nōlīte _Fut._ nōlītō, etc. INFINITIVE _Pres._ velle nōlle mālle _Perf._ voluisse nōluisse māluisse PARTICIPLE _Pres._ volēns, -entis nōlēns, -entis ---- «498.» «ferō», _bear, carry, endure_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus» PRES. STEM fer- PERF. STEM tul- PART. STEM lāt- INDICATIVE ACTIVE PASSIVE _Pres._ ferō ferimus feror ferimur fers fertīs ferris, -re ferimimī fert ferunt fertur feruntur _Impf._ ferēbam ferēbar _Fut._ feram, ferēs, etc. ferar, ferēris, etc. _Perf._ tulī lātus, -a, -um sum _Plup._ tuleram lātus, -a, -um eram _F.P._ tulerō lātus, -a, -um erō SUBJUNCTIVE _Pres._ feram, ferās, etc. ferar, ferāris, etc. _Impf._ ferrem ferrer _Perf._ tulerim lātus, -a, -um sim _Plup._ tulissem lātus, -a, -um essem IMPERATIVE _Pres. 2d Pers._ fer ferte ferre feriminī _Fut. 2d Pers._ fertō fertōte fertor _3d Pers._ fertō ferunto fertor feruntor INFINITIVE _Pres._ ferre ferrī _Perf._ tulisse lātus, -a, -um esse _Fut._ lātūrus, -a, -um esse ---- PARTICIPLES _Pres._ ferēns, -entis _Pres._ ---- _Fut._ lātūrus, -a, -um _Ger._ ferendus, -a, -um _Perf._ ---- _Perf._ lātus, -a, -um GERUND _Gen._ ferendī _Dat._ ferendō _Acc._ ferendum _Abl._ ferendō SUPINE (Active Voice) _Acc._ [[lātum]] _Abl._ [[lātū]] «499.» eō, _go_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «eō, īre, iī (īvī), ĭtum» (n. perf. part.) PRES. STEM ī- PERF. STEM ī- or īv- PART. STEM it- INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE SING. PLUR. _Pres._ eō īmus eam _2d Pers._ ī īte īs ītis it eunt _Impf._ ībam īrem _Fut._ ībō ---- _2d Pers._ ītō ītōte _3d Pers._ ītō euntō _Perf._ iī (īvī) ierim (īverim) _Plup._ ieram (īveram) īssem (īvissem) _F. P._ ierō (īverō) INFINITIVE _Pres._ īre _Perf._ īsse (īvisse) _Fut._ itūrus, -a, -um esse PARTICIPLES _Pres._ iēns, _gen._ euntis (§472) _Fut._ itūrus, -a, -um _Ger._ eundum GERUND _Gen._ eundī _Dat._ eundō _Acc._ eundum _Abl._ eundō SUPINE _Acc._ [[itum]] _Abl._ [[itū]] _a._ The verb «eō» is used impersonally in the third person singular of the passive, as «ītur», «itum est», _etc._ _b._ In the perfect system the forms with «v» are very rare. «500.» «fīō», passive of «faciō»; _be made, become, happen_ PRINCIPAL PARTS «fīō, fierī, factus sum» INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE IMPERATIVE _Pres._ fīō ---- fīam _2d Pers._ fī fīte fīs ---- fit fīunt _Impf._ fīēbam fierem _Fut._ fīam ---- INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE _Perf._ factus, -a, -um sum factus, -a, -um sim _Plup._ factus, -a, -um eram factus, -a, -um essem _F.P._ factus, -a, -um erō INFINITIVE PARTICIPLES _Pres._ fierī _Perf._ factus, -a, -um _Perf._ factus, -a, -um esse _Ger._ faciendus, -a, -um _Fut._ [[factum īrī]] [Illustration: CASTRA MURO FOSSAQUE MUNIUNTUR] APPENDIX II «501.» RULES OF SYNTAX NOTE. The rules of syntax are here classified and numbered consecutively. The number of the text section in which the rule appears is given at the end of each. _Nominative Case_ «1.» The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative and answers the question Who? or What? §36. _Agreement_ «2.» A finite verb must always be in the same person and number as its subject. §28. «3.» A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb. §76. «4.» An appositive agrees in case with the noun which it explains. §81. «5.» Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. §65. «6.» A predicate adjective completing a complementary infinitive agrees in gender, number, and case with the subject of the main verb. §215.a. «7.» A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender and number; but its case is determined by the way it is used in its own clause. §224. _Prepositions_ «8.» A noun governed by a preposition must be in the accusative or ablative case. §52. _Genitive Case_ «9.» The word denoting the owner or possessor of something is in the genitive and answers the question Whose? §38. «10.» The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, especially after the forms of «sum», and is then called the _predicate genitive_. §409. «11.» Words denoting a part are often used with the genitive of the whole, known as _the partitive genitive_. §331. «12.» Numerical descriptions of measure are expressed by the genitive with a modifying adjective. §443. _Dative Case_ «13.» The indirect object of a verb is in the dative. §45. «14.» The dative of the indirect object is used with the intransitive verbs «crēdō», «faveō», «noceō», «pāreō», «persuādeō», «resistō», «studeō», and others of like meaning. §154. «15.» Some verbs compounded with «ad», «ante», «con», «dē», «in», «inter», «ob», «post», «prae», «prō», «sub», «super», admit the dative of the indirect object. Transitive compounds may take both an accusative and a dative. §426. «16.» The dative is used with adjectives to denote the object toward which the given quality is directed. Such are, especially, those meaning _near_, also _fit, friendly, pleasing, like_, and their opposites. §143. «17.» The dative is used to denote the _purpose_ or _end for which_; often with another dative denoting _the person or thing affected_. §437. _Accusative Case_ «18.» The direct object of a transitive verb is in the accusative and answers the question Whom? or What? §37. «19.» The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative. §214. «20.» The _place to which_ is expressed by «ad» or «in» with the accusative. Before names of towns, small islands, «domus», and «rūs» the preposition is omitted. §§263, 266. «21.» _Duration of time_ and _extent of space_ are expressed by the accusative. §336. «22.» Verbs of _making, choosing, calling, showing_, and the like, may take a _predicate accusative_ along with the direct object. With the passive voice the two accusatives become nominatives. §392. _Ablative Case_ «23.» _Cause_ is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question Because of what? §102. «24.» _Means_ is denoted by the ablative without a preposition. This answers the question By means of what? or With what? §103. «25.» _Accompaniment_ is denoted by the ablative with «cum». This answers the question With whom? §104. «26.» The ablative with «cum» is used to denote the manner of an action. «Cum» may be omitted, if an adjective is used with the ablative. This answers the question How? or In what manner? §105. «27.» With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the _measure of difference_. §317. «28.» The ablative of a noun or pronoun with a present or perfect participle in agreement is used to express attendant circumstance. This is called the _ablative absolute_. §381. «29.» 1. Descriptions of physical characteristics are expressed by the ablative with a modifying adjective. §444. 2. Descriptions involving neither numerical statements nor physical characteristics may be expressed by either the genitive or the ablative with a modifying adjective. §445. «30.» The ablative is used to denote _in what respect_ something is true. §398. «31.» The _place from which_ is expressed by «ā» or «ab», «dē», «ē» or «ex» with the separative ablative. This answers the question Whence? Before names of towns, small islands, «domus», and «rūs» the preposition is omitted. §§264, 266. «32.» Words expressing separation or deprivation require an ablative to complete their meaning. This is called the _ablative of separation_. §180. «33.» The word expressing the person from whom an action starts, when not the subject, is put in the ablative with the preposition «ā» or «ab». This is called the _ablative of the personal agent_. §181. «34.» The comparative degree, if «quam» is omitted, is followed by the separative ablative. §309. «35.» The _time when or within which_ anything happens is expressed by the ablative without a preposition. §275. «36.» 1. The _place at or in which_ is expressed by the ablative with «in». This answers the question Where? Before names of towns, small islands, and «rūs» the preposition is omitted. §§265, 266. 2. Names of towns and small islands, if singular and of the first or second declension, and the word «domus» express the _place in which_ by the locative. §268. _Gerund and Gerundive_ «37.» 1. The gerund is a verbal noun and is used only in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular. The constructions of these cases are in general the same as those of other nouns. §406.1. 2. The gerundive is a verbal adjective and must be used instead of gerund + object, excepting in the genitive and in the ablative without a preposition. Even in these instances the gerundive construction is more usual. §406.2. «38.» The accusative of the gerund or gerundive with «ad», or the genitive with «causā», is used to express purpose. §407. _Moods and Tenses of Verbs_ «39.» Primary tenses are followed by primary tenses, and secondary by secondary. §358. «40.» The subjunctive is used in a dependent clause to express the _purpose_ of the action in the principal clause. §349. «41.» _A substantive clause of purpose_ with the subjunctive is used as object with verbs of _commanding, urging, asking, persuading_, or _advising_, where in English we should usually have the infinitive. §366. «42.» Verbs of _fearing_ are followed by a substantive clause of purpose introduced by «ut» (_that not_) or «nē» (_that_ or _lest_). §372. «43.» _Consecutive clauses of result_ are introduced by «ut» or «ut nōn», and have the verb in the subjunctive. §385. «44.» _Object clauses of result_ with «ut» or «ut nōn» are found after verbs of effecting or bringing about. §386. «45.» A relative clause with the subjunctive is often used to describe an antecedent. This is called the _subjunctive of characteristic or description_. §390. «46.» The conjunction «cum» means _when, since_, or _although_. It is followed by the subjunctive unless it means _when_ and its clause fixes the time at which the main action took place. §396. «47.» When a direct statement becomes indirect, the principal verb is changed to the infinitive, and its subject nominative becomes subject accusative of the infinitive. §416. «48.» The accusative-with-infinitive construction in indirect statements is found after verbs of _saying, telling, knowing, thinking_, and _perceiving_. §419. «49.» A present indicative of a direct statement becomes present infinitive of the indirect, a past indicative becomes perfect infinitive, and a future indicative becomes future infinitive. §418. «50.» In an _indirect question_ the verb is in the subjunctive and its tense is determined by the law for tense sequence. §432. [Illustration: DOMINA] APPENDIX III REVIEWS[1] [Footnote 1: It is suggested that each of these reviews be assigned for a written test.] [Transcriber’s Note: In this Review section, the lists of English words for translation may not be in the same order as in the original.] I. REVIEW OF VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR THROUGH LESSON VIII «502.» Give the English of the following words:[1] NOUNS agricola «gallīna» ancilla iniūria «aqua» «īnsula» «casa» «lūna» «causa» «nauta» cēna «pecūnia» «corōna» puella «dea» «pugna» domina «sagitta» fābula «silva» «fera» «terra» «fīlia» «tuba» «fortūna» «via» «fuga» «victōria» ADJECTIVES «alta» «magna» «bona» «mala» «clāra» «nova» «grāta» «parva» «lāta» «pulchra» «longa» «sōla» VERBS amat «necat» «dat» «nūntiat» «est» «parat» habitat «portat» «labōrat» «pugnat» «laudat» «sunt» nārrat «vocat» PREPOSITIONS «ā» or «ab» «ad» «cum» «dē» «ē» or «ex» «in» PRONOUNS «mea» «tua» «quis» «cuius» «cui» «quem» «quid» ADVERBS «cūr» «deinde» «nōn» «ubi» CONJUNCTIONS «et» quia «quod» INTERROGATIVE PARTICLE «-ne» [Footnote 1: Proper nouns and proper adjectives are not repeated in the reviews. Words used in Cassar’s “Gallic War” are in heavy type.] «503.» Give the Latin of the following words:[1] Underline the words you do not remember. Do not look up a single word till you have gone through the entire list. Then drill on the words you have underlined. _flight_ _wide_ story tells _new_ _money_ lives (verb) _calls_ _away from_ _with_ _who_ _your_ _why_ _then, in the next place_ _forest_ _daughter_ _wreath_ _to whom_ _deep, high_ _fortune_ dinner _famous_ _out from_ _labors_ (verb) _my_ _kills_ _where_ _not_ _trumpet_ _in_ lady, mistress _and_ _whom_ _sailor_ _island_ farmer _goddess_ _what_ _wild beast_ _way_ _praises_ (verb) _bad_ _alone_ loves _pleasing_ _pretty_ _prepares_ _water_ _are_ _great_ _to_ _is_ _because_ _announces_ _arrow_ _injury, wrong_ _cottage_ _battle_ (noun) _gives_ _small_ girl _fights_ (verb) _good_ maid _carries_ _down from_ _chicken_ _long_ _victory_ _cause_ _land_ _whose_ [Footnote 1: The translations of words used in Cæsar are in italics.] «504.» «Review Questions.» How many syllables has a Latin word? How are words divided into syllables? What is the ultima? the penult? the antepenult? When is a syllable short? When is a syllable long? What is the law of Latin accent? Define the subject of a sentence; the predicate; the object; the copula. What is inflection? declension? conjugation? What is the ending of the verb in the third person singular, and what in the plural? What does the form of a noun show? Name the Latin cases. What case is used for the subject? the direct object? the possessor? What relation is expressed by the dative case? Give the rule for the indirect object. How are questions answered in Latin? What is a predicate adjective? an attributive adjective? What is meant by agreement? Give the rule for the agreement of the adjective. What are the three relations expressed by the ablative? What can you say of the position of the possessive pronoun? the modifying genitive? the adjective? What is the base? What is grammatical gender? What is the rule for gender in the first declension? What are the general principles of Latin word order? «505.» Fill out the following summary of the first declension: THE FIRST OR Ā-DECLENSION 1. Ending in the nominative singular 2. Rule for gender 3. Case terminations a. Singular b. Plural 4. Irregular nouns II. REVIEW OF LESSONS IX-XVII «506.» Give the English of the following words: NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION «agrī cultūra» «galea» «cōnstantia» «inopia» «cōpia» «lacrima» «dīligentia» «lōrīca» «fāma» «patria» fēmina «praeda» NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION «ager» «līberī» «amīcus» magister «arma» (plural) «mūrus» «auxilium» «numerus» «bellum» «oppidānus» «carrus» «oppidum» «castrum» «pīlum» «cibus» «populus» «cōnsilium» «praemium» «domicilium» «proelium» dominus «puer» «equus» «scūtum» «fīlius» «servus» fluvius «studium» «frūmentum» «tēlum» «gladius» «vīcus» «lēgātus» «vir» ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «aeger, aegra, aegrum» «alius, alia, aliud» «alter, altera, alterum» «armātus, -a, -um» «crēber, crēbra, crēbrum» «dūrus, -a, -um» «fīnitimus, -a, -um» «īnfīrmus, -a, -um» «legiōnārius, -a, -um» «līber, lībera, līberum» «mātūrus, -a, -um» «meus, -a, -um» «miser, misera, miserum» «multus, -a, -um» «neuter, neutra, neutrum» «noster, nostra, nostrum» «nūllus, -a, -um» «pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum» «sōlus, -a, -um» «suus, -a, -um» «tōtus, -a, -um» «tuus, -a, -um» «ūllus, -a, -um» «ūnus, -a, -um» «uter, utra, utrum» validus, -a, -um «vester, vestra, vestrum» VERBS arat «cūrat» «dēsīderat» «mātūrat» «properat» DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN «is, ea, id» CONJUNCTIONS «an» «-que» «sed» ADVERBS «iam» quō «saepe» PREPOSITION «apud» «507.» Give the Latin of the following words: _sword_ _shield_ (noun) _corselet_ _whole_ _man_ _it_ _your_ (plural) _aid_ (noun) _hasten_ _legionary_ _but_ _weak_ _among_ _arms_ _tear_ (noun) master (of school) _village_ _friend_ strong _neighboring_ _long for_ _sick_ _and_ (enclitic) _lieutenant_ _often_ _field_ _want_ (noun) _report, rumor_ _which_ (of two) _abode_ _care for_ _boy_ _or_ (in a question) _his own_ whither _alone_ _wagon_ _prize_ (noun) _townsman_ master (owner) _wretched_ _carefulness_ _ripe_ _plenty_ _war_ _troops_ _number_ _plan_ (noun) _my_ _people_ _free_ (adj.) _beautiful_ _children_ _no_ (adj.) _wall_ _our_ _grain_ _battle_ _weapon_ _spear_ _one_ _food_ plow (verb) _steadiness_ _this_ or _that_ _fatherland_ _already_ _town_ _helmet_ _fort_ river _camp_ _zeal_ _neither_ (of two) _any_ _much_ _he_ _agriculture_ _son_ _other_ _slave_ _the other_ (of two) _your_ (singular) _hard_ _she_ _booty_ _woman_ _frequent_ _horse_ _armed_ «508.» «Review Questions.» How many declensions are there? What three things must be known about a noun before it can be declined? What three cases of neuter nouns are always alike, and in what do they end in the plural? What two plural cases are always alike? When is the vocative singular not like the nominative? What is a predicate noun? With what does it agree? What is an appositive? Give the rule for the agreement of an appositive. How can we tell whether a noun in «-er» is declined like «puer» or like «ager»? Decline «bonus», «līber», «pulcher». How can we tell whether an adjective in «-er» is declined like «līber» or like «pulcher»? Why must we say «nauta bonus» and not «nauta bona»? Name the Latin possessive pronouns. How are they declined? With what does the possessive pronoun agree? When do we use «tuus» and when «vester»? Why is «suus» called a _reflexive_ possessive? What is the non-reflexive possessive of the third person? When are possessives omitted? What four uses of the ablative case are covered by the relations expressed in English by _with_? Give an illustration in Latin of the _ablative of manner_; of the _ablative of cause_; of the _ablative of means_; of the _ablative of accompaniment_. What ablative regularly has «cum»? What ablative sometimes has «cum»? What uses of the ablative never have «cum»? Name the nine pronominal adjectives, with their meanings. Decline «alius», «nūllus». Decline «is». What does «is» mean as a demonstrative adjective or pronoun? What other important use has it? «509.» Fill out the following summary of the second declension: THE SECOND OR O-DECLENSION 1. Endings in the nominative 2. Rule for gender 3. Case terminations of nouns in «-us» a. Singular b. Plural a. The vocative singular of nouns in «-us» 4. Case terminations of nouns in «-um» a. Singular b. Plural 5. Peculiarities of nouns in «-er» and «-ir» 6. Peculiarities of nouns in «-ius» and «-ium» III. REVIEW OF LESSONS XVIII-XXVI «510.» Give the English of the following words: NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION «disciplīna» rēgīna «fōrma» superbia «poena» «trīstitia» «potentia» NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION lūdus «ōrnāmentum» sacrum «socius» «verbum» ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «amīcus» īrātus «antīquus» «laetus» «fīnitimus» «molestus» «grātus» «perpetuus» «idōneus» «proximus» «inimīcus» «septem» «interfectus» «superbus» ADVERBS hodiē «ibi» «maximē» mox «nunc» «nūper» CONJUNCTIONS «etiam» «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam» PERSONAL PRONOUN «ego» VERBS CONJ. I volō, -āre CONJ. II «dēleō, -ēre» «noceō, -ēre» «doceō, -ēre» «pāreō, -ēre» «faveō, -ēre» «persuādeō, -ēre» «habeō, -ēre» sedeō, -ēre «iubeō, -ēre» «studeō, -ēre» «moneō, -ēre» «videō, -ēre» «moveō, -ēre» CONJ. III «agō, -ere» «fugiō, -ere» «capiō, -ere» «iaciō, -ere» «crēdō, -ere» «mittō, -ere» «dīcō, -ere» rapiō, -ere «dūcō, -ere» «regō, -ere» «faciō, -ere» «resistō, -ere» CONJ. IV «audiō, -īre» «mūniō, -īre» «reperiō, -īre» «veniō, -īre» IRREGULAR VERB «sum, esse» «511.» «Give the Latin of the following words.» In the case of verbs always give the first form and the present infinitive. _ancient_ _power_ _come_ _make, do_ _resist_ _injure_ _see_ _now_ _be_ _annoying_ fly _lead_ _I_ _move_ _proud_ soon _word_ _glad_ _sadness_ _punishment_ _find_ _believe_ _rule_ (verb) _advise_ _be eager for_ _especially, most of all_ _not only...but also_ angry _seven_ _beauty_ _ally, companion_ _say_ pride _command_ (verb) _fortify_ _there_ _send_ _slain_ sit _training_ _also_ _take_ school _have_ _hear_ to-day _hurl_ _unfriendly_ _persuade_ _drive_ _only_ _favor_ (verb) _nearest_ _suitable_ sacred rite _pleasing_ queen _teach_ _flee_ _neighboring_ _obey_ _destroy_ _lately_ _friendly_ _constant_ seize _ornament_ «512.» «Review Questions.» What is conjugation? Name two important differences between conjugation in Latin and in English. What is tense? What is mood? What are the Latin moods? When do we use the indicative mood? Name the six tenses of the indicative. What are personal endings? Name those you have had. Inflect sum in the three tenses you have learned. How many regular conjugations are there? How are they distinguished? How is the present stem found? What tenses are formed from the present stem? What is the tense sign of the imperfect? What is the meaning of the imperfect? What is the tense sign of the future in the first two conjugations? in the last two? Before what letters is a final long vowel of the stem shortened? What are the three possible translations of a present, as of pugnō? Inflect arō, sedeō, mittō, faciō, and veniō, in the present, imperfect, and future active. What forms of -iō verbs of the third conjugation are like audiō? what like regō? Give the rule for the dative with adjectives. Name the special intransitive verbs that govern the dative. What does the imperative mood express? How is the present active imperative formed in the singular? in the plural? What three verbs have a shortened present active imperative? Give the present active imperative of portō, dēleō, agō, faciō, mūniō. IV. REVIEW OF LESSONS XXVII-XXXVI «513.» Give the English of the following words: NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION «āla» «cūra» «mora» «porta» «prōvincia» «vīta» NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION «animus» «nāvigium» aurum ōrāculum «bracchium» «perīculum» «deus» «ventus» «locus» «vīnum» mōnstrum ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «adversus» «dubius» attentus «maximus» «cārus» perfidus «commōtus» «plēnus» «dēfessus» saevus «dexter» «sinister» ADVERBS «anteā» «ita» «celeriter» «longē» «dēnique» «semper» «diū» «subitō» «frūstrā» «tamen» «graviter» «tum» CONJUNCTIONS «autem» «sī» «ubi» PREPOSITIONS «dē» «per» «prō» «sine» VERBS CONJ. I «adpropinquō» «servō» «nāvigō» «stō» «occupō» «superō» «postulō» «temptō» «recūsō» «vāstō» «reportō» «vulnerō» CONJ. II «contineō» «egeō» «prohibeō» «respondeō» «teneō» CONJ. III «discēdō» «gerō» «interficiō» IRREGULAR VERB «absum» «514.» Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs. _be away_ _heavily_ _wind_ monster _through_ _approach_ _if_ _nevertheless_ savage _place_ _wound_ (verb) _be without, lack_ _wine_ _moved_ _delay_ gold faithless _restrain, keep from_ _right_ _without_ _seize_ _hold_ _quickly_ _suddenly_ _before, in behalf of_ _dear_ _battle_ _always_ _down from_ or _concerning_ _god_ _moreover_ _hold in, keep_ _greatest_ _afar_ oracle _thus, so, as follows_ _danger_ _arm_ (noun) _lay waste_ _when_ _gate_ _in vain_ _doubtful_ _stand_ _opposite, adverse_ _bring back, win_ _demand_ _before, previously_ _finally_ _depart, go away_ attentive _province_ _then, at that time_ _care, trouble_ _weary_ _kill_ _overcome, conquer_ _reply_ (verb) _conquer_ _wing_ _boat, ship_ _mind, heart_ _sail_ (verb) _left_ (adj.) _life_ _bear, carry on_ _save_ _try_ _full_ _for a long time_ _refuse_ «515.» Give the principal parts and meaning of the following verbs: «sum» «faveō» «dō» «noceō» «teneō» «dīcō» «iubeō» «pāreō» «agō» «dūcō» «mittō» «faciō» «mūniō» «persuādeō» «moveō» «sedeō» «crēdō» «studeō» «rapiō» «fugiō» «reperiō» «veniō» «dēleō» «iaciō» «resistō» «videō» «audiō» «absum» «moneō» «egeō» «capiō» «gerō» «doceō» «stō» «regō» «516.» «Review Questions.» What are the personal endings in the passive voice? What is the letter -r sometimes called? What are the distinguishing vowels of the four conjugations? What forms constitute the principal parts? What are the three different conjugation stems? How may they be found? What are the tenses of the indicative? of the infinitive? What tense of the imperative have you learned? What forms are built on the present stem? on the perfect stem? on the participial stem? What are the endings of the perfect active indicative? What is the tense sign of the pluperfect active? of the future perfect active? How is the present active infinitive formed? the present passive infinitive? How is the present active imperative formed? the present passive imperative? How is the perfect active infinitive formed? the perfect passive infinitive? How is the future active infinitive formed? What is a participle? How are participles in -us declined? Give the rule for the agreement of the participle. How are the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passive indicative formed? Conjugate the verb «sum» in all moods and tenses as far as you have learned it (§494). What is meant by the separative ablative? How is the place _from which_ expressed in Latin? Give the rule for the ablative of separation; for the ablative of the personal agent. How can we distinguish between the ablative of means and the ablative of the personal agent? What is the perfect definite? the perfect indefinite? What is the difference in meaning between the perfect indefinite and the imperfect? What two cases in Latin may be governed by a preposition? Name the prepositions that govern the ablative. What does the preposition «in» mean when it governs the ablative? the accusative? What are the three interrogatives used to introduce _yes_-and-_no_ questions? Explain the force of each. What words are sometimes used for _yes_ and _no?_ What are the different meanings and uses of ubi? V. REVIEW OF LESSONS XXXVII-XLIV «517.» Give the English of the following words: NOUNS FIRST DECLENSION SECOND DECLENSION «rīpa» «barbarī» «captīvus» «castellum» «impedīmentum» THIRD DECLENSION «animal» «homō» «ōrdō» «arbor» «hostīs» «pater» «avis» «ignis» «pedes» «caedēs» «imperātor» «pēs» «calamitās» «īnsigne» pōns calcar «iter» «prīnceps» «caput» iūdex «rēx» «cīvis» «labor» «salūs» «cliēns» «lapis» «sanguis» «collis» «legiō» «soror» «cōnsul» «mare» tempus «dēns» «māter» «terror» «dux» «mēnsis» «turris» «eques» «mīles» «urbs» «fīnis» «mōns» «victor» «flūmen» «nāvis» «virtūs» fōns «opus» «vīs» «frāter» «ōrātor» ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «barbarus» «dexter» «sinister» «summus» PREPOSITIONS «in» with the abl. «in» with the acc. «trāns» ADVERBS «cotīdiē» «numquam» CONJUNCTIONS «nec, neque» «nec...nec», or «neque...neque» VERBS CONJ. I CONJ. III «cessō» «accipiō» «oppugnō» «petō» «confirmō» «vincō» «vetō» «incipiō» «ponō» «vivō» «518.» Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs: _forbid_ _in_ _rank, row_ _judge_ _brother_ _defeat, disaster_ _force_ _fire_ _across_ _tree_ _savages_ _foot soldier_ _horseman_ _receive_ _never_ _general_ _mountain_ _highest_ _manliness, courage_ _fountain_ _leader_ _orator_ _put, place_ _neither...nor_ _time_ _and not_ _savage, barbarous_ _left_ _sister_ _tooth_ _seek_ _soldier_ _captive_ _month_ _hindrance, baggage_ _city_ _captive_ _victor_ _hindrance, baggage_ _daily_ _man-of-war_ _live_ (verb) _conquer_ _redoubt, fort_ _consul_ _sea_ _mother_ _tower_ _retainer_ _drill_ (verb) _citizen_ _legion_ _head_ _terror_ _safety_ _into, to_ _assail, storm_ _right_ (adj.) _begin_ _stone_ _march_ _blood_ _decoration_ _labor_ (noun) _bridge_ _king_ _bird_ _spur_ _cease_ _chief_ _man_ _slaughter_ _river_ _strengthen_ _work_ (noun) _foot_ _and_ _enemy_ _ship_ _animal_ _bank_ _father_ «519.» «Review Questions.» Give the conjugation of «possum». What is an infinitive? What three uses has the Latin infinitive that are like the English? What is the case of the subject of the infinitive? What is meant by a complementary infinitive? In the sentence _The bad boy cannot be happy_, what is the case of _happy_? Give the rule. Decline «quī». Give the rule for the agreement of the relative. What are the two uses of the interrogative? Decline «quis». What is the base of a noun? How is the stem formed from the base? Are the stem and the base ever the same? How many declensions of nouns are there? Name them. What are the two chief divisions of the third declension? How are the consonant stems classified? Explain the formation of «lapis» from the stem «lapid-», «mīles» from «mīlit-», «rēx» from «rēg-». What nouns have «i»-stems? What peculiarities of form do «i»-stems have,--masc., fem., and neut.? Name the five nouns that have «-ī» and «-e» in the abl. Decline «turris». Give the rules for gender in the third declension. Decline «mīles», «lapis», «rēx», «virtūs», «cōnsul», «legiō», «homō», «pater», «flūmen», «opus», «tempus», «caput», «caedēs», «urbs», «hostis», «mare», «animal», «vīs», «iter». «520.» Fill out the following scheme: { { Masculine { GENDER { Feminine { ENDINGS { Neuter { THE THIRD { { I. CONSONANT { _a_. Masc. and fem. DECLENSION { { STEMS { _b_. Neuters { CASE { { TERMINATIONS { { { { { II. _I_-STEMS { _a_. Masc. and fem. { { { _b_. Neuters { { IRREGULAR NOUNS VI. REVIEW OF LESSONS XLV-LII «521.» Give the English of the following words: NOUNS FIRST DECLENSION «amīcitia» «hōra» «littera» SECOND DECLENSION «annus» «supplicium», «modus» «supplicium dare» «nūntius» «supplicium sūmere dē» «oculus» «tergum», «rēgnum» «tergum vertere» «signum» «vestīgium» THIRD DECLENSION «aestās» «nox» «corpus» «pars» «hiems» «pāx» «lībertās» rūs «lūx», «sōl» «prīma lūx» «vōx» «nōmen» «vulnus» FOURTH DECLENSION «adventus» «impetus» «cornū» «lacus» «domus» «manus» «equitātus» «metus» «exercitus» «portus» «fluctus» FIFTH DECLENSION «aciēs» «rēs», «diēs» «rēs gestae» «fidēs», «rēs adversae» «in fidem venīre» «rēs secundae» «rēs pūblica» «spēs» INDECLINABLE NOUN «nihil» ADJECTIVES FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «dēnsus» «prīstinus» «invīsus» «pūblicus» «mīrus» «secundus» «paucī» «tantus» «prīmus» «vērus» THIRD DECLENSION «ācer, ācris, ācre» «gravis, grave» «brevis, breve» «incolumis, incolume» «difficilis, difficile» «omnis, omne» «facīlis, facile» «pār, pār» «fortis, forte» «vēlōx, vēlōx» PRONOUNS PERSONAL «ego» «nōs» «suī» «tū» «vōs» DEMONSTRATIVE «hic» «īdem» «ille» «iste» INTENSIVE «ipse» INDEFINITE «aliquis, aliquī» «quīdam» «quis, quī» «quisquam» «quisque» ADVERBS «nē...quidem» «quoque» ōlim «satis» «paene» «vērō» CONJUNCTIONS «itaque» «nisi» PREPOSITIONS «ante» «post» «propter» VERBS CONJ. I CONJ. II «conlocō» «dēbeō» «convocō» «exerceō» «cremō» «maneō» «dēmōnstrō» «placeō» «mandō» «sustineō» CONJ. III CONJ. IV «committō», «dēsiliō» «committere proelium» «dēcidō» «ēripiō» «sūmō», «sūmere supplicium dē» «trādūcō» «vertō» «522.» Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs. _if not, unless_ _adversity_ _on account of_ _former, old-time_ _public_ _all, every_ _commonwealth_ _any one_ (at all) _leap down, dismount_ _this_ (of mine) _unharmed_ _heavy, serious_ _lead across_ _hateful, detested_ _remain_ _true_ _call together_ _burn_ _friendship_ _snatch from_ _footprint, trace_ _letter_ _each_ _punishment_ _fear_ (noun) _inflict punishment on_ _hope_ _behind, after_ _therefore_ _suffer punishment_ _so great_ _liberty_ _equal_ _sun_ _in truth, indeed_ _sustain_ _that_ (yonder) _take up, assume_ _a certain_ _hour_ _fall down_ _reign, realm_ _owe, ought_ _messenger_ _measure, mode_ _part, direction_ _eye_ _body_ _name_ _harbor_ _wave, billow_ _faith, protection_ _thing, matter_ _of himself_ _exploits_ _also, too_ _republic_ _sufficiently_ _prosperity_ _you_ (plur.) _burn_ _peace_ _that_ (of yours) _back_ _before_ _turn the back, retreat_ _light_ _night_ _daybreak_ _hand, force_ _winter_ _lake_ _attack_ _day_ _line of battle_ _commit, intrust_ _army_ _a few only_ _drill, train_ _sharp, eager_ _join battle_ _we_ _house, home_ _turn_ _midday_ _you_ (sing.) _wonderful_ _I_ _brave_ _signal_ _almost_ _summer_ _the same_ _cavalry_ _some, any_ _wound_ _if any one_ _horn, wing_ _self, very_ _country_ _not even_ _second, favorable_ _easy_ _formerly, once_ _dense_ _short_ _point out, explain_ _voice_ _difficult_ _arrival_ _first_ _come under the protection of_ _arrange, station_ _nothing_ _please_ _swift_ _year_ «523.» «Review Questions.» By what declensions are Latin adjectives declined? What can you say about the stem of adjectives of the third declension? Into what classes are these adjectives divided? How can you tell to which of the classes an adjective belongs? Decline «ācer, omnis, pār». What are the nominative endings and genders of nouns of the fourth or «u»-declension? What nouns are feminine by exception? Decline «adventus, lacus, cornū, domus». Give the rules for the ordinary expression of the _place to which_, the _place from which_, the _place in which_. What special rules apply to names of towns, small islands, and «rūs»? What is the locative case? What words have a locative case? What is the form of the locative case? Translate _Galba lives at home, Galba lives at Rome, Galba lives at Pompeii_. What is the rule for gender in the fifth or «ē»-declension? Decline «diēs», «rēs». When is the long «ē» shortened? What can you say about the plural of the fifth declension? Decline «tuba», «servus», «pīlum», «ager», «puer», «mīles», «cōnsul», «flūmen», «caedēs», «animal». How is the _time when_ expressed? Name the classes of pronouns and define each class. Decline «ego, tū, is». What are the reflexives of the first and second persons? What is the reflexive of the third person? Decline it. Translate _I see myself, he sees himself, he sees him_. Decline «ipse». How is «ipse» used? Decline «īdem». Decline «hic», «iste», «ille». Explain the use of these words. Name and translate the commoner indefinite pronouns. Decline «aliquis», «quisquam», «quīdam», «quisque». VII. REVIEW OF LESSONS LIII-LX «524.» Give the English of the following words: NOUNS FIRST DECLENSION «aquila» «fossa» SECOND DECLENSION «aedificium» «negōtium» «captīvus» «spatium» «concilium» «vāllum» «imperium» THIRD DECLENSION «agmen» «mors» «celeritās» «mulier» «cīvitās» «multitūdō» «clāmor» «mūnītiō» «cohors» «nēmō» «difficultās» «obses» «explōrātor» «opīniō» «gēns» «regiō» «lātitūdō» «rūmor» «longitūdō» «scelus» «magnitūdō» «servitūs» «mēns» «timor» «mercātor» «vallēs» «mīlle» FOURTH DECLENSIONS «aditus» «passus» «commeātus» FIFTH DECLENSION «rēs frūmentāria» ADJECTIVES FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS «aequus» «pessimus» «bīnī» «plūrimus» «ducentī» «posterus» «duo» «prīmus» «exterus» reliquus «īnferus» «secundus» «maximus» «singulī» «medius» «superus» «minimus» «tardus» «opportūnus» «ternī» «optimus» «ūnus» THIRD DECLENSION «alacer, alacris, alacre» «audāx, audāx» «celer, celeris, celere» «citerior, citerius» «difficilis, difficile» «dissimilis, dissimile» «facilis, facile» gracilis, gracile «humilis, humile» «ingēns, ingēns» «interior, interius» «lēnis, lēne» «maior, maius» «melior, melius» «minor, minus» «nōbilis, nōbile» «peior, peius» ----, «plūs» «prior, prius» «recēns, recēns» «similis, simile» «trēs, tria» «ulterior, ulterius» ADVERBS «ācriter» «optimē» «audācter» «parum» «bene» «paulō» «facile» «plūrimum» «ferē» «prope» «fortiter» «propius» «magis» «proximē» «magnopere» «quam» «maximē» «statim» «melius» «tam» «minimē» «undique» «multum» CONJUNCTIONS «atque, ac» «quā dē causā» «aut» «quam ob rem» «aut ... aut» «simul atque or» «et ... et» «simul ac «nam»» PREPOSITIONS «circum» «contrā» «inter» «ob» «trāns» VERBS CONJ. I CONJ. II «cōnor» «obtineō» «hortor» «perterreō» «moror» «valeō» «vexō» «vereor» CONJ. III «abdō» «patior» «cadō» premō «cognōscō» «proficīscor» «cōnsequor» «prōgredior» «contendō» «quaerō» «cupiō» «recipiō» «currō» «relinquō» «dēdō» «revertor» «dēfendō» «sequor» ēgredior statuō «incendō» subsequor «incolō» «suscipiō» «īnsequor» «trādō» «occīdō» «trahō» CONJ. IV «orior» perveniō» «525.» Translate the following words. Give the genitive and the gender of the nouns and the principal parts of the verbs: _on account of_ _width_ _nearly_ _scout_ _keenly, sharply_ _cohort_ _thousand_ _tribe, nation_ _two_ _business_ _opportune_ _by a little_ _remaining_ _somewhat_ _above_ (adj.) _crime_ _next_ _difficult_ _grain supply_ _equal_ _pace_ _move forward, advance_ _shout_ (noun) _further_ _from all sides_ _multitude_ _against_ _woman_ _around_ _desire_ (verb) _three_ _give over, surrender_ _line of march_ _kill_ _manor_ _overtake_ _region_ _hasten, strive_ _fortification_ _hide_ _eagle_ _one_ _almost_ _first_ _boldly_ _second, favorable_ _bravely_ _two hundred_ _across_ _former_ _between, among_ _inner_ _hither_ (adj.) _middle_ _so_ _low_ _less_ _outward_ _more_ _three by three_ _most_ _provisions_ _worst_ _speed_ _difficulty_ _ditch_ _hostage_ _wherefore_ or _therefore_ _death_ _length_ _command, power_ _for this reason_ _captive_ _fear_ (noun) _or_ _return_ _and_ _inquire_ _arrive_ _set out_ _attempt, try_ _move out, disembark_ _fear_ (verb) _leave_ _worse_ _abandon_ _greater, larger_ _be strong_ _two by two_ _receive, recover_ _least_ (adv.) _terrify, frighten_ _opinion, expectation_ _dwell_ _defend_ _state, citizenship_ _approach, entrance_ _valley_ _trader_ _slavery_ _magnitude, size_ _greatly_ _council, assembly_ _best of all_ (adv.) _space, room_ _better_ (adv.) _either ... or_ _well_ (adv.) _rise, arise_ _very much_ _suffer, allow_ _much_ _press hard_ _unlike_ _fall_ _like_ (adj.) _surrender_ _slow_ _set fire to_ _very greatly, exceedingly_ _possess, hold_ _building_ _delay_ (verb) _mind_ (noun) _nearest_ (adv.) _easily_ _nearer_ (adv.) _easy_ _better_ (adj.) _recent_ _well known, noble_ _huge, great_ _rampart_ _bold_ _mild, gentle_ _immediately_ _swift_ _as soon as_ _eager_ _for_ _low_ (adj.) _than_ _slender_ _best_ (adj.) _one by one_ _greatest_ _no one_ _follow close_ _least_ (adv.) _encourage_ _little_ (adv.) _annoy, ravage_ _learn, know_ _hide_ _drag_ _follow_ _undertake_ _pursue_ _run_ _both ... and_ _fix, decide_ «526.» «Review Questions.» What is meant by comparison? In what two ways may adjectives be compared? Compare «clārus, brevis, vēlōx», and explain the formation of the comparative and the superlative. What are the adverbs used in comparison? Compare «brevis» by adverbs. Decline the comparative of «vēlōx». How are adjectives in «-er» compared? Compare «ācer», «pulcher», «liber». What are possible translations for the comparative and superlative? Name the six adjectives that form the superlative in «-limus». Translate in two ways _Nothing is brighter than the sun_. Give the rule for the ablative with comparatives. Compare «bonus, magnus, malus, multus, parvus, exterus, īnferus, posterus, superus». Decline «plūs». Compare «citerior, interior, propior, ulterior». Translate _That route to Italy is much shorter_. Give the rule for the expression of measure of difference. Name five words that are especially common in this construction. How are adverbs usually formed from adjectives of the first and second declensions? from adjectives of the third declension? Compare the adverbs «cārē», «līberē», «fortiter», «audācter». What cases of adjectives are sometimes used as adverbs? What are the adverbs from «facilis»? «multus? prīmus? plūrimus»? «bonus»? «magnus»? «parvus»? Compare «prope», «saepe», «magnopere». How are numerals classified? Give the first twenty cardinals. Decline «ūnus, duo, trēs, mīlle». How are the hundreds declined? What is meant by the partitive genitive? Give the rule for the partitive genitive. What sort of words are commonly used with this construction? What construction is used with «quīdam» and cardinal numbers excepting «mīlle»? Give the first twenty ordinals. How are they declined? How are the distributives declined? Give the rule for the expression of duration of time and extent of space. What is the difference between the ablative of time and the accusative of time? What is a deponent verb? Give the synopsis of one. What form always has a passive meaning? Conjugate «amō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», «audiō», in the active and passive. VIII. REVIEW OF LESSONS LXI-LXIX «527.» Review the vocabularies of the first seventeen lessons. See §§502, 503, 506, 507. «528.» «Review Questions.» Name the tenses of the subjunctive. What time is denoted by these tenses? What are the mood signs of the present subjunctive? How may the imperfect subjunctive be formed? How do the perfect subjunctive and the future perfect indicative active differ in form? How is the pluperfect subjunctive active formed? Inflect the subjunctive active and passive of «cūrō», «dēleō», «vincō», «rapiō», «mūniō». Inflect the subjunctive tenses of «sum»; of «possum». What are the tenses of the participles in the active? What in the passive? Give the active and passive participles of «amō», «moneō», «regō», «capiō», «audiō». Decline «regēns». What participles do deponent verbs have? What is the difference in meaning between the perfect participle of a deponent verb and of one not deponent? Give the participles of «vereor». How should participles usually be translated? Conjugate «volō», «nolō», «mālō», «fīō». What is the difference between the indicative and subjunctive in their fundamental ideas? How is purpose usually expressed in English? How is it expressed in Latin? By what words is a Latin purpose clause introduced? When should «quō» be used? What is meant by sequence of tenses? Name the primary tenses of the indicative and of the subjunctive; the secondary tenses. What Latin verbs are regularly followed by substantive clauses of purpose? What construction follows «iubeō»? What construction follows verbs of _fearing_? How is consequence or result expressed in Latin? How is a result clause introduced? What words are often found in the principal clause foreshadowing the coming of a result clause? How may negative purpose be distinguished from negative result? What is meant by the subjunctive of characteristic or description? How are such clauses introduced? Explain the ablative absolute. Why is the ablative absolute of such frequent occurrence in Latin? Explain the predicate accusative. After what verbs are two accusatives commonly found? What do these accusatives become when the verb is passive? [Illustration: IMPERATOR MILITES HORTATUR] SPECIAL VOCABULARIES The words in heavy type are used in Cæsar’s “Gallic War.” [Transcriber’s Note: Each chapter’s Special Vocabulary was included with its chapter text in addition to its original location here. Details are given in the Transcriber’s Note at the beginning of the text. In the printed book, the vocabularies for Lesson IV and Lesson V appeared on the same page; the Footnote about _conjunctions_ was shared by the two lists.] LESSON IV, §39 NOUNS «dea», _goddess_ (deity) Diā´na, _Diana_ «fera», _a wild beast_ (fierce) Lātō´na, _Latona_ «sagit´ta», _arrow_ VERBS «est», _he (she, it) is_; «sunt», _they are_ «necat», _he (she, it) kills, is killing, does kill_ CONJUNCTION[A] «et», _and_ PRONOUNS «quis», interrog. pronoun, nom. sing., _who?_ «cuius» (pronounced _co͝oi´yo͝os_, two syllables), interrog. pronoun, gen. sing., _whose?_ [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.] LESSON V, §47 NOUNS «corō´na», _wreath, garland, crown_ fā´bula, _story_ (fable) «pecū´nia», _money_ (pecuniary) «pugna», _battle_ (pugnacious) «victō´ria», _victory_ VERBS «dat», _he (she, it) gives_ nārrat, _he (she, it) tells_ (narrate) CONJUNCTION[A] «quia» or «quod», _because_ «cui» (pronounced _co͝oi_, one syllable), interrog. pronoun, dat. sing., _to whom?_ _for whom?_ [Footnote A: A _conjunction_ is a word which connects words, parts of sentences, or sentences.] LESSON VI, §56 ADJECTIVES «bona», _good_ «grāta», _pleasing_ «magna», _large, great_ «mala», _bad, wicked_ «parva», _small, little_ «pulchra», _beautiful, pretty_ «sōla», _alone_ NOUNS ancil´la, _maidservant_ Iūlia, _Julia_ ADVERBS[A] «cūr», _why_ «nōn», _not_ PRONOUNS «mea», _my_; «tua», _thy, your_ (possesives) «quid», interrog. pronoun, nom. and acc. sing., _what?_ «-ne», the question sign, an enclitic (§16) added to the first word, which, in a question, is usually the verb, as «amat», _he loves_, but «amat´ne?» _does he love?_ «est», _he is_; «estne?» _is he?_ Of course «-ne» is not used when the sentence contains «quis», «cūr», or some other interrogative word. [Footnote A: An _adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb; as, She sings _sweetly_; she is _very_ talented; she began to sing _very early_.] LESSON VII, §62 NOUNS «casa, -ae», f., _cottage_ cēna, -ae, f., _dinner_ «gallī´na, -ae», f., _hen, chicken_ «īn´sula, ae», f., _island_ (pen-insula) ADVERBS «de-in´de», _then, in the next place_ «ubi», _where_ PREPOSITION «ad», _to_, with acc. to express motion toward PRONOUN «quem», interrog. pronoun, acc. sing., _whom?_ VERBS ha´bitat, _he (she, it) lives, is living, does live_ (inhabit) «laudat», _he (she, it) praises, is praising, does praise_ (laud) «parat», _he (she, it) prepares, is preparing, does prepare_ «vocat», _he (she, it) calls, is calling, does call; invites, is inviting, does invite_ (vocation) LESSON VIII, §69 NOUNS «Italia, -ae», f., _Italy_ Sicilia, -ae, f., _Sicily_ «tuba, -ae», f., _trumpet_ (tube) «via, -ae», f., _way, road, street_ (viaduct) ADJECTIVES «alta», _high, deep_ (altitude) «clāra», _clear, bright; famous_ «lāta», _wide_ (latitude) «longa», _long_ (longitude) «nova», _new_ (novelty) LESSON IX, §77 NOUNS «bellum, -ī», n., _war_ (re-bel) «cōnstantia, -ae», f., _firmness, constancy, steadiness_ dominus, -ī, m., _master, lord_ (dominate) «equus, -ī», m., _horse_ (equine) «frūmentum, -ī», n., _grain_ «lēgātus, -ī», m., _lieutenant, ambassador_ (legate) «Mārcus, -ī», m., _Marcus, Mark_ «mūrus, -ī», m., _wall_ (mural) «oppidānus, -ī», m., _townsman_ «oppidum, -ī», n., _town_ «pīlum, -ī», n., _spear_ (pile driver) «servus, -ī», m., _slave, servant_ Sextus, -ī, m., _Sextus_ VERBS «cūrat», _he (she, it) cares for_, with acc. «properat», _he (she, it) hastens_ LESSON X, §82 NOUNS «amīcus, -ī», m., _friend_ (amicable) «Germānia, -ae», f., _Germany_ «patria, -ae», f., _fatherland_ «populus, -ī», m., _people_ «Rhēnus, -ī», m., _the Rhine_ «vīcus, -ī», m., _village_ LESSON XI, §86 NOUNS «arma, armōrum», n., plur., _arms_, especially defensive weapons «fāma, -ae», f., _rumor; reputation, fame_ «galea, -ae», f., _helmet_ «praeda, -ae», f., _booty, spoils_ (predatory) «tēlum, -ī», n., _weapon of offense, spear_ ADJECTIVES «dūrus, -a, -um», _hard, rough; unfeeling, cruel; severe, toilsome_ (durable) «Rōmānus, -a, -um», _Roman_. As a noun, «Rōmānus, -ī», m., _a Roman_ LESSON XII, §90 NOUNS «fīlius, fīlī», m., _son_ (filial) fluvius, fluvī, m., _river_ (fluent) «gladius, gladī», m., _sword_ (gladiator) «praesidium, praesi´dī», n., _garrison, guard, protection_ «proelium, proelī», n., _battle_ ADJECTIVES «fīnitimus, -a, -um», _bordering upon, neighboring, near to_. As a noun, «fīnitimī, -ōrum», m., plur., _neighbors_ «Germānus, -a, -um», _German_. As a noun, «Germānus, -ī», m., _a German_ «multus, -a, -um», _much_; plur., _many_ ADVERB «saepe», _often_ LESSON XIII, §95 NOUNS «ager, agrī», m., _field_ (acre) «cōpia, -ae», f., _plenty, abundance_ (copious); plur., _troops, forces_ «Cornēlius, Cornē´lī», m., _Cornelius_ «lōrī´ca, -ae», f., _coat of mail, corselet_ «praemium, praemī», n., _reward, prize_ (premium) «puer, puerī», m., _boy_ (puerile) «Rōma, -ae», f., _Rome_ «scūtum, -ī», n., _shield_ (escutcheon) «vir, virī», m., _man, hero_ (virile) ADJECTIVES «legiōnārius, -a, -um»,[A] _legionary, belonging to the legion_. As a noun, «legiōnāriī, -ōrum», m., plur., _legionary soldiers_ «līber, lībera, līberum», _free_ (liberty) As a noun. «līberī, -ōrum,» m., plur., _children_ (lit. _the freeborn_) «pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum», _pretty, beautiful_ PREPOSITION «apud», _among_, with acc. CONJUNCTION «sed», _but_ [Footnote A: The genitive singular masculine of adjectives in «-ius» ends in «-iī» and the vocative in «-ie»; not in «-ī», as in nouns.] LESSON XIV, §99 NOUNS «auxilium, auxi´lī», n., _help, aid_ (auxiliary) «castrum, -ī», n., _fort_ (castle); plur., _camp_ (lit. _forts_) «cibus, -ī», m., _food_ «cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī», n., _plan_ (counsel) «dīligentia, -ae», f., _diligence, industry_ magister, magistrī, m., _master, teacher_[A] ADJECTIVES «aeger, aegra, aegrum», _sick_ «crēber, crēbra, crēbrum», _frequent_ «miser, misera, miserum», _wretched, unfortunate_ (miser) [Footnote A: Observe that «dominus», as distinguished from «magister», means _master_ in the sense of _owner_.] LESSON XV, §107 NOUNS «carrus, -ī», m., _cart, wagon_ «inopia, -ae», f., _want, lack;_ the opposite of «cōpia» «studium, studī», n., _zeal, eagerness_ (study) ADJECTIVES «armātus, -a, -um», _armed_ «īnfīrmus, -a, -um», _week, feeble_ (infirm) vali´dus, -a, -um, _strong, sturdy_ VERB «mātūrat», _he (she, it) hastens._ Cf. properat ADVERB «iam», _already, now_ «-que», conjunction, _and_; an enclitic (cf. §16) and always added to the _second_ of two words to be connected, as «arma tēla´que», _arms and weapons_. LESSON XVII, §117 NOUNS «agrī cultūra, -ae», f., _agriculture_ «Gallia, -ae», f., _Gaul_ «domicilīum, domīci´lī», n., _dwelling place_ (domicile), _abode_ «Gallus, -i», m., _a Gaul_ «lacrima, -ae», f., _tear_ «fēmina, -ae», f., _woman_ (female) «numerus, -ī», m., _number_ (numeral) ADJECTIVE «mātūrus, -a, -um», _ripe, mature_ ADVERB quō, _whither_ VERBS arat, _he (she, it) plows_ (arable) «dēsīderat», _he (she, it) misses, longs for_ (desire), with acc. CONJUNCTION «an», _or_, introducing the second half of a double question, as _Is he a Roman or a Gaul_, «Estne Romanus an Gallus?» LESSON XVIII, §124 NOUNS lūdus, -ī, m., _school_ «socius, socī», m., _companion, ally_ (social) ADJECTIVES «īrātus, -a, -um», _angry, furious_ (irate) «laetus, -a, -um», _happy, glad_ (social) ADVERBS hodiē, _to-day_ «ibi», _there, in that place_ mox, _presently, soon_, of the immediate future «nunc», _now, the present moment_ «nūper», _lately, recently_, of the immediate past LESSON XX, §136 NOUNS «fōrma, -ae», f., _form, beauty_ «regīna, -ae», f., _queen_ (regal) «poena, -ae», f., _punishment, penalty_ superbia, -ae, f., _pride, haughtiness_ «potentia, -ae», f., _power_ (potent) «trīstītīa, -ae», f., _sadness, sorrow_ ADJECTIVES «septem,» indeclinable, _seven_ «superbus, -a, -um», _proud, haughty_ (superb) CONJUNCTIONS «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_ LESSON XXI, §140 NOUNS sacrum, -ī, n., _sacrifice, offering, rite_ «verbum, -ī», n., _word_ (verb) VERBS sedeō, -ēre, _sit_ (sediment) volō, -āre, _fly_ (volatile) ADJECTIVES «interfectus, -a, -um», _slain_ «molestus, -a, -um», _troublesome, annoying_ (molest) «perpetuus, -a, -um», _perpetual, continuous_ «ego», personal pronoun, _I_ (egotism). Always emphatic in the nominative. LESSON XXII, §146 NOUNS «disciplīna, -ae», f., _training, culture, discipline_ «Gāius, Gāī», m., _Caius_, a Roman first name «ōrnāmentum, -ī», n., _ornament, jewel_ Tiberius, Tibe´rī, m., _Tiberius_, a Roman first name VERB «doceō, -ēre», _teach_ (doctrine) ADVERB «maximē», _most of all, especially_ ADJECTIVE «antīquus, -qua, -quum», _old, ancient_ (antique) LESSON XXVII, §168 NOUNS «āla, -ae», f., _wing_ «deus, -ī», m., _god_ (deity)[A] «monstrum, -ī», n., _omen, prodigy; monster_ ōrāculum, -ī, n., _oracle_ VERB «vāstō, -āre», _lay waste, devastate_ ADJECTIVES «commōtus, -a, -um», _moved, excited_ «maximus, -a, -um», _greatest_ (maximum) «saevus, -a, -um», _fierce, savage_ ADVERBS «ita», _thus, in this way, as follows_ «tum», _then, at that time_ [Footnote A: For the declension of «deus», see §468] LESSON XXVIII, §171 VERBS «respondeō, -ēre», _respond, reply_ «servō, -āre», _save, preserve_ ADJECTIVE «cārus, -a, -um», _dear_ (cherish) CONJUNCTION «autem», _but, moreover, now_. Usually stands second, never first NOUN «vīta, -ae», f., _life_ (vital) LESSON XXIX, §176 VERB «superō, -āre», _conquer, overcome_ (insuperable) NOUNS «cūra, -ae», f., _care, trouble_ «locus, -ī», m., _place, spot_ (location). «Locus» is neuter in the plural and is declined «loca, -ōrum», etc. «perīculum, -ī», n., _danger, peril_ ADVERBS «semper», _always_ «tamen», _yet, nevertheless_ PREPOSITIONS «dē», with abl., _down from.; concerning_ «per», with acc., _through_ CONJUNCTION «si», _if_ LESSON XXX, §182 VERBS «absum», abesse, irreg., _be away, be absent, be distant_, with separative abl. «adpropinquō, -āre», _draw near, approach_ (propinquity), with dative[A] «contineō, -ēre», _hold together, hem in, keep_ (contain) «discēdō, -ere», _depart, go away, leave_, with separative abl. «egeō, -ēre», _lack, need, be without_, with separative abl. «interficiō, -ere», _kill_ «prohibeō, -ēre», _restrain, keep from_ (prohibit) «vulnerō, -āre», _wound_ (vulnerable) NOUNS «prōvincia, -ae», f., _province_ «vīnum, -ī», n., _wine_ ADJECTIVE «dēfessus, -a, -um», _weary, worn out_ ADVERB «longē», _far, by far, far away_ [Footnote A: This verb governs the dative because the idea of _nearness to_ is stronger than that of _motion to_. If the latter idea were the stronger, the word would be used with «ad» and the accusative.] LESSON XXXI, §188 NOUNS aurum, -ī, n., _gold_ (oriole) «mora, -ae», f., _delay_ «nāvigium, nāvi´gī», n., _boat, ship_ «ventus, -ī», m., _wind_ (ventilate) VERB «nāvigō, -āre», _sail_ (navigate) ADJECTIVES attentus, -a, -um, _attentive, careful_ «dubius, -a, -um», _doubtful_ (dubious) perfidus, -a, -um, _faithless, treacherous_ (perfidy) ADVERB «anteā», _before, previously_ PREPOSITION «sine», with abl., _without_ LESSON XXXII, §193 NOUNS «animus, -ī», m., _mind, heart; spirit, feeling_ (animate) «bracchium, bracchī», n., _forearm, arm_ «porta, -ae», f., _gate_ (portal) ADJECTIVES «adversus, -a, -um», _opposite; adverse, contrary_ «plēnus, -a, -um», _full_ (plenty) PREPOSITION «prō», with abl., _before; in behalf of; instead of_ ADVERB «diū», _for a long time, long_ LESSON XXXIV, §200 ADVERBS «celeriter», _quickly_ (celerity) «dēnique», _finally_ «graviter», _heavily, severely_ (gravity) «subitō», _suddenly_ VERB «reportō, -āre, -āvī», _bring back, restore; win, gain_ (report) LESSON XXXVI, §211 «dexter, dextra, dextrum», _right_ (dextrous) «sinister, sinistra, sinistrum», _left_ «frūstrā», adv., _in vain_ (frustrate) «gerō, gerere, gessī, gestus», _bear, carry on; wear_; «bellum gerere», _to wage war_ «occupō, occupāre, occupāvī, occupātus», _seize, take possession of_ (occupy) «postulō, postulāre, postulāvī, postulātus», _demand_ (ex-postulate) «recūsō, recūsāre, recūsāvī, recūsātus», _refuse_ «stō, stāre, stetī, status», _stand_ «temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātus», _try, tempt, test; attempt_ «teneō, tenēre, tenuī, ----», _keep, hold_ (tenacious) The word «ubi», which we have used so much in the sense of _where_ in asking a question, has two other uses equally important: 1. «ubi» = _when_, as a relative conjunction denoting time; as, «Ubi mōnstrum audīvērunt, fūgērunt», _when they heard the monster, they fled_ 2. «ubi» = _where_, as a relative conjunction denoting place; as, «Videō oppidum ubi Galba habitat», _I see the town where Galba lives_ «ubi» is called a _relative conjunction_ because it is equivalent to a relative pronoun. _When_ in the first sentence is equivalent to _at the time «at which»;_ and in the second, _where_ is equivalent to _the place «in which»._ LESSON XXXVII, §217 «neque» or «nec», conj., _neither_, _nor_, _and ... not_; «neque ... neque», _neither ... nor_ «castellum, -ī», n., _redoubt, fort_ (castle) «cotīdiē», adv., _daily_ cessō, cessāre, cessāvī, cessātus, _cease_, with the infin. «incipiō, incipere, incēpī, inceptus», _begin_ (incipient), with the infin. «oppugnō, oppugnāre, oppugnāvī, oppugnātus», _storm, assail_ «petō, petere, petivi» or «petiī, petītus», _aim at, assail, storm, attack; seek, ask_ (petition) «pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus», _place, put_ (position); «castra pōnere», _to pitch camp_ «possum, posse, potuī, ----», _be able, can_ (potent), with the infin. «vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus», _forbid_ (veto), vith the infin.; opposite of «iubeō», _command_ «vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus», _conquer_ (in-vincible) «vīvō, vīvere, vīxī, ----», _live, be alive_ (re-vive) LESSON XXXIX, §234 «barbarus, -a, -um», _strange, foreign, barbarous_. As a noun, «barbarī, -ōrum», m., plur., _savages, barbarians_ «dux, ducis», m., _leader_ (duke). Cf. the verb «dūcō» «eques, equitis», m., _horseman, cavalryman_ (equestrian) iūdex, iūdicis, _m., judge_ «lapis, lapidis», m., _stone_ (lapidary) «mīles, mīlitis», m., _soldier_ (militia) «pedes, peditis», m., _foot soldier_ (pedestrian) «pēs, pedis»,[A] m., _foot_ (pedal) «prīnceps, prīncipis», m., _chief_ (principal) «rēx, rēgis», m., _king_ (regal) «summus, -a, -um», _highest, greatest_ (summit) «virtūs, virtūtis», f., _manliness, courage_ (virtue) [Footnote A: Observe that «e» is _long_ in the nom. sing, and _short_ in the other cases.] LESSON XL, §237 «Caesar, -aris», m., _Cæsar_ «captīvus, -ī», m., _captive, prisoner_ «cōnsul, -is», m., _consul_ «frāter, frātris», m., _brother_ (fraternity) «homō, hominis», m., _man, human being_ «impedīmentum, -ī», n., _hindrance_ (impediment); plur. «impedīmenta, -ōrum», _baggage_ «imperātor, imperātōris», m., _commander in chief, general_ (emperor) «legiō, legiōnis», f., _legion_ «māter, mātris», f., _mother_ (maternal) «ōrdō, ōrdinis», m., _row, rank_ (order) «pater, patris», m., _father_ (paternal) «salūs, salūtis», f., _safety_ (salutary) «soror, sorōris», f., _sister_ (sorority) LESSON XLI, §239 «calamitās, calamitātis», f., _loss, disaster, defeat_ (calamity) «caput, capitis», n., _head_ (capital) «flūmen, flūminis», n., _river_ (flume) «labor, labōris», m., _labor, toil_ «opus, operis», n., _work, task_ «ōrātor, ōrātōris», m., _orator_ «rīpa, -ae», f., _bank_ (of a stream) «tempus, temporis», n., _time_ (temporal) «terror, terrōris», m., _terror, fear_ «victor, victōris», m., _victor_ «accipiō, accipere, accēpī, acceptus», _receive, accept_ «cōnfirmō, cōnfīrmāre, cōnfīrmāvī, cōnfīrmātus», _strengthen, establish, encourage_ (confirm) LESSON XLIII, §245 «animal, animālis (-ium[A])», n., _animal_ «avis, avis (-ium)», f., _bird_ (aviation) «caedēs, caedis (-ium)», f., _slaughter_ calcar, calcāris (-ium), n., _spur_ «cīvis, cīvis (-ium)», m. and f., _citizen_ (civic) «cliēns, clientis (-ium)», m., _retainer, dependent_ (client) «fīnis, fīnis (-ium)», m., _end, limit_ (final); plur., _country, territory_ «hostis, hostis (-ium)», m. and f., _enemy_ in war (hostile). Distinguish from «inimīcus», which means a _personal_ enemy «ignis, ignis (-ium)», m., _fire_ (ignite) «īnsigne, īnsignis (-ium)», n. _decoration, badge_ (ensign) «mare, maris (-ium[B])», n., _sea_ (marine) «nāvis, nāvis (-ium)», f., _ship_ (naval); «nāvis longa», _man-of-war_ «turris, turris (-ium)», f., _tower_ (turret) «urbs, urbis (-ium)», f., _city_ (suburb). An «urbs» is larger than an «oppidum». [Footnote A: The genitive plural ending -ium is written to mark the i-stems.] [Footnote B: The genitive plural of mare is not in use.] LESSON XLIV, §249 «arbor, arboris», f., _tree_ (arbor) «collis, collis (-ium)», m., _hill_ «dēns, dentis (-ium)», m., _tooth_ (dentist) fōns, fontis (-ium), m.. _fountain, spring; source_ «iter, itineris», n., _march, journey, route_ (itinerary) «mēnsis, mēnsis (-ium)», m., _month_ «moenia, -ium», n., plur., _walls, fortifications_. Cf. «mūrus» «mōns, montis (-ium)», m., _mountain_; «summus mōns», _top of the mountain_ «numquam», adv., _never_ «pōns, pontis», m., _bridge_ (pontoon) «sanguis, sanguinis», m., blood (sanguinary) «summus, -a, -um», _highest, greatest_ (summit) «trāns», prep, with acc., _across_ (transatlantic) «vīs (vīs)», gen. plur. «virium», f. _strength, force, violence_ (vim) LESSON XLV, §258 «ācer, ācris, ācre», _sharp, keen, eager_ (acrid) «brevis, breve», _short, brief_ «difficilis, difficile», _difficult_ «facilis, facile», _facile, easy_ «fortis, forte», _brave_ (fortitude) «gravis, grave», _heavy, severe, serious_ (grave) «omnis, omne», _every, all_ (omnibus) «pār», gen. «paris», _equal_ (par) «paucī, -ae, -a», _few, only a few_ (paucity) «secundus, -a, -um», _second; favorable_, opposite of adversus «signum, -ī», n., _signal, sign, standard_ «vēlōx», gen. «vēlōcis», _swift_ (velocity) «conlocō, conlocāre, conlocāvī, conlocātus», _arrange, station, place_ (collocation) «dēmōnstrō, dēmōnstrāre, dēmōnstrāvī, dēmōnstrātus», _point out, explain_ (demonstrate) «mandō, mandāre, mandāvī, mandātus», _commit, intrust_ (mandate) LESSON XLVI, §261 «adventus, -ūs», m., _approach, arrival_ (advent) «ante», prep, with acc., _before_ (ante-date) «cornū, -ūs», n., _horn, wing_ of an army (cornucopia); «ā dextrō cornū», _on the right wing_; «ā sinistrō cornū», _on the left wing_ «equitātus, -ūs», m., _cavalry_ «exercitus, -ūs», m., _army_ «impetus, -ūs», m., _attack_ (impetus); «impetum facere in», with acc., _to make an attack on_ «lacus, -ūs, dat. and abl. plur. lacubus», m., _lake_ «manus, -ūs», f., _hand; band, force_ (manual) «portus, -ūs», m., _harbor_ (port) «post», prep, with acc., _behind, after_ (post-mortem) «cremō, cremāre, cremāvī, cremātus», _burn_ (cremate) «exerceō, exercēre, exercuī, exercitus», _practice, drill, train_ (exercise) LESSON XLVII, §270 Athēnae, -ārum, f., plur., _Athens_ Corinthus, -ī, f., _Corinth_ «domus, -ūs, locative «domī»», f., _house, home_ (dome). Cf. «domicilium» «Genāva, -ae», f., _Geneva_ Pompēii, -ōrum, m., plur., _Pompeii_, a city in Campania. See map «propter», prep. with acc., _on account of, because of_ rūs, rūris, in the plur. only nom. and acc. «rūra», n., _country_ (rustic) «tergum, tergī», n., _back_; «ā tergō», _behind, in the rear_ «vulnus, vulneris», n., _wound_ (vulnerable) «committō, committere, commīsī, commissus», _intrust, commit;_ «proelium committere», _join battle_ «convocō, convocāre, convocāvī, convocātus», _call together, summon_ (convoke) «timeō, timēre, timuī, ----», _fear; be afraid_ (timid) «vertō, vertere, vertī, versus», _turn, change_ (convert); «terga vertere», _to turn the backs_, hence _to retreat_ LESSON XLVIII, §276 «aciēs, -ēī», f., _line of battle_ «aestās, aestātis», f., _summer_ «annus, -ī», m., _year_ (annual) «diēs, diēī», m., _day_ (diary) «fidēs, fideī, no plur.», f., _faith, trust; promise, word; protection_; «in fidem venīre», _to come under the protection_ «fluctus, -ūs», m. _wave, billow_ (fluctuate) «hiems, hiemis», f., _winter_ «hōra, -ae», f., _hour_ «lūx, lūcis», f., _light_ (lucid); «prīma lux», _daybreak_ «merīdiēs», acc. «-em», abl. «-ē», no plur., m., _midday_ (meridian) «nox, noctis (-ium)», f., _night_ (nocturnal) «prīmus, -a, -um», _first_ (prime) «rēs, reī», f., _thing, matter_ (real); «rēs gestae», _deeds, exploits_ (lit. _things performed_); «rēs adversae», _adversity_; «rēs secundae», _prosperity_ «spēs, speī», f., _hope_ LESSON XLIX, §283 «amīcitia, -ae», f., _friendship_ (amicable) «itaque», conj., _and so, therefore, accordingly_ «littera, -ae», f., _a letter_ of the alphabet; plur., _a letter, an epistle_ «metus, metūs», m., _fear_ «nihil, indeclinable», n., _nothing_ (nihilist) «nūntius, nūntī», m., _messenger_. Cf. «nūntiō» «pāx, pācis», f., _peace_ (pacify) «rēgnum, -ī», n., _reign, sovereignty, kingdom_ «supplicum, suppli´cī», n., _punishment_; «supplicum sūmere dē», with abl., _inflict punishment on_; «supplicum dare», _suffer punishment_. Cf. «poena» «placeō, placēre, placuī, placitus», _be pleasing to, please_, with dative. Cf. §154 «sūmō, sūmere, sūmpsī, sūmptus», _take up, assume_ «sustineō, sustinēre, sustinuī, sustentus», _sustain_ LESSON L, §288 «corpus, corporis», n., _body_ (corporal) «dēnsus, -a, -um», _dense_ «īdem, e´adem, idem», demonstrative pronoun, _the same_ (identity) «ipse, ipsa, ipsum», intensive pronoun, _self; even, very_ «mīrus, -a, -um», _wonderful, marvelous_ (miracle) «ōlim», adv., _formerly, once upon a time_ «pars, partis (-ium)», f., _part, region, direction_ «quoque», adv., _also_. Stands _after_ the word which it emphasizes «sōl, sōlis», m., _sun_ (solar) «vērus, -a, -um», _true, real_ (verity) «dēbeō, dēbēre, dēbuī, dēbitus», _owe, ought_ (debt) «ēripiō, ēripere, ēripuī, ēreptus», _snatch from_ LESSON LI, §294 «hic, haec, hoc», demonstrative pronoun, _this_ (of mine); _he, she, it_ «ille, illa, illud», demonstrative pronoun _that_ (yonder); _he, she, it_ «invīsus, -a, -um», _hateful, detested_, with dative Cf. §143 «iste, ista, istud», demonstrative pronoun, _that_ (of yours); _he, she, it_ «lībertās, -ātis», f., _liberty_ «modus, -ī», m., _measure; manner, way, mode_ «nōmen, nōminis», n., _name_ (nominate) «oculus, -ī», m., _eye_ (oculist) «prīstinus, -a, -um», _former, old-time_ (pristine) «pūblicus, -a, -um», _public, belonging to the state;_ «rēs pūblica, reī pūblicae», f., _the commonwealth, the state, the republic_ «vestīgium, vestī´gī», n., _footprint, track; trace, vestige_ «vōx, vōcis», f., _voice_ LESSON LII, §298 «incolumis, -e», _unharmed_ «nē ... quidem», adv., _not even_. The emphatic word stands between «nē» and «quidem» «nisi», conj., _unless, if ... not_ «paene», adv., _almost_ (pen-insula) «satis», adv., _enough, sufficiently_ (satisfaction) «tantus, -a, -um», _so great_ «vērō», adv., _truly, indeed, in fact_. As a conj. _but, however_, usually stands second, never first. «dēcidō, dēcidere, dēcidī, ----», _fall down_ (deciduous) «dēsiliō, dēsilīre, dēsiluī, dēsultus», _leap down, dismount_ «maneō, manēre, mānsī, mānsūrus», _remain_ «trādūcō, trādūcere, trādūxī, trāductus», _lead across_ LESSON LIII, §306 «aquila, -ae», f., _eagle_ (aquiline) «audāx», gen. «audācis», adj., _bold, audacious_ «celer, celeris, celere», _swift, quick_ (celerity). Cf. «vēlōx» «explōratōr, -ōris», m., _scout, spy_ (explorer) «ingēns», gen. «ingentis», adj., _huge, vast_ «medius, -a, -um», _middle, middle part of_ (medium) «mēns, mentis (-ium)», f., _mind_ (mental). Cf. «animus» «opportūnus, -a, -um», _opportune_ «quam», adv., _than_. With the superlative «quam» gives the force of _as possible_, as «quam» audācissimī virī, _men as bold as possible_ «recens», gen. «recentis», adj., _recent_ «tam», adv., _so_. Always with an adjective or adverb, while «ita» is generally used with a verb «quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī, quaesītus», _ask, inquire, seek_ (question). Cf. «petō» LESSON LIV, §310 «alacer, alacris, alacre», _eager, spirited, excited_ (alacrity) «celeritās, -ātis», f., _speed_ (celerity) «clāmor, clāmōris», m., _shout, clamor_ «lēnis, lēne», _mild, gentle_ (lenient) «mulier, muli´eris», f., _woman_ «multitūdō, multitūdinis», f., _multitude_ «nēmō», dat. «nēminī», acc. «nēminem» (gen. «nūllīus», abl. «nūllō», from «nūllus»), no plur., m. and f., _no one_ «nōbilis, nōbile», _well known, noble_ «noctū», adv. (an old abl.), _by night_ (nocturnal) «statim», adv., _immediately, at once_ «subitō», adv., _suddenly_ «tardus, -a, -um», _slow_ (tardy) «cupiō, cupere, cupīvī, cupītus», _desire, wish_ (cupidity) LESSON LV, §314 «aedificium, aedifi´cī», n., _building, dwelling_ (edifice) «imperium, impe´rī», n., _command, chief power; empire_ «mors, mortis (-ium)», f., _death_ (mortal) «reliquus, -a, -um», _remaining, rest of_. As a noun, m. and n. plur., _the rest_ (relic) «scelus, sceleris», n., _crime_ «servitūs, -ūtis», f., _slavery_ (servitude) «vallēs, vallis (-ium)», f., _valley_ «abdō, abdere, abdidī, abditus», _hide_ «contendō, contendere, contendī, contentus», _strain, struggle; hasten_ (contend) «occīdō, occīdere, occīdī, occīsus», _cut down, kill_. Cf. «necō», «interficiō» «perterreō, perterrēre, perterruī, perterritus», _terrify, frighten_ «recipiō, recipere, recēpī, receptus», _receive, recover_; «sē recipere», _betake one’s self, withdraw, retreat_ «trādō, trādere, trādidī, trāditus», _give over, surrender, deliver_ (traitor) LESSON LVI, §318 «aditus, -ūs», m., _approach, access; entrance_ «cīvitās, cīvitātis», f., _citizenship; body of citizens, state_ (city) «inter», prep, with acc., _between, among_ (interstate commerce) «nam», conj., _for_ «obses, obsidis», m. and f., _hostage_ «paulō», adv. (abl. n. of «paulus»), _by a little, somewhat_ «incolō, incolere, incoluī, ----», transitive, _inhabit_; intransitive, _dwell_. Cf. «habitō», «vīvō» «relinquō, relinquere, relīquī, relictus», _leave, abandon_ (relinquish) «statuō, statuere, statuī, statūtus», _fix, decide_ (statute), usually with infin. LESSON LVII, §326 «aequus, -a, -um», _even, level; equal_ «cohors, cohortis (-ium)», f., _cohort_, a tenth part of a legion, about 360 men «currō, currere, cucurrī, cursus», _run_ (course) «difficultās, -ātis», f., _difficulty_ «fossa, -ae», f., _ditch_ (fosse) «gēns, gentis (-ium)», f., _race, tribe, nation_ (Gentile) «negōtium, negōtī», n., _business, affair, matter_ (negotiate) «regiō, -ōnis», f., _region, district_ «rūmor, rūmōris», m., _rumor, report_. Cf. fāma «simul atque», conj., _as soon as_ «suscipiō, suscipere, suscēpī, susceptus», _undertake_ «trahō, trahere, trāxī, trāctus», _drag, draw_ (ex-tract) «valeō, valēre, valuī, valitūrus», _be strong_; plūrimum valēre, _to be most powerful, have great influence_ (value). Cf. validus LESSON LVIII, §332 «commeātus, -ūs», m.. _provisions_ «lātitūdō, -inis», f., _width_ (latitude) «longitūdō, -inis», f., _length_ (longitude) «magnitūdō, -inis», f., _size, magnitude_ «mercātor, mercātōris», m., _trader, merchant_ «mūnītiō, -ōnis», f., _fortification_ (munition) «spatium, spatī», n., _room, space, distance; time_ «cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvī, cognitus», _learn_; in the perfect tenses, _know_ (re-cognize) «cōgō, cōgere, coēgī, coāctus», _collect; compel_ (cogent) «dēfendō, dēfendere, dēfendī, dēfēnsus», _defend_ «incendō, incendere, incendī, incēnsus», _set fire to, burn_ (incendiary). Cf. «cremō» «obtineō, obtinēre, obtinuī, obtentus», _possess, occupy, hold_ (obtain) «perveniō, pervenīre, pervēnī, perventus», _come through, arrive_ LESSON LIX, §337 «agmen, agminis», n., _line of march, column_; «prīmum agmen», _the van_; «novissimum agmen», _the rear_ «atque», «ac», conj., _and_; «atque» is used before vowels and consonants, «ac» before consonants only. Cf. «et» and «-que» «concilium, conci´lī», n., _council, assembly_ «Helvētiī, -ōrum», m., _the Helvetii_, a Gallic tribe «passus, passūs», m., _a pace_, five Roman feet; «mīlle passuum», _a thousand (of) paces_, a Roman mile «quā dē causā», _for this reason, for what reason_ «vāllum, -ī», n., _earth-works, rampart_ «cadō, cadere, cecidī, cāsūrus», _fall_ (decadence) «dēdō, dēdere, dēdidī, dēditus», _surrender, give up_; with a reflexive pronoun, _surrender one’s self, submit_, with the dative of the indirect object «premō, premere, pressī, pressus», _press hard, harass_ «vexō, vexāre, vexāvī, vexātus», _annoy, ravage_ (vex) LESSON LX, §341 «aut», conj., _or_; «aut ... aut», _either ... or_ «causā», abl. of «causa», _for the sake of, because of_. Always stands _after_ the gen. which modifies it «ferē», adv., _nearly, almost_ «opīniō, -ōnis», f., _opinion, supposition, expectation_ «rēs frūmentāria, reī frūmentāriae», f. (lit. _the grain affair_), _grain supply_ «timor, -ōris», m., _fear_. Cf. «timeō» «undique», adv., _from all sides_ «cōnor, cōnārī, cōnātus sum», _attempt, try_ «ēgredior, ēgredī, ēgressus sum», _move out, disembark_; «prōgredior», _move forward, advance_ (egress, progress) «moror, morārī, morātus sum», _delay_ «orior, orirī, ortus sum», _arise, spring; begin; be born_ (_from_) (origin) «proficīscor, proficīscī, profectus sum», _set out_ «revertor, revertī, reversus sum», _return_ (revert). The forms of this verb are usually active, and not deponent, in the perfect system. Perf. act., «revertī» «sequor, sequī, secūtus sum», _follow_ (sequence). Note the following compounds of «sequor» and the force of the different prefixes: «cōnsequor» (_follow with_), _overtake_; «īnsequor» (_follow against_), _pursue_; «subsequor» (_follow under_), _follow close after_ LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY Translations inclosed within parentheses are not to be used as such; they are inserted to show etymological meanings. [Transcriber’s Note: The “parentheses” were originally printed as [square brackets]. They are rendered here as [[double brackets]].] A «ā» or «ab», prep. with abl. _from, by, off_. Translated _on_ in «ā dextrō cornū», _on the right wing_; «ā fronte», _on the front_ or _in front_; «ā dextrā», _on the right_; «ā latere», _on the side_; etc. «ab-dō, -ere, -didī, -ditus», _hide, conceal_ «ab-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus», _lead off, lead away_ «abs-cīdō, -ere, -cīdī,-cīsus» [[«ab(s)», _off_, + «caedō», _cut_]], _cut off_ «ab-sum, -esse, āfuī, āfutūrus», _be away, be absent, be distant, be off_; with «ā» or «ab» and abl., §501.32 «ac», conj., see «atque» «ac-cipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptus» [[«ad», _to_, + «capiō», _take_]], _receive, accept_ «ācer, ācris, ācre», adj. _sharp_; figuratively, _keen, active, eager_ (§471) «acerbus, -a, -um», adj. _bitter, sour_ «aciēs, -ēī», f. [[«ācer», _sharp_]], _edge; line of battle_ «ācriter», adv. [[«ācer», _sharp_]], compared «ācrius, ācerrimē», _sharply, fiercely_ «ad», prep. with acc. _to, towards, near_. With the gerund or gerundive, _to, for_ «ad-aequō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _make equal, make level with_ «ad-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus», _lead to; move, induce_ «ad-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus», _go to, approach, draw near, visit_, with acc. (§413) «ad-ferō, ad-ferre, at-tulī, ad-lātus», _bring, convey; report, announce; render, give_ (§426) «ad-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus» [[«ad», _to_, + «faciō», _do_]], _affect, visit_ «adflīctātus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «adflīctō», _shatter_]], _shattered_ «ad-flīgō, -ere, -flīxī, -flīctus», _dash upon, strike upon; harass, distress_ «ad-hibeō, -ēre, -uī, -itus» [[«ad», _to_, + «habeō», _hold_]], _apply, employ, use_ «ad-hūc», adv. _hitherto, as yet, thus far_ «aditus, -ūs», m. [[«adeō», _approach_]], _approach, access; entrance_. Cf. «adventus» «ad-ligō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _bind to, fasten_ «ad-loquor, -loquī, -locūtus sum», dep. verb [[«ad», _to_, + «loquor», _speak_]], _speak to, address_, with acc. «ad-ministrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _manage, direct_ «admīrātiō, -ōnis», f. [[«admīror», _wonder at_]], _admiration, astonishment_ «ad-moveō, -ēre, -mōvī, -mōtus», _move to; apply, employ_ «ad-propinquō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _come near, approach_, with dat. «ad-sum, -esse, -fuī, -futūres», _be present; assist_; with dat., §426 «adulēscēns, -entis», m. and f. [[part. of «adolēscō», _grow_]], _a youth, young man, young person_ «adventus, -ūs», m. [[«ad», _to_, + «veniō», _come_]], _approach, arrival_ (§466) «adversus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «advertō», _turn to_]], _turned towards, facing; contrary, adverse_. «rēs adversae», _adversity_ «aedificium, aedifi´cī», n. [[«aedificō», _build_]], _building, edifice_ «aedificō, -āre, -āvi, -ātus» [[«aedēs», _house_, + «faciō», _make_]], _build_ «aeger, aegra, aegrum», adj. _sick, feeble_ «aequālis, -e», adj. _equal, like_. As a noun, «aequālis, -is», m. or f. _one of the same age_ «aequus, -a, -um», adj. _even, level; equal_ «Aesōpus, -ī», m. _Æsop_, a writer of fables «aestās, -ātis», f. _summer_, «initā aestāte», _at the beginning of summer_ «aetās, -ātis», f. _age_ «Aethiopia, -ae», f. _Ethiopia_, a country in Africa «Āfrica, -ae», f. _Africa_ «Āfricānus, -a, -um», adj. _of Africa_. A name given to Scipio for his victories in Africa «ager, agrī», m. _field, farm, land_ (§462.c) «agger, -eris», m. _mound_ «agmen, -inis», n. [[«agō», _drive_]], _an army_ on the march, _column_. «prīmum agmen», _the van_ «agō, -ere, ēgī, āctus», _drive, lead; do, perform_. «vītam agere», _pass life_ «agricola, -ae», m. [[«ager», _field_, + «colō», _cultivate_]], _farmer_ «agrī cultūra, -ae», f. _agriculture_ «āla, -ae», f. _wing_ «alacer, -cris, -cre», adj. _active, eager_. Cf. «ācer» «alacritās, -ātis», f. [[«alacer», _active_]], _eagerness, alacrity_ «alacriter», adv. [[«alacer», _active_]], comp «alacrius, alacerrimē», _actively, eagerly_ «albus, -a, -um», adj., _white_ «alcēs, -is», f. _elk_ «Alcmēna, -ae», f. _Alcme´na_, the mother of Hercules «aliquis (-quī), -qua, -quid (-quod)», indef. pron. _some one, some_ (§487) «alius, -a, -ud» (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī»), adj. _another, other_. «alius ... alius», _one ... another_. «aliī ... aliī», _some ... others_ (§110) «Alpēs, -ium», f. plur. _the Alps_ «alter, -era, -erum» (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī»), adj. _the one, the other_ (of two). «alter ... alter», _the one ... the other_ (§110) «altitūdō, -inis», f. [[«altus», _high_]], _height_ «altus, -a, -um», adj. _high, tall, deep_ «Amāzonēs, -um», f. plur. _Amazons_, a fabled tribe of warlike women «ambō, -ae, -ō», adj. (decl. like «duo»), _both_ «amīcē», adv. [[«amīcus», _friendly_]], superl. «amīcissimē», _in a friendly manner_ «amiciō, -īre, ----, -ictus» [[«am-», _about_, + «iaciō», _throw_]], _throw around, wrap about, clothe_ «amīcitia, -ae», f. [[«amīcus», _friend_]], _friendship_ «amīcus, -a, -um», adj. [[«amō», _love_]], _friendly_. As a noun, «amīcus, -ī», m. _friend_ «ā-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus», _send away; lose_ «amō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _love, like, be fond of_ (§488) «amphitheātrum, -ī», n. _amphitheater_ «amplus, -a, -um», adj. _large, ample; honorable, noble_ «an», conj. _or_, introducing the second part of a double question «ancilla, -ae», f. _maidservant_ «ancora, -ae», f. _anchor_ «Andromeda, -ae», f. _Androm´eda_, daughter of Cepheus and wife of Perseus «angulus, -ī», m. _angle, corner_ «anim-advertō, -ere, -tī, -sus [[animus», _mind_, + «advertō», _turn to_]], _turn the mind to, notice_ «animal, -ālis», n. [[«anima», _breath_]], _animal_ (§465.b) «animōsus, -a, -um», adj. _spirited_ «animus, -ī», m. [[«anima», _breath_]], _mind, heart; spirit, courage, feeling;_ in this sense often plural «annus, -i», m. _year_ «ante», prep, with acc. _before_ «anteā», adv. [[«ante»]], _before, formerly_ «antīquus, -a, -um», adj. [[«ante», _before_]], _former, ancient, old_ «aper, aprī», m. _wild boar_ «Apollō, -inis», m. _Apollo_, son of Jupiter and Latona, brother of Diana «ap-pāreō, -ēre, -uī», ---- [[«ad + pāreō», _appear_]], _appear_ «ap-pellō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _call by name, name_. Cf. «nōminō, vocō» «Appius, -a, -um», adj. _Appian_ «ap-plicō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _apply, direct, turn_ «apud», prep, with acc. _among; at, at the house of_ «aqua, -ae», f. _water_ «aquila, -ae», f. _eagle_ «āra, -ae», f. _altar_ «arbitror, -ārī, -ātus sum», _think, suppose_ (§420.c). Cf. «exīstimō, putō» «arbor, -oris», f. _tree_ (§247.1.a) «Arcadia, -ae», f. _Arcadia_, a district in southern Greece «ārdeō, -ēre, ārsī, ārsūrus», _be on fire, blaze, burn_ «arduus, -a, -um», adj. _steep_ «Arīcia, -ae», f. _Aricia_, a town on the Appian Way, near Rome «ariēs, -etis», m. _battering-ram_ (p. 221) «arma, -ōrum», n. plur. _arms, weapons_. Cf. «tēlum» «armātus, -a, -um», adj. [[«armō», _arm_]], _armed, equipped_ «arō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _plow, till_ «ars, artis», f. _art, skill_ «articulus, -ī», m. _joint_ «ascrībō, -ere, -scrīpsī, -scrīptus» [[«ad», _in addition_, + «scrībō», _write_]], _enroll, enlist_ «Āsia, -ae», f. _Asia_, i.e. Asia Minor «at», conj. _but_. Cf. «autem, sed» «Athēnae, -ārum», f. plur. _Athens_ «Atlās, -antis», m. _Atlas_, a Titan who was said to hold up the sky «at-que, ac», conj. _and, and also, and what is more_. «atque» may be used before either vowels or consonants, «ac» before consonants only «attentus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «attendō», _direct_ (the mind) _toward_]], _attentive, intent on, careful_ «at-tonitus, -a, -um», adj. _thunderstruck, astounded_ «audācia, -ae», f. [[«audāx», _bold_]], _boldness, audacity_ «audācter», adv. [[«audāx», _bold_]], compared «audācius, audācissimē», _boldly_ «audāx, -ācis», adj. _bold, daring_ «audeō, -ēre, ausus sum», _dare_ «audiō, -īre, -īvī or -īī, -ītus», _hear, listen to_ (§§420.d, 491) «Augēās, -ae», m. _Auge´as_, a king whose stables Hercules cleaned «aura, -ae», f. _air, breeze_ «aurātus, -a, -um», adj. [[«aurum», _gold_]], _adorned with gold_ «aureus, -a, -um», adj.[[«aurum», _gold_]], _golden_ «aurum, -ī», n. _gold_ «aut», conj. _or_. «aut...aut», _either...or_ «autem», conj., usually second, never first, in the clause, _but, moreover, however, now_. Cf. «at, sed» «auxilium, auxi´lī», n. _help, aid, assistance;_ plur. _auxiliaries_ «ā-vertō, -ere, -tī, -sus», _turn away, turn aside_ «avis, -is», f. _bird_ (§243.1) B «ballista, -ae», f. _ballista_, an engine for hurling missiles (p. 220) «balteus, -ī», m. _belt, sword belt_ «barbarus, -ī», m. _barbarian, savage_ «bellum, -ī», n. _war_. «bellum īnferre», with dat. _make war upon_ «bene», adv. [[for «bonē», from «bonus»]], compared «melius, optimē», _well_ «benignē», adv. [[«benignus», _kind_]], compared «benignius, benignissimē», _kindly_ «benignus, -a, -um», adj. _good-natured, kind_, often used with dat. «bīnī, -ae, -a», distributive numeral adj. _two each, two at a time_ (§334) «bis», adv. _twice_ «bonus, -a, -um», adj. compared «melior, optimus», _good, kind_ (§469.a) «bōs, bovis» (gen. plur. «boum» or «bovum», dat. and abl. plur. «bōbus» or «būbus»), m. and f. _ox, cow_ «bracchium, bracchī», n. _arm_ «brevis, -e», adj. _short_ «Brundisium, -ī», n. _Brundisium_, a seaport in southern Italy. See map «bulla, -ae», f. _bulla_, a locket made of small concave plates of gold fastened by a spring (p. 212) C «C.» abbreviation for «Gāius», Eng. _Caius_ «cadō, -ere, ce´cidī, cāsūrus», _fall_ «caedēs, -is», f. [[«caedō», _cut_]], (_a cutting down_), _slaughter, carnage_ (§465.a) «caelum, -ī», n. _sky, heavens_ «Caesar, -aris», m. _Cæsar_, the famous general, statesman, and writer «calamitās, -ātis», f. _loss, calamity, defeat, disaster_ «calcar, -āris», n. _spur_ (§465.b) «Campānia, -ae», f. _Campania_., a district of central Italy. See map «Campānus, -a, -um», adj. _of Campania_ «campus, -ī», m. _plain, field_, esp. the _Campus Martius_, along the Tiber just outside the walls of Rome «canis, -is», m. and f. _dog_ «canō, -ere, ce´cinī», ----, _sing_ «cantō, -āre, -āvi, -ātus» [[«canō», _sing_]], _sing_ «Capēnus, -a, -um», adj. _of Capena_, esp. the _Porta Cape´na_, the gate at Rome leading to the Appian Way «capiō, -ere, cēpī, captus», _take, seize, capture_ (§492) «Capitōlīnus, -a, -um», adj. _belonging to the Capitol, Capitoline_ «Capitōlium, Capitō´lī», n. [[«caput», _head_]], _the Capitol_, the hill at Rome on which stood the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and the citadel «capsa, -ae», f. _box_ for books «captīvus, -ī», m. [[«capiō», _take_]], _captive_ «Capua, -ae», f. _Capua_, a large city of Campania. See map «caput, -itis», n. _head_ (§464.2.b) «carcer, -eris», m. _prison, jail_ «carrus, -ī», m. _cart, wagon_ «cārus, -a, -um», adj. _dear; precious_ «casa, -ae», f. _hut, cottage_ «castellum, -ī», n. [[dim. of «castrum», _fort_]], _redoubt, fort_ «castrum, -ī», n. _fort_. Usually in the plural, «castra, -ōrum», a military _camp_. «castra pōnere», _to pitch camp_ «cāsus, -us», m. [[«cadō», _fall_]], _chance; misfortune, loss_ «catapulta, -ae», f. _catapult_, an engine for hurling stones «catēna, -ae», f. _chain_ «caupōna, -ae», f. _inn_ «causa, -ae», f. _cause, reason_, «quā dē causā», _for this reason_ «cēdō, -ere, cessī, cessūrus», _give way, retire_ «celer, -eris, -ere», adj. _swift, fleet_ «celeritās, -ātis», f. [[«celer», _swift_]], _swiftness, speed_ «celeriter», adv. [[«celer», _swift_]], compared «celerius, celerrimē», _swiftly_ «cēna, -ae», f. _dinner_ «centum», indecl. numeral adj. _hundred_ «centuriō, -ōnis», m. _centurion, captain_ «Cēpheus» (dissyl.), «-eī» (acc. «Cēphea»), m. _Cepheus_, a king of Ethiopia and father of Andromeda «Cerberus, -ī», m. _Cerberus_, the fabled three-headed dog that guarded the entrance to Hades «certāmen, -inis», n. [[«certō», _struggle_]], _struggle, contest, rivalry_ «certē», adv. [[«certus», _sure_]], compared «certius, certissimē», _surely, certainly_ «certus, -a, -um», adj. _fixed, certain, sure_. «aliquem certiōrem facere» (_to make some one more certain_), _to inform some one_ «cervus, -ī», m. _stag, deer_ «cessō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _delay, cease_ «cibāria, -ōrum», n. plur. _food, provisions_ «cibus, -ī», _m.food, victuals_ «Cimbrī, -ōrum», m. plur. _the Cimbri_ «Cimbricus, -a, -um», adj. _Cimbrian_ «cīnctus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «cingō», _surround_]], _girt, surrounded_ «cingō, -ere, cīnxī, cīnctus», _gird, surround_ «circiter», adv. _about_ «circum», prep, with acc. _around_ «circum´-dō, -dare, -dedī, -datus», _place around, surround, inclose_ «circum´-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus», _go around_ «circum-sistō, -ere, circum´stetī», ----, _stand around, surround_ «circum-veniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventus» (_come around_), _surround_ «citerior, -ius», adj. in comp., superl. «citimus», _hither, nearer_ (§475) «cīvīlis, -e», adj. [[«cīvis»]], _civil_ «cīvis, -is», m. and f. _citizen_ (§243.1) «cīvitās, -ātis», f. [[«cīvis», _citizen_]], (_body of citizens_), _state; citizenship_ «clāmor, -ōris», m. _shout, cry_ «clārus, -a, -um», adj. _clear; famous, renowned; bright, shining_ «classis, -is», f. _fleet_ «claudō, -ere, -sī, -sus», _shut, close_ «clavus, -ī», m. _stripe_ «cliēns, -entis», m. _dependent, retainer, client_ (§465.a) «Cocles, -itis», m. (_blind in one eye_), _Cocles_, the surname of Horatius «co-gnōscō, -ere, -gnōvī, -gnītus», _learn, know, understand_. Cf. «sciō» (§420.b) «cōgō, -ere, coēgī, coāctus» [[«co(m)-», _together_, + «agō», _drive_]], (_drive together_), _collect; compel, drive_ «cohors, cohortis», f. _cohort_, the tenth part of a legion, about 360 men «collis, -is», m. _hill_, «in summō colle», _on top of the hill_ (§247.2.a) «collum, -ī», n. _neck_ «colō, -ere, coluī, cultus», _cultivate, till; honor, worship; devote one’s self to_ «columna, -ae», f. _column, pillar_ «com- (col-, con-, cor-, co-)», a prefix, _together, with_, or intensifying the meaning of the root word «coma, -ae», f. _hair_ «comes, -itis», m. and f. [[«com-», _together_, + «eō», _go_]], _companion, comrade_ «comitātus, -ūs», m. [[«comitor», _accompany_]], _escort, company_ «comitor, -ārī, -ātus sum», dep. verb [[«comes», _companion_]], _accompany_ «com-meātus, -ūs», m. _supplies_ «com-minus», adv. [[«com-», _together_, + «manus», _hand_]], _hand to hand_ «com-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus», _join together; commit, intrust_. «proelium committere», _join battle_. «sē committere» with dat, _trust one’s self to_ «commodē», adv. [[«commodus», _fit_]], compared «commodius, commodissimē», _conveniently, fitly_ «commodus, -a, -um», adj. _suitable, fit_ «com-mōtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «commoveō», _move_]], _aroused, moved_ «com-parō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«com-», intensive, + «parō», _prepare_]], _prepare; provide, get_ «com-pleō, -ēre, -plēvī, -plētus» [[«com-», intensive, + «pleō», _fill_]], _fill up_ «complexus, -ūs», m. _embrace_ «com-primō, -ere, -pressī, -pressus» [[«com-», _together_, + «premō», _press_]], _press together, grasp, seize_ «con-cidō, -ere, -cidī», ---- [[«com-», intensive, + «cadō», _fall_]], _fall down_ «concilium, conci´lī», n. _meeting, council_ «con-clūdō, -ere, -clūsī, -clūsus» [[«com-», intensive, + «claudō», _close_]], _shut up, close; end, finish_ «con-currō, -ere, -currī, -cursus» [[«com-», _together_, + «currō», _run_]], _run together; rally, gather_ «condiciō, -ōnis», f. [[«com-», _together_, + «dicō», _talk_]], _agreement, condition, terms_ «con-dōnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _pardon_ «con-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus», _hire_ «cōn-ferō, -ferre, -tulī, -lātus», _bring together_. «sē cōnferre», _betake one’s self_ «cōn-fertus, -a, -um», adj. _crowded, thick_ «cōnfestim», adv. _immediately_ «cōn-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus» [[«com-», _completely_, + «faciō», _do_]], _make, complete, accomplish, finish_ «cōn-fīrmō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _make firm, establish, strengthen, affirm, assert_ «cōn-fluō, -ere, -flūxī», ----, _flow together_ «cōn-fugiō, -ere, -fūgī, -fugitūrus», _flee for refuge, flee_ «con-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus» [[«com-», intensive, + «iaciō», _throw_]], _hurl_ «con-iungō, -ere, -iūnxī, -iūnctus» [[«com-», _together_, + «iungō», _join_]], _join together, unite_ «con-iūrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«com-», _together_, + «iūrō», _swear_]], _unite by oath, conspire_ «con-locō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«com-», _together_, + «locō», _place_]], _arrange, place, station_ «conloquium, conlo´quī», n. [[«com-», _together_, + «loquor», _speak_]], _conversation, conference_ «cōnor, -ārī, -ātus sum», dep. verb, _endeavor, attempt, try_ «cōn-scendō, -ere, -scendī, -scēnsus» [[«com-», intensive, + «scandō», _climb_]], _climb up, ascend_. «nāvem cōnscendere», _embark, go on board_ «cōn-scrībō, -ere, -scrīpsī, -scrīptus» [[«com-», _together_, + «scrībō», _write_]], (_write together_), _enroll, enlist_ «cōn-secrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«com-», intensive, + «sacrō», _consecrate_]], _consecrate, devote_ «cōn-sequor, -sequī, -secūtus sum», dep. verb [[«com-», intensive, + «sequor», _follow_]], _pursue; overtake; win_ «cōn-servō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«com-», intensive, + «servō», _save_]], _preserve, save_ «cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī», n. _plan, purpose, design; wisdom_ «cōn-sistō, -ere, -stitī, -stitus» [[«com-», intensive, + «sistō», _cause to stand_]], _stand firmly, halt, take one’s stand_ «cōn-spiciō, -ere, -spēxī, -spectus» [[«com-», intensive, + «spiciō», _spy_]], _look at attentively, perceive, see_ «cōnstantia, -ae», f. _firmness, steadiness, perseverance_ «cōn-stituō, -ere, -uī, -ūtus» [[«com-», intensive, + «statuō», _set_]], _establish, determine, resolve_ «cōn-stō, -āre, -stitī, -stātūrus» [[«com-», _together_, + «stō», _stand_]], _agree; be certain ; consist of_ «cōnsul, -ulis», m. _consul_ (§464.2.a) «cōn-sūmō, -ere, -sūmpsī, -sūmptus» [[«com-», intensive, + «sumō», _take_]], _consume, use up_ «con-tendō, -ere, -dī, -tus», _strain; hasten; fight, contend, struggle_ «con-tineō, -ēre, -uī, -tentus» [[«com-», _together_, + «teneō», _hold_]], _hold together, hem in, contain; restrain_ «contrā», prep, with acc. _against, contrary to_ «con-trahō, -ere, -trāxī, -trāctus» [[«com-», _together_, + «trahō», _draw_]], _draw together;_ of sails, _shorten, furl_ «contrōversia, -ae», f. _dispute, quarrel_ «con-veniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventus» [[«com-», _together_, + «veniō», _come_]], _come together, meet, assemble_ «con-vertō, -ere, -vertī, -versus» [[«com-», intensive, + «vertō», _turn_]], _turn_ «con-vocō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«com-», _together_, + «vocō», _call_]], _call together_ «co-orior, -īrī, -ortus sum», dep. verb [[«com-», intensive, + «orior», _rise_]], _rise, break forth_ «cōpia, -ae», f. [[«com-», intensive, + «ops», _wealth_]], _abundance, wealth, plenty_. Plur. «cōpiae, -ārum», _troops_ «coquō, -ere, coxī, coctus», _cook_ «Corinthus, -ī», f. _Corinth_, the famous city on the Isthmus of Corinth «Cornēlia, -ae», f. _Cornelia_, daughter of Scipio and mother of the Gracchi «Cornēlius, Cornē´lī», m. _Cornelius_, a Roman name «cornū, -ūs», n. _horn; wing_ of an army, «ā dextrō cornū», _on the right wing_ (§466) «corōna, -ae», f. _garland, wreath; crown_ «corōnātus, -a, -um», adj. _crowned_ «corpus, -oris», n. _body_ «cor-ripiō, -ere, -uī, -reptus» [[«com-», intensive, + «rapiō», _seize_]], _seize, grasp_ «cotīdiānus, -a, -um», adj. _daily_ «cotīdiē», adv. _daily_ «crēber, -bra, -brum», adj. _thick, crowded, numerous, frequent_ «crēdō, -ere, -dīdī, -ditus», _trust, believe_, with dat. (§501.14) «cremō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _burn_ «creō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _make; elect, appoint_ «Creōn, -ontis», m. _Creon_, a king of Corinth «crēscō, -ere, crēvī, crētus», _rise, grow, increase_ «Crēta, -ae», f. _Crete_, a large island in the Mediterranean «Crētaeus, -a, -um», adj. _Cretan_ «crūs, crūris», n. _leg_ «crūstulum, -ī», n. _pastry, cake_ «cubīle, -is», n. _bed_ «cultūra, -ae», f. _culture, cultivation_ «cum», conj. with the indic. or subjv. _when; since; although_ (§501.46) «cum», prep, with abl. _with_ (§209) «cupidē», adv. [[«cupidus», _desirous_]], compared «cupidius, cupidissimē», _eagerly_ «cupiditās, -ātis», f. [[«cupidus», _desirous_]], _desire, longing_ «cupiō, -ere, -īvī» or «-iī, -ītus», _desire, wish_. Cf. «volō» «cūr», adv. _why, wherefore_ «cūra, -ae», f. _care, pains; anxiety_ «cūria, -ae», f. _senate house_ «cūrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«cūra», _care_]], _care for, attend to, look after_ «currō, -ere, cucurrī, cursus», _run_ «currus, -ūs», m. _chariot_ «cursus, -ūs», m. _course_ «custōdiō, -īre, -īvī, -ītus» [[«custōs», _guard_]], _guard, watch_ D «Daedalus, -ī», m. _Dæd´alus_, the supposed inventor of the first flying machine «Dāvus, -ī», m. _Davus_, name of a slave «dē», prep, with abl. _down from, from; concerning, about, for_ (§209). «quā dē causā», _for this reason, wherefore_ «dea, -ae», f. _goddess_ (§461.a) «dēbeō, -ēre, -uī, -itus» [[«dē», _from_, + «habeō», _hold_]], _owe, ought, should_ «decem», indecl. numeral adj. _ten_ «dē-cernō, -ere, -crēvī, -crētus» [[«dē», _from_, + «cernō», _separate_]], _decide, decree_ «dē-cidō, -ere, -cidī», ---- [[«dē», _down_, + «cadō», _fall_]], _fall down_ «decimus, -a, -um», numeral adj. _tenth_ «dēclīvis, -e», adj. _sloping downward_ «dē-dō, -ere, -didī, -ditus», _give up, surrender_, «sē dēdere», _surrender one’s self_ «dē-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus» [[«dē», _down_, + «dūcō», _lead_]], _lead down, escort_ «dē-fendō, -ere, -dī, -fēnsus», _ward off, repel, defend_ «dē-ferō, -ferre, -tulī, -lātus» [[«dē», _down_, + «ferō», _bring_]], _bring down; report, announce_ (§426) «dē-fessus, -a, -um», adj. _tired out, weary_ «dē-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus» [[«dē», _from_, + «faciō», _make_]], _fail, be wanting; revolt from_ «dē-fīgō, -ere, -fīxī, -fīxus» [[«dē», _down_, + «fīgō», _fasten_]], _fasten, fix_ «dē-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus» [[«dē», _down_, + «iaciō», _hurl_]], _hurl down; bring down, kill_ «de-inde», adv. _(from thence), then, in the next place_ «dēlectō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _delight_ «dēleō, -ēre, -ēvī, -ētus», _blot out, destroy_ «dēlīberō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _weigh, deliberate, ponder_ «dē-ligō, -ere, -lēgī, -lēctus» [[«dē», _from_, + «legō», _gather_]], _choose, select_ «Delphicus, -a, -um», adj. _Delphic_ «dēmissus, -a, -um» [[part. of «dēmittō», _send down_]], _downcast, humble_ «dē-mōnstrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«dē», _out_, + «mōnstrō», _point_]], _point out, show_ «dēmum», adv. _at last, not till then_. «tum dēmum», _then at last_ «dēnique», adv. _at last, finally_. Cf. «postrēmō» «dēns, dentis», m. _tooth_ (§247.2.a) «dēnsus, -a, -um», adj. _dense, thick_ «dē-pendeō, -ēre», ----, ---- [[«dē», _down_, + «pendeō», _hang_]], _hang from, hang down_ «dē-plōrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«dē», intensive, + «plōrō», _wail_]], _bewail, deplore_ «dē-pōnō, -ere, -posuī, -positus» [[«dē», _down_, + «pōnō», _put_]], _put down_ «dē-scendō, -ere, -dī, -scēnsus» [[«dē», _down_, + «scandō», _climb_]], _climb down, descend_ «dē-scrībō, -ere, -scrīpsī, -scrīptus» [[«dē», _down_, + «scrībō», _write_]], _write down_ «dēsīderō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _long for_ «dē-siliō, -īre, -uī, -sultus» [[«dē», _down_, + «saliō», _leap_]], _leap down_ «dē-spērō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«dē», _away from_, + «spērō», _hope_]], _despair_ «dē-spiciō, -ere, -spēxi, -spectus» [[«dē», _down_]], _look down upon, despise_ «dē-sum, -esse, -fuī, -futūrus» [[«dē», _away from_, + «sum», _be_]], _be wanting, lack_, with dat. (§426) «deus, -ī», m. _god_ (§468) «dē-volvō, -ere, -volvī, -volūtus» [[«dē», _down_, + «volvō», _roll_]], _roll down_ «dē-vorō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«dē», _down_, + «vorō», _swallow_]], _devour_ «dexter, -tra, -trum» («-tera, -terum»), adj. _to the right, right_. «ā dextrō cornū», _on the right wing_ «Diāna, -ae», f. _Diana_, goddess of the moon and twin sister of Apollo «dīcō, -ere, dīxī, dictus» (imv. «dīc»), _say, speak, tell_. Usually introduces indirect discourse (§420.a) «dictātor, -ōris», m. [[«dictō», _dictate_]], _dictator_, a chief magistrate with unlimited power «diēs, -ēi» or «diē», m., sometimes f. in sing., _day_ (§467) «dif-ferō, -ferre, distulī, dīlātus» [[«dis-», _apart_, + «ferō», _carry_]], _carry apart; differ_. «differre inter sē», _differ from each other_ «dif-ficilis, -e», adj. [[«dis-», _not_, + «facilis», _easy_]], _hard, difficult_ (§307) «difficultās, -ātis», f. [[«difficilis», _hard_]], _difficulty_ «dīligenter», adv. [[«dīligēns», _careful_]], compared «dīligentius, dīligentissimē», _industriously, diligently_ «dīligentia, -ae», f. [[«dīligēns», _careful_]], _industry, diligence_ «dī-micō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _fight, struggle_ «dī-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus» [[«dī-», _off_, + «mittō», _send_]], _send away, dismiss, disband_. «dīmittere animum in», _direct one’s mind to, apply one’s self to_ «Diomēdēs, -is», m. _Dī-o-mē´dēs_, a name «dis-, dī-», a prefix expressing separation, _off, apart, in different directions_. Often negatives the meaning «dis-cēdō, -ere, -cessī, -cessus» [[«dis-», _apart_, + «cēdō», _go_]], _depart from, leave, withdraw, go away_ «dis-cernō, -ere, -crēvī, -crētus» [[«dis-», _apart_, + «cernō», _sift_]], _separate; distinguish_ «disciplīna, -ae», f. _instruction, training, discipline_ «discipulus, -ī», m. [[«discō», _learn_]], _pupil, disciple_ «discō, -ere, didicī», ----, _learn_ «dis-cutiō, -ere, -cussī, -cussus» [[«dis-», _apart_, + «quatiō», _shake_]], _shatter, dash to pieces_ «dis-pōnō, -ere, -posuī, -positus» [[«dis-», _apart_, + «pōnō», _put_]], _put here and there, arrange, station_ «dis-similis, -e», adj. [[«dis-», _apart_, + «similis», _like_]], _unlike, dissimilar_ (§307) «dis-tribuō, -ere, -uī, -ūtus», _divide, distribute_ «diū», adv., compared «diūtius, diūtissimē», _for a long time, long_ (§477) «dō, dare, dedī, datus», _give_. «in fugam dare», _put to flight_. «alicui negōtium dare», _employ some one_ «doceō, -ēre, -uī, -tus», _teach, show_ «doctrīna, -ae», f. [[«doctor», _teacher_]], _teaching, learning, wisdom_ «dolor, -ōris», m. _pain, sorrow_ «domesticus, -a, -um», adj. [[«domus», _house_]], _of the house, domestic_ «domicilium, domici´lī», n. _dwelling; house, abode_. Cf. «domus» «domina, -ae», f. _mistress_ (of the house), _lady_ (§461) «dominus, -ī», m. _master_ (of the house), _owner, ruler_ (§462) «domus, -ūs», f. _house, home_. «domī», locative, _at home_ (§468) «dormiō, -īre, -īvī, -ītus», _sleep_ «dracō, -ōnis», m. _serpent, dragon_ «dubitō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _hesitate_ «dubius, -a, -um», adj. [[«duo», _two_]], (_moving two ways_), _doubtful, dubious_ «du-centī, -ae, -a», numeral adj. _two hundred_ «dūcō, -ere, dūxī, ductus» (imv. «dūc»), _lead, conduct_ «dum», conj. _while, as long as_ «duo, duae, duo», numeral adj. _two_ (§479) «duo-decim», indecl. numeral adj. _twelve_ «dūrus, -a, -um», adj. _hard, tough; harsh, pitiless, bitter_ «dux, ducis», m. and f. [[cf. «dūcō», _lead_]], _leader, commander_ E «ē» or «ex», prep, with abl. _out of, from, off, of_ (§209) «eburneus, -a, -um», adj. _of ivory_ «ecce», adv. _see! behold! there! here!_ «ē-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus» [[«ē», _out_, + «dūcō», _lead_]], _lead out, draw out_ «ef-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus» [[«ex», _thoroughly_, + «faciō», _do_]], _work out; make, cause_ «ef-fugiō, -ere, -fūgī, -fugitūrus» [[«ex», _from_, + «fugiō», _flee_]], _escape_ «egeō, -ēre, -uī», ----, _be in need of, lack_, with abl. (§501.32) «ego», pers. pron. _I_; plur. «nōs», _we_ (§480) «ē-gredior, -ī, ēgressus sum», dep. verb [[«ē», _out of_, + «gradior», _go_]], _go out, go forth_. «ē nāvī ēgredī», _disembark_ «ē-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus» [[«ē», _forth_, + «iaciō», _hurl_]], _hurl forth, expel_ «elementum, -ī», n., in plur. _first principles, rudiments_ «elephantus, -ī», m. _elephant_ «Ēlis, Ēlidis», f. _E´lis_, a district of southern Greece «emō, -ere, ēmī, ēmptus», _buy, purchase_ «enim», conj., never standing first, _for, in fact, indeed._ Cf. «nam» «Ennius, Ennī», m. _Ennius_, the father of Roman poetry, born 239 B.C. «eō, īre, iī» («īvī»), «itūrus», _go_ (§499) «eō», adv. _to that place, thither_ «Ēpīrus, -ī», f. _Epi´rus_, a district in the north of Greece «eques, -itis», m. [[«equus», _horse_]], _horseman, cavalryman_ «equitātus, -ūs», m. [[«equitō», _ride_]], _cavalry_ «equus, -ī», m. _horse_ «ē-rigō, -ere, -rēxī, -rēctus» [[«ē», _out_, + «regō», _make straight_]], _raise up_ «ē-ripiō, -ere, -uī, -reptus» [[«ē», _out of_, + «rapiō», _seize_]], _seize, rescue_ «ē-rumpō, -ere, -rūpī, -ruptus» [[«ē», _forth_, + «rumpō», _break_]], _burst forth_ «ēruptiō, -ōnis», f. _sally_ «Erymanthius, -a, -um», adj. _Erymanthian, of Erymanthus_, a district in southern Greece «et», conj. _and, also_. «et ... et», _both ... and_. Cf. «atque, ac, -que» «etiam», adv. (rarely conj.) [[«et», _also_, + «iam», _now_]], _yet, still; also, besides_. Cf. «quoque». «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_ «Etrūscī, -ōrum», m. _the Etruscans_, the people of Etruria. See map of Italy «Eurōpa, -ae», f. _Europe_ «Eurystheus, -ī», m. _Eurys´theus_, a king of Tiryns, a city in southern Greece «ē-vādō, -ere, -vāsī, -vāsus» [[«ē», _out_, + «vādō», _go_]], _go forth, escape_ «ex», see «ē» «exanimātus, -a, -um» [[part. of «exanimō», _put out of breath_ («anima»)]], adj. _out of breath, tired; lifeless_ «ex-cipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptus» [[«ex», _out_, + «capiō», _take_]], _welcome, receive_ «exemplum, -ī», n. _example, model_ «ex-eō,-īre,-iī,-itūrus» [[«ex», _out_, + «eō», _go_]], _go out, go forth_ (§413) «ex-erceō, -ēre, -uī, -itus» [[«ex», _out_, + «arceō», _shut_]], _(shut out), employ, train, exercise, use_ «exercitus, -us», m. [[«exerceō», _train_]], _army_ «ex-īstimō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«ex», _out_, + «aestimō», _reckon_]], _estimate; think, judge_ (§420.c). Cf. «arbitror, putō» «ex-orior, -īrī, -ortus sum», dep. verb [[«ex», _forth_, + «orior», _rise_]], _come forth, rise_ «expedītus, -a, -um», adj. _without baggage_ «ex-pellō, -ere, -pulī, -pulsus» [[«ex», _out_, + «pellō», _drive_]], _drive out_ «ex-piō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«ex», intensive, + «pīo», _atone for_]], _make amends for, atone for_ «explōrātor, -ōris», m. [[«explōrō», _investigate_]], _spy, scout_ «explōrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _examine, explore_ «ex-pugnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«ex», _out_, + «pugnō», _fight_]], _take by storm, capture_ «exsilium, exsi´lī», n. [[«exsul», _exile_]], _banishment, exile_ «ex-spectō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«ex», _out_, + «spectō», _look_]], _expect, wait_ «ex-struō, -ere, -strūxī, -strūctus» [[«ex», _out_, + «struō», _build_]], _build up, erect_ «exterus, -a, -um», adj., compared «exterior, extrēmus» or «extimus», _outside, outer_ (§312) «extrā», prep, with acc. _beyond, outside of_ «ex-trahō, -ere, -trāxī, -trāctus» [[«ex», _out_, + «trahō», _drag_]], _drag out, pull forth_ «extrēmus, -a, -um», adj., superl. of «exterus», _utmost, farthest_ (§312) F «fābula, -ae», f. _story, tale, fable_ «facile», adv. [[«facilis», _easy_]], compared «facilius, facillimē», _easily_ (§322) «facilis, -e», adj. [[cf. «faciō», _make_]], _easy, without difficulty_ (§307) «faciō, -ere, fēcī, factus» (imv. «fac»), _make, do; cause, bring about_. «impetum facere in», _make an attack upon_. «proelium facere», _fight a battle_. «iter facere», _make a march_ or _journey_. «aliquem certiōrem facere», _inform some one_. «facere verba prō», _speak in behalf of_. Passive «fīō, fierī, factus sum», _be done, happen_. «certior fierī», _be informed_ «fallō, -ere, fefellī, falsus», _trip, betray, deceive_ «fāma, -ae», f. _report, rumor; renown, fame, reputation_ «famēs, -is» (abl. «famē»), f. _hunger_ «familia, -ae», f. _servants, slaves; household, family_ «fascēs, -ium» (plur. of «fascis»), f. _fasces_ (p. 225) «fastīgium, fastī´gī», n. _top; slope, descent_ «fātum, -ī», n. _fate, destiny_ «faucēs, -ium», f. plur. _jaws, throat_ «faveō, -ēre, fāvī, fautūrus», _be favorable to, favor_, with dat. (§501.14) «fēlīx, -īcis», adj. _happy, lucky_ «fēmina, -ae», f. woman. Cf. «mulier» «fera, -ae», f. [[«ferus», _wild_]], _wild beast_ «ferāx, -ācis», adj. _fertile_ «ferē», adv. _about, nearly, almost_ «ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus», _bear_. «graviter» or «molestē ferre», _be annoyed_ (§498) «ferreus, -a, -um», adj. [[«ferrum», _iron_]], _made of iron_ «fidēlis, -e», adj. [[«fidēs», _trust_]], _faithful, true_ «fidēs, fideī» _or_ «fidē», _trust, faith; promise, word; protection_. «in fidem venīre», _come under the protection_. «in fidē manēre», _remain loyal_ «fīlia, -ae» (dat. and abl. plur. «fīliābus»), f. _daughter_ (§461.a) «fīlius, fīlī» (voc. sing, «fīlī»), m. _son_ «fīnis, -is», m. _boundary, limit, end;_ in plur. _territory, country_ (§243.1) «fīnitimus, -a, -um», adj. [[«fīnis», _boundary_]], _adjoining, neighboring_. Plur. «fīnitimī, -ōrum», m. _neighbors_ «fīō, fierī, factus sum», used as passive of «faciō». See «faciō» (§500) «flamma, -ae», f. _fire, flame_ «flōs, flōris», m. _flower_ «fluctus, -ūs», m. [[of. «fluō», _flow_]], _flood, wave, billow_ «flūmen, -inis», n. [[cf. «fluō», _flow_]], _river_ (§464.2.b) «fluō, -ere, flūxī, fluxus», _flow_ «fluvius, fluvī», m. [[cf. «fluō», _flow_]], _river_ «fodiō, -ere, fōdī, fossus», _dig_ «fōns, fontis», m. _fountain_ (§247.2.a) «fōrma, -ae», f. _form, shape, appearance; beauty_ «Formiae, -ārum», f. _Formiae_, a town of Latium on the Appian Way. See map «forte», adv. [[abl. of «fors», _chance_]], _by chance_ «fortis, -e», adj. _strong; fearless, brave_ «fortiter», adv. [[«fortis», _strong_]], compared «fortius, fortissimē», _strongly; bravely_ «fortūna, -ae», f. [[«fors», _chance_]], _chance, fate, fortune_ «forum, -ī», n. _market place_, esp. the «Forum Rōmānum», where the life of Rome centered «Forum Appī», _Forum of Appius_, a town in Latium on the Appian Way «fossa, -ae», f. [[cf. «fodiō», _dig_]], _ditch_ «fragor, -ōris», m. [[cf. «frangō», _break_]], _crash, noise_ «frangō, -ere, frēgī, frāctus», _break_ «frāter, -tris», m. _brother_ «fremitus, -ūs», m. _loud noise_ «frequentō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _attend_ «frētus, -a, -um», adj. _supported, trusting_. Usually with abl. of means «frōns, frontis», f. _front_, «ā fronte», _in front_ «frūctus, -ūs», m. _fruit_ «frūmentārius, -a, -um», adj. _pertaining to grain_. «rēs frūmentāria», _grain supplies_ «frūmentum, -ī», n. _grain_ «frūstrā», adv. _in vain, vainly_ «fuga, -ae», f. [[cf. «fugiō», _flee_]], _flight_. «in fugam dare», _put to flight_ «fugiō, -ere, fūgī, fugitūrus», _flee, run; avoid, shun_ «fūmō, -are, ------, ------», _smoke_ «fūnis, -is», m. _rope_ «furor, -ōris», m. [[«furō», _rage_]], _madness_. «in furōrem incīdere», _go mad_ G «Gāius, Gāī», m. _Gaius_, a Roman name, abbreviated «C.», English form _Caius_ «Galba, -ae», m. _Galba_, a Roman name «galea, -ae», f. _helmet_ «Gallia, -ae», f. _Gaul_, the country comprising what is now Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and France «Gallicus, -a, -um», adj. _Gallic_ «gallīna, -ae», f. _hen, chicken_ «Gallus, -ī», m. _a Gaul_ «gaudium, gaudī», n. _joy_ «Genāva, -ae», f. _Geneva_, a city in Switzerland «gēns, gentis», f. [[cf. «gignō», _beget_]], _race, family; people, nation, tribe_ «genus, -eris», n. _kind, variety_ «Germānia, -ae», f. _Germany_ «Germānus, -ī», m. _a German_ «gerō, -ere, gessī, gestus», _carry, wear; wage_. «bellum gerere», _wage war_. «rēs gestae», _exploits_. «bene gerere», _carry on successfully_ «gladiātōrius, -a, -um», adj. _gladiatorial_ «gladius, gladī», m. _sword_ «glōria, -ae», f. _glory, fame_ «Gracchus, -ī», m. _Gracchus_, name of a famous Roman family «gracilis, -e», adj. _slender_ (§307) «Graeca, -ōrum», n. plur. _Greek writings, Greek literature_ «Graecē», adv. _in Greek_ «Graecia, -ae», f. _Greece_ «grammaticus, -ī», m. _grammarian_ «grātia, -ae», f. _thanks, gratitude_ «grātus, -a, -um», adj. _acceptable, pleasing_. Often with dat. (§501.16) «gravis, -ē», adj. _heavy; disagreeable; serious, dangerous; earnest, weighty_ «graviter», adv. [[«gravis», _heavy_]], compared «gravius, gravissimē», _heavily; greatly, seriously_. «graviter ferre», _bear ill, take to heart_ «gubernātor, -ōris», m. [[«gubernō», _pilot_]], _pilot_ H «habēna, -ae», f. _halter, rein_. «habeō, -ēre, -uī, -itus», _have, hold; regard, consider, deem_ «habitō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[cf. «habeō», _have_]], _dwell, abide, inhabit_. Cf. «incolō, vīvō» «hāc-tenus», adv. _thus far_ «Helvētiī, -ōrum», m. _the Helvetii_, a Gallic tribe «Herculēs, -is», m. _Hercules_, son of Jupiter and Alcmena, and god of strength «Hesperidēs, -um», f. _the Hesperides_, daughters of Hesperus, who kept the garden of the golden apples «hic, haec, hoc», demonstrative adj. and pron. _this_ (of mine); as pers. pron. _he, she, it_ (§481) «hīc», adv. _here_ «hiems, -emis», f. _winter_ «hīnc», adv. [[«hīc», _here_]], _from here, hence_ «Hippolytē, -ēs», f. _Hippolyte_, queen of the Amazons «ho-diē», adv. [[modified form of «hōc diē», _on this day_]], _to-day_ «homō, -inis», m. and f. _(human being), man, person_ «honestus, -a, -um», adv. [[«honor», _honor_]], _respected, honorable_ «honor, -ōris», m. _honor_ «hōra, -ae», f. _hour_ «Horātius, Horā´tī», m. _Horatius_, a Roman name «horribilis, -e», adj. _terrible, horrible_ «hortor, -āri, -ātus sum», dep. verb, _urge, incite, exhort, encourage_ (§493) «hortus, -ī», m. _garden_ «hospitium, hospi´tī», n. [[«hospes», _host_]], _hospitality_ «hostis, -is», m. and f. _enemy, foe_ (§465.a) «humilis, -e», adj. _low, humble_ (§307) «Hydra, -ae», f. _the Hydra_, a mythical water snake slain by Hercules I «iaciō, -ere, iēcī, iactus», _throw, hurl_ «iam», adv. _now, already_. «nec iam», _and no longer_ «Iāniculum, -ī», n. _the Janiculum_, one of the hills of Rome «iānua, -ae», f. _door_ «ibi», adv. _there, in that place_ «Īcarus, -ī», m. _Ic´arus_, the son of Dædalus «ictus, -ūs», m. [[cf. «īcō», _strike_]], _blow_ «īdem, e´adem, idem», demonstrative pron. [[«is» + «dem»]], _same_ (§481) «idōneus, -a, -um», adj. _suitable, fit_ «igitur», conj., seldom the first word, _therefore, then_. Cf. «itaque» «ignis, -is», m. _fire_ (§§243.1; 247. 2.a; 465, 1) «ignōtus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «(g)notus», _known_]], _unknown, strange_ «ille, illa, illud», demonstrative adj. and pron. _that_ (yonder); as pers. pron. _he, she, it_ (§481) «illīc», adv. [[cf. «ille»]], _yonder, there_ «im-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus» [[«in», _against_, + «mittō», _send_]], _send against; let in_ «immolō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«in», _upon_, + «mola», _meal_]], _sprinkle with sacrificial meal; offer, sacrifice_ «im-mortālis, -e», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «mortalis», _mortal_]], _immortal_ «im-mortālitās, -ātis», f. [[«immortālis», _immortal_]], _immortality_ «im-parātus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «parātus», _prepared_]], _unprepared_ «impedīmentum», -ī, n. [[«impediō», _hinder_]], _hindrance;_ in plur. _baggage_ «impedītus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «impediō», _hinder_]], _hindered, burdened_ «im-pellō, -ere, -pulī, -pulsus» [[«in», _against_, + «pellō», _strike_]], _strike against; impel, drive, propel_ «imperātor, -ōris», m. [[«imperō», _command_]], _general_ «imperium, impe´rī», n. [[«imperō», _command_]], _command, order; realm, empire; power, authority_ «imperō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _command, order_. Usually with dat. and an object clause of purpose (§501.41). With acc. object, _levy, impose_ «impetus, -ūs», m. _attack_, «impetum facere in», _make an attack upon_ «im-pōnō, -ere, -posui, -positus» [[«in», _upon_, + «pōnō», _place_]], _place upon; impose, assign_ «in», prep, with acc. _into, to, against, at, upon, towards;_ with abl. _in, on_. «in reliquum tempus», _for the future_ «in-», inseparable prefix. With nouns and adjectives often with a negative force, like English _un-, in-_ «in-cautus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «cautus», _careful_]], _off one’s guard_ «incendium, incendī», n. _flame, fire_. Cf. «ignis, flamma» «in-cendō, -ere, -dī, -cēnsus», _set fire to, burn_ «in-cidō, -ere, -cidī, ----», [[«in», _in, on_, + «cadō», _fall_]], _fall in, fall on; happen_. «in furōrem incidere», _go mad_ «in-cipiō, -ere, -cēpi, -ceptus» [[«in», _on_, + «capiō», _take_]], _begin_ «in-cognitus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «cognitus», _known_]], _unknown_ «in-colō, -ere, -uī, ----», [[«in», _in_, + «colō», _dwell_]], _inhabit; live_ «incolumis, -e», adj. _sound, safe, uninjured, imharmed_ «in-crēdibilis, -e», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «crēdibilis», _to be believed_]], _incredible_ «inde», _from that place, thence_ «induō, -ere, -uī, -ūtus», _put on_ «indūtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «induō», _put on_]], _clothed_ «in-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus» [[«in», _into_, + «eō», _go_]], _go into; enter upon, begin_, with acc. (§413) «īn-fāns, -fantis», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + *«fāns», _speaking_]], _not speaking_. As a noun, m. and f. _infant_ «īn-fēlīx, -īcis», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «fēlīx», _happy_]], _unhappy, unlucky_ «īnfēnsus, -a, -um», adj. _hostile_ «īn´-ferō, īnfer´re, in´tulī, inlā´tus» [[«in», _against_, + «ferō», _bear_]], _bring against or upon, inflict_, with acc. and dat. (§501.15). «bellum īnferre», with dat., _make war upon_ «īnferus, -a, -um», adj. _low, below_ (§312). «īn-fīnītus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «fīnītus», _bounded_]], _boundless, endless_ «īn-fīrmus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «fīrmus», _strong_]], _weak, infirm_ «ingenium, inge´ni», n. _talent, ability_ «ingēns, -entis», adj. _vast, huge, enormous, large_. Cf. «magnus» «in-gredior, -gredī, -gressus sum» [[«in», _in_, + «gradior», _walk_]], _advance, enter_ «inimīcus, -a, -um», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «amīcus», _friendly_]], _hostile_. As a noun, «inimīcus, -ī», m. _enemy, foe_. Cf. «hostis» «initium, ini´tī», _entrance, beginning_ «initus, -a, -um», part. of «ineō». «initā aestāte», _at the beginning of summer_ «iniūria, -ae», f. [[«in», _against_, + «iūs», _law_]], _injustice, wrong, injury_. «alicui iniūriās īnferre», _inflict wrongs upon some one_ «inopia, -ae», f. [[«inops», _needy_]], _want, need, lack_ «in-opīnāns, -antis», adj. [[«in-», _not_, + «opīnāns», _thinking_]], _not expecting, taken by surprise_ «inquit», _said he, said she_. Regularly inserted in a direct quotation «in-rigō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _irrigate, water_ «in-rumpō, -ere, -rūpī, -ruptus» [[«in», _into_, + «rumpō», _break_]], _burst in, break in_ «in-ruō, -ere, -ruī,----» [[«in», _in_, + «ruō», _rush_]], _rush in_ «īn-sequor, -sequī, -secūtus sum», dep. verb [[«in», _on_, + «sequor», _follow_]], _follow on, pursue_ «īn-signe, -is», n. _badge, decoration_ (§465.b) «īnsignis, -e», adj. _remarkable, noted_ «īnstāns, -antis», adj. [[part, of «īnsto», _be at hand_]], _present, immediate_ «īn-stō, -āre, -stitī, -statūrus» [[«in», _upon_, + «stō», _stand_]], _stand upon; be at hand; pursue, press on_ «īnstrūmentum, -ī», n. _instrument_ «īn-struō, -ere, -strūxī, -strūctus» [[«in», _on_, + «struō», _build_]], _draw up_ «īnsula, -ae», f. _island_ «integer, -gra, -grum», _untouched, whole; fresh, new_ «intellegō, -ere, -lēxī, -lēctus» [[«inter», _between_, +«legō», _choose_]], _perceive, understand_ (§420.d) «intentō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _aim; threaten_ «inter», prep. with acc. _between, among; during, while_ (§340) «interfectus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «inter-ficiō», _kill_]], _slain, dead_ «inter-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus» [[«inter», _between_, + «faciō», _make_]], _put out of the way, kill_. Cf. «necō, occīdō, trucīdō» «interim», adv. _meanwhile_ «interior, -ius», adj. _interior, inner_ (§315) «inter-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus», _leave off, suspend_ «interpres, -etis», m. and f. _interpreter_ «inter-rogō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _question_ «inter-sum, -esse, -fuī, -futūrus» [[«inter», _between_, +«sum», _be_]], _be present, take part in_, with dat. (§501.15) «inter-vāllum, -ī», n. _interval, distance_ «intrā», adv. and prep. with acc. _within, in_ «intrō, -āre, -āvi, -ātus», _go into, enter_ «in-veniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventus» [[«in», _upon_, +«veniō», _come_]], _find_ «invīsus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «invideō», _envy_]], _hated, detested_ «Iolāus, -ī», m. _I-o-lā´us_, a friend of Hercules «ipse, -a, -um», intensive pron. _that very, this very; self, himself, herself, itself_, (§481) «īra, -ae», f. _wrath, anger_ «īrātus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «īrāscor», _be angry_]], _angered, enraged_ «is, ea, id», demonstrative adj. and pron. _this, that; he, she, it_ (§481) «iste, -a, -ud», demonstrative adj. and pron. _that_ (of yours), _he, she, it_ (§481) «ita», adv. _so, thus_. Cf. «sīc» and «tam» «Italia, -ae», f. _Italy_ «ita-que», conj. _and so, therefore_ «item», adv. _also_ «iter, itineris», n. _journey, march, route; way, passage_ (§§247.1.a; 468). «iter dare», _give a right of way, allow to pass_. «iter facere», _march_ (see p. 159) «iubeō, -ēre, iussī, iussus», _order, command_. Usually with the infin. and subj. acc. (§213) «iūdex, -icis», m. and f. _judge_ (§464.1) «iūdicō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«iūdex», _judge_]], _judge, decide_ (§420.c) «Iūlia, -ae», _Julia_, a Roman name «Iūlius, Iūlī», m. _Julius_, a Roman name «iungō, -ēre, iūnxī, iūnctus», _join; yoke, harness_ «Iūnō, -ōnis», f. _Juno_, the queen of the gods and wife of Jupiter «Iuppiter, Iovis», m. _Jupiter_, the supreme god «iūrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _swear, take an oath_ «iussus, -a, -um», part. of «iubeō», _ordered_ L «L.», abbreviation for «Lūcius» «labefactus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «labefaciō», _cause to shake_]], _shaken, weakened, ready to fall_ «Labiēnus, -ī», m. _La-bi-e´nus_, one of Cæsar’s lieutenants «labor, -ōris», m. _labor, toil_ «labōrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«labor», _labor_]], _labor; suffer, be hard pressed_ «lacrima, -ae», f. _tear_ «lacus, -ūs» (dat. and abl. plur. «lacubus»), m. _lake_ «laetē», adv. [[«laetus», _glad_]], compared «laetius, laetissimē», _gladly_ «laetitia, -ae», f. [[«laetus», _glad_]], _joy_ «laetus, -a, -um», adj. _glad, joyful_ «lapis, -idis», m. _stone_ (§§247.2.a; 464.1) «Lār, Laris», m.; plur. «Larēs, -um» (rarely «-ium»), _the Lares_ or _household, gods_ «lātē, »adv. [[«lātus», _wide_]], compared «lātius, lātissimē», _widely_ «Latinē», adv. _in Latin_. «Latīnē loquī», _to speak Latin_ «lātitūdō, -inis», f. [[«lātus», _wide_]], _width_ «Lātōna, -ae», f. _Latona_, mother of Apollo and Diana «latus, -a, -um», adj. _wide_ «lātus, -eris», n. _side, flank_. «ab utrōque latere», _on each side_ «laudō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«laus», _praise_]], _praise_ «laurea, -ae», f. _laurel_ «laureātus, -a, -um», adj. _crowned with laurel_ «laus, laudis», f. _praise_ «lectulus, -ī», m. _couch, bed_ «lēgātus, -ī», m. _ambassador; lieutenant_ «legiō, -ōnis», f. [[cf. «legō», _gather_]], (_body of soldiers_), _legion_, about 3600 men (§464.2.a) «legiōnārius, -a, -um», adj. _legionary_. Plur. «legiōnariī, -ōrum», m. _the soldiers of the legion_ «legō, -ere, lēgī, lēctus», _read_ «lēnis, -e», adj. _gentle, smooth, mild_ «lēniter», adv. [[«lēnis», _gentle_]], compared «lēnius, lēnissimē», _gently_ «Lentulus, -i», m. _Lentulus_, a Roman family name «leō, -ōnis», m. _lion_ «Lernaeus, -a, -um», adj. _Lernæean_, of Lerna, in southern Greece «Lesbia, -ae», f. _Lesbia_, a girl’s name «levis, -e», adj. _light_ «lēx, lēgis», f. _measure, law_ «libenter», adv. [[«libēns», _willing_]], compared «libentius, libentissimē», _willingly, gladly_ «līber, -era, -erum», adj. _free_ (§469.b) «līberī, -ōrum», m. [[«līber», _free_]], _children_ «līberō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«līber», _free_]], _set free, release, liberate_ «lībertās, -ātis», f. [[«līber», _free_]], _freedom, liberty_ «līctor, -ōris», m. _lictor_ (p. 225) «līmus, -ī», m. _mud_ «littera, -ae», f. _a letter_ of the alphabet; in plur. _a letter, epistle_ «lītus, -oris», n. _seashore, beach_ «locus, -ī», m. (plur. «locī» and «loca», m. and n.), _place, spot_ «longē», adv. [[«longus», _long_]], comp. «longius, longissimē», _a long way off; by far_ «longinquus, -a, -um», adj. [[«longus», _long_]], _distant, remote_ «longitūdō, -inis», f. [[«longus», _long_]], _length_ «longus, -a, -um», adj. _long_ «loquor, loqui, locūtus sum», dep. verb, _talk, speak_ «lōrīca, -ae», f. [[«lōrum», _thong_]], _coat of mail, corselet_ «lūdō, -ere, lūsī, lūsus», _play_ «lūdus, -ī», m. _play; school_, the elementary grades. Cf. «schola» «lūna, -ae», f. _moon_ «lūx, lūcis», f. (no gen. plur.), _light_. «prīma lūx», _daybreak_ «Lȳdia, -ae», f. _Lydia_, a girl’s name M «M.», abbreviation for «Mārcus» «magicus, -a, -um», adj. _magic_ «magis», adv. in comp. degree [[«magnus», _great_]], _more, in a higher degree_ (§323) «magister, -trī», m. _master, commander; teacher_ «magistrātus, -ūs», m. [[«magister», _master_]], _magistracy; magistrate_ «magnitūdō, -inis», f. [[«magnus», _great_]], _greatness, size_ «magnopere», adv. [[abl. of «magnum opus»]], compared «magis, maximē», _greatly, exceedingly_ (§323) «magnus, -a, -um», adj., compared «maior, maximus», _great, large; strong, loud_ (§311) «maior, maius, -ōris», adj., comp. of «magnus», _greater, larger_ (§311) «maiōrēs, -um», m. plur. of «maior», _ancestors_ «mālō, mālle, māluī, ----» [[«magis», _more_, + «volō», _wish_]], _wish more, prefer_ (§497) «malus, -a, -um», adj., compared «peior, pessimus», _bad, evil_ (§311) «mandō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«manus», _hand_, + «dō», _put_]], _(put in hand), intrust; order, command_ «maneō, -ēre, mānsī, mānsūrus», _stay, remain, abide_ «Mānlius, Mānlī», m. _Manlius_, a Roman name «mānsuētus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «mānsuēscō», _tame_]], _tamed_ «manus, -ūs», f. _hand; force, band_ «Mārcus, -ī», m. _Marcus, Mark_, a Roman first name «mare, -is», n. (no gen. plur.), _sea_. «mare tenēre», _be out to sea_ «margō, -inis», m. _edge, border_ «marītus, -ī», m. _husband_ «Marius, Marī», m. _Marius_, a Roman name, esp. _C. Marius_, the general «Mārtius, -a, -um», adj. _of Mars_, esp. the _Campus Martius_ «māter, -tris», f. _mother_ «mātrimōnium, mātrimō´nī», n. _marriage_. «in mātrimōnium dūcere», _marry_ «mātūrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _hasten_. Cf. «contendō», «properō» «mātūrus, -a, -um», adj. _ripe, mature_ «maximē», adv. in superl. degree [[«maximus», _greatest_]], compared «magnopere, magis, maximē», _especially, very much_ (§323) «maximus, -a, -um», adj., superl. of «magnus», _greatest, extreme_ (§311) «medius, -a, -um», adj. _middle part; middle, intervening_ «melior, -ius, -ōris», adj., comp. of «bonus», _better_ (§311) «melius», adv. in comp. degree, compared «bene, melius, optimē», _better_ (§323) «memoria, -ae», f. [[«memor», _mindful_]], _memory_. «memoriā tenēre», _remember_ «mēns, mentis», f. _mind_. Cf. «animus» «mēnsis, -is», m. _month_ (§247.2. a) «mercātor, -ōris», m. [[«mercor», _trade_]], _trader, merchant_ «merīdiānus, -a, -um», adj. [[«merīdiēs», _noon_]], _of midday_ «merīdiēs, ----» (acc. «-em», abl. «-ē»), m. [[«medius», _mid_, + «diēs», _day_]], _noon_ «metus, -ūs», m. _fear, dread_ «meus, -a, -um», possessive adj. and pron. _my, mine_ (§98) «mīles, -itis», m. _soldier_ (§464.1) «mīlitāris, -e», adj. [[«mīles», _soldier_]], _military_. «rēs mīlitāris», _science of war_ «mīlitō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«mīles», _soldier_]], _serve as a soldier_ «mīlle», plur. «mīlia, -ium», numeral adj. and subst. _thousand_ (§479) «minimē», adv. in superl. degree, compared «parum, minus, minimē», _least, very little; by no means_ (§323) «minimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «parvus, minor, minimus», _least, smallest_ (§311) «minor, minus, -ōris», adj. in comp. degree, compared «parvus, minor, minimus», _smaller, less_ (§311) «Mīnōs, -ōis», m. _Minos_, a king of Crete «minus», adv. in comp. degree, compared «parum, minus, minimē», _less_ (§323) «Minyae, -ārum», m. _the Minyae_, a people of Greece «mīrābilis, -e», adj. [[«mīror», _wonder at_]], _wonderful, marvelous_ «mīror, -ārī, -ātus sum», dep. verb [[«mīrus», _wonderful_]], _wonder, marvel, admire_ «mīrus, -a, -um», adj. _wonderful_ «Mīsēnum, -ī», _Mise´num_, a promontory and harbor on the coast of Campania. See map «miser, -era, -erum», adj. _wretched, unhappy, miserable_ «missus, -a, -um», part. of «mittō», _sent_ «mittō, -ere, mīsī, missus», _send_ «modicus, -a, -um» [[«modus», _measure_]], _modest, ordinary_ «modo», adv. [[abl. of «modus», _measure_, with shortened «o»]], _only, merely, just now_. «modo ... modo», _now ... now, sometimes ... sometimes_ «modus, -ī», m. _measure; manner, way; kind_ «moenia, -ium», n. plur. [[cf. «mūniō», _fortify_]], _walls, ramparts_ «molestē», adv. [[«molestus», _troublesome_]], compared «molestius, molestissimē», _annoyingly_. «molestē ferre», _to be annoyed_ «molestus, -a, -um», _troublesome, annoying, unpleasant_ (§501.16) «moneō, -ēre, -uī, -itus», _remind, advise, warn_ (§489) «mōns, montis», m. _mountain_ (§247.2. a) «mōnstrum, -ī», n. _monster_ «mora, -ae», f. _delay_ «moror, -ārī, -ātus sum», dep. verb [[«mora», _delay_]], _delay, linger; impede_ «mors, mortis», f. [[cf. «morior», _die_]], _death_ «mōs, mōris», m. _custom, habit_ «mōtus, -ūs», m. [[cf. «moveō», _move_]], _motion, movement_. «terrae mōtus», _earthquake_ «moveō, -ēre, mōvī, mōtus», _move_ «mox», adv. _soon, presently_ «mulier, -eris», f. _woman_ «multitūdō, -inis», f. [[«multus», _much_]], _multitude_ «multum (multō)», adv. [[«multus», _much_]], compared «plūs, plūrimum», _much_ (§477) «multus, -a, -um», adj., compared «plūs, plūrimus», _much_; plur. _many_ (§311) «mūniō, -īre, -īvī or -iī, -ītus», _fortify, defend_ «mūnītiō, -ōnis», f. [[«mūniō», _fortify_]], _defense, fortification_ «mūrus, -ī», m. _wall_. Cf. «moenia» «mūsica, -ae», f. _music_ N «nam», conj. _for_. Cf. «enim» «nam-que», conj., a strengthened «nam», introducing a reason or explanation, _for, and in fact; seeing that_ «nārrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _tell, relate_ «nāscor, nāscī, nātus sum», dep. verb, _be born, spring from_ «nātūra, -ae», f. _nature_ «nātus», part. of «nāscor» «nauta, -ae», m. [[for «nāvita», from «nāvis», _ship_]], _sailor_ «nāvālis, -e», adj. [[«nāvis», _ship_]], _naval_ «nāvigium, nāvi´gī», n. _ship, boat_ «nāvigō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«nāvis», _ship_, + «agō», _drive_]], _sail, cruise_ «nāvis, -is» (abl. -ī or -e), f. _ship_ (§243.1). «nāvem cōnscendere», _embark, go on board_. «nāvem solvere», _set sail_. «nāvis longa», _man-of-war_ «nē», conj. and adv. _in order that not, that_ (with verbs of fearing), _lest; not_. «nē ... quidem», _not even_ «-ne», interrog. adv., enclitic (see §§16, 210). Cf. «nōnne» and «num» «nec» or «neque», conj. [[«nē», _not_, + «que», _and_]], _and not, nor_. «nec ... nec» or «neque ... neque», _neither ... nor_ «necessārius, -a, -um», adj. _needful, necessary_ «necō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[cf. nex, _death_]], _kill_. Cf. «interficiō, occīdō, trucīdō» «negō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _deny, say not_ (§420.a) «negōtium, negō´tī», n. [[«nec», _not_, + «ōtium», _ease_]], _business, affair, matter_. «alicui negōtium dare», _to employ some one_ «Nemaeus, -a, -um», adj. _Neme´an, of Neme´a_, in southern Greece «nēmō», dat. «nēminī» (gen. «nūllīus», abl. «nūllō», supplied from «nūllus»), m. and f. [[«nē», _not_, + «homō», _man_]], _(not a man), no one, nobody_ «Neptūnus, -ī», m. _Neptune_, god of the sea, brother of Jupiter «neque», see «nec» «neuter, -tra, -trum» (gen. «-trīus», dat. «-trī»), adj. _neither_ (of two) (§108) «nē-ve», conj. adv. _and not, and that not, and lest_ «nihil», n. indecl. [[«nē», _not_, + «hīlum», _a whit_]], _nothing_. «nihil posse», _to have no power_ «nihilum, -ī», n., see «nihil» «Niobē, -ēs», f. _Ni´obe_, the queen of Thebes whose children were destroyed by Apollo and Diana «nisi», conj. [[«nē», _not_, + «sī», _if_]], _if not, unless, except_ «nōbilis, -e», adj. _well known; noble_ «noceō, -ēre, -uī, -itūrus» [[cf. «necō», _kill_]], _hurt, injure_, with dat. (§501.14) «noctū», abl. used as adv. [[cf. «nox», _night_]], _at night, by night_ «Nōla, -ae», f. _Nola_, a town in central Campania. See map «nōlō, nōlle, nōluī», ---- [[«ne», _not_, + «volō», _wish_]], _not to wish, be unwilling_ (§497) «nōmen, -inis», n. [[cf. «nōscō», _know_]], _(means of knowing), name_ «nōminō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«nōmen», _name_]], _name, call_. Cf. «appellō, vocō» «nōn», adv. [[«nē», _not_, + «ūnum», _one_]], _not_. «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_ «nōn-dum», adv. _not yet_ «nōn-ne», interrog. adv. suggesting an affirmative answer, _not?_ (§210). Cf. «-ne» and «num» «nōs», pers. pron. _we_ (see «ego») (§480) «noster, -tra, -trum», possessive adj. and pron. _our, ours_. Plur. «nostrī, -ōrum», m. _our men_ (§98) «novem», indecl. numeral adj. _nine_ «novus, -a, -um», adj. _new_. «novae rēs», _a revolution_ «nox, noctis», f. _night_, «multā nocte», _late at night_ «nūllus, -a, -um» (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī») adj. [[«nē», _not_, + «ūllus», _any_]], _not any, none, no_ (§108) «num», interrog. adv. suggesting a negative answer (§210). Cf. «-ne» and «nōnne». In indir. questions, _whether_ «numerus, -ī», m. _number_ «numquam», adv. [[«nē», _not_, + «umquam», _ever_]], _never_ «nunc», adv. _now_. Cf. «iam» «nūntiō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«nūntius», _messenger_]], _report, announce_ (§420.a) «nūntius, nūntī», m. _messenger_ «nūper», adv. _recently, lately, just now_ «nympha, -ae», f. _nymph_ O «ob», prep. with acc. _on account of_. In compounds it often means _in front of, against_, or it is intensive. «quam ob rem», _for this reason_ (§340) «obses, -idis», m. and f. _hostage_ «ob-sideō,-ēre,-sēdī, -sessus» [[«ob», _against_, + «sedeō», _sit_]], _besiege_ «obtineō, -ēre, -uī, -tentus» [[«ob», _against_, + «teneō», _hold_]], _possess, occupy, hold_ «occāsiō, -ōnis», f. _favorable opportunity, favorable moment_ «occāsus, -ūs», m. _going down, setting_ «occīdō, -ere, -cīdī, -cīsus» [[«ob», _down_, + «caedō», _strike_]], _strike down; cut down, kill_. Cf. «interficiō, necō» «occupō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«ob», _completely_, + «capiō», _take_]], _seize, take possession of, occupy_. Cf. «rapio» «oc-currō, -ere, -currī, -cursus» [[«ob», _against_ + «currō», _run_]], _run towards; meet_, with dat. (§426) «ōceanus, -ī», m. _the ocean_ «octō», indecl. numeral adj. _eight_ «oculus, -ī», m. _eye_ «officium, offi´cī», n. _duty_ «ōlim», adv. _formerly, once upon a time_ «ōmen, -inis», n. _sign, token, omen_ «ō-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus» [[«ob», _over, past_, + «mittō», _send_]], _let go, omit_. «consilium omittere», _give up a plan_ «omnīnō», adv. [[«omnis», _all_]], _altogether, wholly, entirely_ «omnis, -e», adj. _all, every._ Cf. «tōtus» «onerāria, -ae», f. [[«onus», _load_]], with «nāvis» expressed or understood, _merchant vessel, transport_ «onus, -eris», n. _load, burden_ «opīniō, -ōnis», f. [[«opīnor», _suppose_]], _opinion, supposition, expectation_ «oppidānus, -ī», m. [[«oppidum», _town_]], _townsman_ «oppidum, -ī», n. _town, stronghold_ «opportūnus, -a, -um», adj. _suitable, opportune, favorable_ «op-primō, -ere, -pressī, -pressus» [[«ob», _against_, + «premō», _press_]], (_press against_), _crush; surprise_ «oppugnātiō, -ōnis», f. _storming, assault_ «oppugnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«ob», _against_, + «pugnō» _fight_]], _fight against, assault, storm, assail_ «optimē», adv. in superl. degree, compared «bene, melius, optimē», _very well, best of all_ (§323) «optimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «bonus, melior, optimus», _best, most excellent_ (§311) «opus, -eris», n. _work, labor, task_ (§464.2.b) «ōrāculum, -ī», n. [[«ōrō», _speak_]], _oracle_ «ōrātor, -ōris», m. [[«ōrō», _speak_]], _orator_ «orbis, -is», m. _ring, circle_. «orbis terrārum», _the earth, world_ «orbita, -ae», f. [[«orbis», _wheel_]], _rut_ «Orcus, -ī», m. _Orcus, the lower world_ «ōrdō, -inis», m. _row, order, rank_ (§247.2.a) «orīgo, -inis», f. [[«orior», _rise_]], _source, origin_ «orior, -īrī, ortus sum», dep. verb, _arise, rise, begin; spring, be born_ «ōrnāmentum, -ī», n. [[«ōrnō», _fit out_]], _ornament, jewel_ «ōrnātus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «ōrnō», _fit out_]] _fitted out; adorned_ «ōrnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _fit out, adorn_ P «P.», abbreviation for «Pūblius» «paene», adv. _nearly, almost_ «palūdāmentum, -ī», n. _military cloak_ «palūs, -ūdis», f. _swamp, marsh_ «pānis, -is», m. _bread_ «pār, paris», adj. _equal_ (§471. III) «parātus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «parō», _prepare_]], _prepared, ready_ «parcō, -ere, peper´cī» («parsī»), «parsūrus», _spare_, with dat. (§501.14) «pāreō, -ēre, -uī, ----», _obey_, with dat. (§501.14) «parō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _prepare for, prepare; provide, procure_ «pars, partis», f. _part, share; side, direction_ «parum», adv., compared «minus, minimē», _too little, not enough_ (§323) «parvus, -a, -um», adj., compared «minor, minimus», _small, little_ (§311) «passus, -ūs», m. _step, pace_. «mīlle passuum», _thousand paces, mile_ (§331.b) «pateō, -ēre, patuī, ----», _lie open, be open; stretch, extend_ «pater, -tris», m. _father_ (§464.2.a) «patior, -ī, passus sum», dep. verb, _bear, suffer, allow, permit_ «patria, -ae», f. [[cf. «pater», _father_]], _fatherland_, (_one’s_) _country_ «paucus, -a, -um», adj. (generally plur.), _few, only a few_ «paulisper», adv. _for a little while_ «paulō», adv. _by a little, little_ «paulum» adv. _a little, somewhat_ «pāx, pācis», f. (no gen. plur.), _peace_ «pecūnia, -ae», f. [[«pecus», _cattle_]], _money_ «pedes, -itis», m. [[«pēs», _foot_]], _foot soldier_ «pedester, -tris, -tre», adj. [[«pēs», _foot_]], _on foot; by land_ «peior, peius, -ōris», adj. in comp. degree, compared «malus, peior, pessimus», _worse_ (§311) «pellis, -is», f. _skin, hide_ «penna, -ae», f. _feather_ «per», prep. with acc. _through, by means of, on account of_. In composition it often has the force of _thoroughly, completely, very_ (§340) «percussus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «percutiō», _strike through_]], _pierced_ «per-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus» [[«per», _through_, + «dūcō», _lead_]], _lead through_. «fossam perdūcere», _to construct a ditch_ «per-exiguus, -a, -um», adj. [[«per», _very_, + «exiguus», _small_]], _very small, very short_ «perfidus, -a, -um», adj. _faithless, treacherous, false_ «per-fringō, -ere, -frēgī, -frāctus» [[«per», _through_, «frangō», _break_]], _shatter_ «pergō, -ere, perrēxī, perrēctus» [[«per», _through_, + «regō», _conduct_]], _go on, proceed, hasten_ «perīculum, -ī», n. _trial, test; danger_ «peristȳlum, -ī», n. _peristyle_, an open court with columns around it «perītus, -a, -um», adj. _skillful_ «perpetuus, -a, -um», adj. _perpetual_ «Perseus, -eī», _Perseus_, a Greek hero, son of Jupiter and Danaë «persōna, -ae», f. _part, character, person_ «per-suādeō, -ēre, -suāsī, -suāsus» [[«per», _thoroughly_, + «suādeō», _persuade_]], _persuade, advise_, with dat. (§501.14), often with an object clause of purpose (§501.41) «per-terreō, -ēre, -uī, -itus» [[«per», _thoroughly_, + «terreō», _frighten_]], _thoroughly terrify, alarm_ «per-veniō, -īre, -vēnī, -ventus» [[«per», _through_, + «veniō», _come_]], _arrive, reach, come to_ «pēs, pedis», m. _foot_. «pedem referre», _retreat_ (§247.2.a) «pessimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «malus, peior, pessimus», _worst_ (§311) «petō, -ere, -īvī or -iī, -ītus», _strive for, seek, beg, ask; make for, travel to_. Cf. «postulō, quaerō, rogō» «Pharsālus, -ī», f. _Pharsa´lus_ or _Pharsa´lia_, a town in Thessaly, near which Cassar defeated Pompey, 48 B.C. «philosophia, -ae», f. _philosophy_ «philosophus, -ī», m. _philosopher_ «pictus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «pingō», _paint_]], _colored, variegated_ «pīlum, -ī», n. _spear, javelin_ (§462.b) «piscīna, -ae», f. [[«piscis», _fish_]], _fish pond_ «piscis, -is», m. _fish_ «pīstor, -ōris», m. _baker_ «placeō. -ēre, -uī, -itus», _please, be pleasing_, with dat. (§501.14) «plānitiēs, -ēī», f. [[«plānus», _level_]], _plain_ «plānus, -a, -um», adj. _level, flat_ «plēnus, -a, -um», _full_ «plūrimum», adv. in superl. degree, compared «multum, plūs, plūrimum», _very much_. «plūrimum valēre», _be most influential_ (§322) «plūrimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «multus, plūs, plūrimus», _most, very many_ (§311) «plūs, plūris», adj. in comp. degree, compared «multus, plūs, plūrimus»; sing. n. as substantive, _more_; plur. _more, several_ (§311) «pluteus, -ī», m. _shield, parapet_ «poena, -ae», f. _punishment, penalty_ «poēta, -ae», m. _poet_ «pompa, -ae», f. _procession_ «Pompēiī, -ōrum», m. _Pompeii_, a city of Campania. See map «Pompēius, Pompē´ī», m. _Pompey_, a Roman name «pōmum, -ī», n. _apple_ «pōnō, -ere, posuī, positus», _put, place_. «castra pōnere», _pitch camp_ «pōns, pontis», m. _bridge_ (§247.2.a) «popīna, -ae», f. _restaurant_ «populus, -ī», m. _people_ «Porsena, -ae», m. _Porsena_, king of Etruria, a district of Italy. See map «porta, -ae», f. _gate, door_ «portō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _bear, carry_ «portus, -ūs», m. [[cf. «porta», _gate_]], _harbor_ «possideō, -ēre, -sēdī, -sessus», _have, own, possess_ «possum, posse, potuī, ----», irreg. verb [[«potis», _able_, + «sum», _I am_]], _be able, can_ (§495). «nihil posse», _have no power_ «post», prep, with acc. _after, behind_ (§340) «posteā», adv. [[«post», _after_, + «eā», _this_]], _afterwards_ («posterus»), «-a, -um», adj., compared «posterior, postrēmus» or «postumus», _following, next_ (§312) «postquam», conj. _after, as soon as_ «postrēmō», adv. [[abl. of «postrēmus», _last_]], _at last, finally_. Cf. «dēmum, dēnique» (§322) «postrīdiē», adv. [[«posterō», _next_, + «diē», _day_]], _on the next day_ «postulō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _ask, demand, require_. Cf. «petō, quaerō, rogō» «potentia, -ae», f. [[«potēns», _able_]], _might, power, force_ «prae-beō, -ēre, -uī, -itus» [[«prae», _forth_, + «habeō», _hold_]], _offer, give_ «praeda, -ae», f. _booty, spoil, plunder_ «prae-dīcō, -ere, -dīxī, -dictus» [[«prae», _before_, + «dīcō», _tell_]], _foretell, predict_ «prae-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus» [[«prae», _before_, + «faciō», _make_]], _place in command_, with acc. and dat. (§501.15) «prae-mittō, -ere, -mīsī, -missus» [[«prae», _forward_, + «mittō», _send_]], _send forward_ «praemium, praemī», n. _reward, prize_ «praeruptus, -a, -um» [[part. of «prae-rumpō», _break off_]], _broken off, steep_ «praesēns, -entis», adj. _present, immediate_ «praesertim», adv. _especially, chiefly_ «praesidium, praesi´di», n. _guard, garrison, protection_ «prae-stō, -āre, -stitī, -stitus» [[«prae», _before_, + «sto», _stand_]], (_stand before_), _excel, surpass_, with dat. (§501.15); _show, exhibit_ «prae-sum, -esse, -fuī, -futūrus» [[«prae», _before_, + «sum», _be_]], _be over, be in command of_, with dat. (§501.15) «praeter», prep, with acc. _beyond, contrary to_ (§340) «praetereā», adv. [[«praeter», _besides_, + «eā», _this_]], _in addition, besides, moreover_ «praetextus, -a, -um», adj. _bordered, edged_ «praetōrium, praetō´rī», n. _prætorium_ «prandium, prandī», n. _luncheon_ «premō, -ere, pressī, pressus», _press hard, compress; crowd, drive, harass_ («prex, precis»), f. _prayer_ «prīmō», adv. [[«prīmus», _first_]], _at first, in the beginning_ (§322) «prīmum», adv. [[«prīmus», _first_]], _first_. «quam primum», _as soon as possible_ «prīmus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «prior, prīmus», _first_ (§315) «prīnceps, -cipis», m. [[«prīmus», _first_, + «capiō», _take_]], (_taking the first place_), _chief, leader_ (§464.1) «prior, prius, -ōris», adj. in comp. degree, superl., «prīmus», _former_ (§315) «prīstinus, -a, -um», adj. _former, previous_ «prō», prep, with abl. _before; for, for the sake of, in behalf of; instead of, as_ (§209). In composition, _forth, forward_ «prō-cēdō, -ere, -cussī, -cessūrus» [[«prō», _forward_, + «cēdō», _go_]], _go forward, proceed_ «procul», adv. _far, afar off_ «prō-currō, -ere, -currī» («-cucurrī»), «-cur-sus» [[«prō», _forward_, + «currō», _run_]], _run forward_ «proelium, proeli», n. _battle, combat_. «proelium committere», _join battle_. «proelium facere», _fight a battle_ «profectiō, -ōnis», f. _departure_ «proficīscor, -ī, -fectus sum», dep. verb, _set out, march_. Cf. «ēgredior, exeō» «prō-gredior, -ī, -gressus sum», dep. verb [[«prō», _forth_, + «gradior», _go_]], _go forth, proceed, advance_. Cf. «pergō, prōcēdō» «prōgressus», see «prōgredior» «prohibeō, -ēre, -uī, -itus» [[«prō», _forth, away from_, + «habeō», _hold_]], _keep away from, hinder, prevent_ «prō-moveō, -ēre, -mōvī, -mōtus» [[«prō», _forward_, + «moveō», _move_]], _move forward, advance_ «prō-nūntiō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«prō», _forth_, + «nūntiō», _announce_]], _proclaim, declare_ «prope», adv., compared «propius, proxi-mē», _nearly_. Prep, with acc. _near_ «prō-pellō, -ere, -pulī, -pulsus» [[«prō», _forth_, + «pellō», _drive_]], _drive forth; move, impel_ «properō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«properus», _quick]], go quickly, hasten_. Cf. «contendō, maturō» «propinquus, -a, -um», adj. [[«prope», _near]], near, neighboring_ «propior, -ius, -ōris», adj. in comp. degree, superl., «proximus», _nearer_ (§315) «propius», adv. in comp. degree, compared «prope, propius, proximē», _nearer_ (§323) «propter», prep. with acc. _on account of, because of_ (§340) «prō-scrībō, -ere, -scrīpsī, -scriptus» [[«prō», _forth_, + «scribō», _write_]], _proclaim, publish_. Cf. «prōnūntiō» «prō-sequor, -sequī, -secūtus sum», dep. verb [[«prō», _forth_, + «sequor», _follow]], escort, attend_ «prō-sum, prōdesse, prōfuī, prōfutūrus» [[«prō», _for_, + «sum», _be_]], _be useful, benefit_, with dat. (§§496; 501.15) «prō-tegō, -ere, -tēx=i], -tēctus» [[«prō», _in front_, + «tegō», _cover]], cover in front, protect_ «prōvincia, -ae», f. _territory, province_ «proximē», adv. in superl. degree, compared «prope, propius, proximē», _nearest, next; last, most recently_ (§323) «proximus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «propior, proximus», _nearest, next_ (§315) «pūblicus, -a, -um», adj. [[«populus»,_people_]], _of the people, public_, «res pūblica», _the commonwealth_ «puella, -ae», f. [[diminutive of «puer», _boy_]], _girl, maiden_ «puer, -eri», m. _boy; slave_ (§462.c) «pugna, -ae», f _-fight, battle._ Cf. «proelium» «pugnō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«pugna», _battle]], fight_. Cf. «contendō, dīmicō» «pulcher, -chra, -chrum», adj. _beautiful, pretty_ (§§469.b; 304) «Pullō, -ōnis», m. _Pullo_, a centurion «pulsō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _strike, beat_ «puppis, -is» (acc. «-im», abl. «-ī»), f. _stern_ of a ship, _deck_ «pūrē», adv. [[«pūrus», _pure_]], comp. «pūrius», _purely_ «pūrgō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _cleanse, clean_ «purpureus, -a, -um», adj. _purple, dark red_ «putō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _reckon, think_ (§420,_c_). Cf. «arbitror, exīstimō» «Pȳthia, -ae», f. _Pythia_, the inspired priestess of Apollo at Delphi Q «quā dē causā», _for this reason, wherefore_ «quā rē», _therefore, for this reason_ «quaerō, -ere, -sīvī, -sītus», _seek, ask, inquire_. Cf. «petō, postulō, rogō» «quālis, -e», interrog. pronom. adj. _of what sort, what kind of_. «talis ... qualis», _such ... as_ «quam», adv. _how_; after a comparative, _than_; with a superlative, translated _as...as possible_, «quam prīmum», _as soon as possible_ «quantus, -a, -um», adj. [[«quam», _how]], how great, how much_, «tantus ... quantus», _as great as_ «quārtus, -a, -um», numeral adj. [[«quattuor», _four_]], _fourth_ «quattuor», indecl. numeral adj. _four_ «quattuor-decim», indecl. numeral adj. _fourteen_ «-que», conj., enclitic, _and_ (§16). Cf. «ac, atque, et» «quī, quae, quod», rel. pron. and adj. _who, which, what, that_ (§482) «quia», conj. _because_. Cf. «quod» «quīdam, quaedam, quiddam (quoddam)», indef. pron. and adj. _a certain one, a certain, a_ (§485). «quidem», adv. _to be sure, certainly, indeed_, «nē ... quidem», _not even_ «quiēs, -ētis», f. _rest, repose_ «quiētus, -a, -um», adj. _quiet, restful_ «quīndecim», indecl. numeral adj. _fifteen_ «quīngentī, -ae, -a», numeral adj. _five hundred_ «quīnque», indecl. numeral adj. _five_ «quīntus, -a, -um», numeral adj. _fifth_ «quis (quī), quae, quid (quod)», interrog. pron. and adj. _who? what? which?_ (§483). «quis (quī), qua (quae), quid (quod)», indef. pron. and adj., used after «sī, nisi, nē, num», _any one, anything, some one, something, any, some_ (§484). «quisquam, quicquam» or «quidquam» (no fem. or plur.), indef. pron. _any one_ (at all), _anything_ (at all) (§486). «quisque, quaeque, quidque (quodque)», indef. pron. and adj. _each, each one, every_ (§484). «quō», interrog. and rel. adv. _whither, where_ «quō», conj. _in order to, that_, with comp. degree (§350). «quod», conj. _because, in that_. Cf. «quia» «quoque», conj., following an emphatic word, _also, too_. Cf. «etiam» «quot-annīs», adv. [[«quot», _how many_ + «annus», _year_]], _every year, yearly_ «quotiēns», interrog. and rel. adv. _how often? as often as_ R «rādīx, -īcis», f. _root; foot_ «rapiō, -ere, -uī, -tus», _seize, snatch_ «rārō», adv. [[«rārus», _rare_]], _rarely_ «rārus, -a, -um», adj. _rare_ «re-» or «red-», an inseparable prefix, _again, back, anew, in return_ «rebelliō, -ōnis», f. _renewal of war, rebellion_ «recēns, -entis», adj. _recent_ «re-cipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptus» [[«re-», _back_, + «capiō», _take_]], _take back, receive_. «sē recipere», _withdraw, retreat_ «re-clīnātus, -a, -um», part. of «reclīnō», _leaning back_ «re-creātus, -a, -um», part. of «recreō», _refreshed_ «rēctus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «regō», _keep straight_]], _straight, direct_ «re-cūsō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _refuse_ «red-āctus, -a, -um», part. of «redigō», _reduced, subdued_ «red-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus» [[«red-», _back_, + «eō», _go_]], _go back, return_ (§413). Cf. «revertō» «reditus, -ūs», m. [[cf. «redeō», _return_]], _return, going back_ «re-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus» [[«re-», _back_, + «dūcō», _lead_]], _lead back_ «re-ferō, -ferre, rettulī, -lātus» [[«re-», _back_, + «ferō», _bear_]], _bear back; report_. «pedem referre», _withdraw, retreat_ «re-ficiō, -ere, -fēcī, -fectus» [[«re-», _again_, + «faciō», _make_]], _make again, repair_. «sē reficere», _refresh one’s self_ «rēgīna, -ae», f. [[«rēx», _king_]], _queen_ «regiō, -ōnis», f. _region, district_ «rēgnum, -ī», n. _sovereignty; kingdom_ «regō, -ere, rēxī, rēctus» [[cf. «rēx», _king_]], _govern, rule_ (§490) «re-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus» [[«re-», _back_, + «iaciō», _hurl_]], _hurl back; throw away_ «re-linquō, -ere, -līquī, -lictus» [[«re-», _behind_, + «linquō», _leave_]], _leave behind, leave, abandon_ «reliquus, -a, -um», adj. [[cf. «relinquō», _leave_]], _left over, remaining_. As a noun, plur. _the rest_ «remōtus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «re-moveō», _remove_]], _remote, distant_ «re-moveō, -ēre, -mōvī, -motus» [[«re-», _back_, + «moveō», _move_]], _remove_ «rēmus, -ī», m. _oar_ «re-periō, -īre, repperī, repertus», _find_ «re-portō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«re-», _back_, + «portō», _carry_]], _carry back, bring back, win, gain_ «rēs, reī», f. _thing, business, matter, deed, event, circumstance_ (§467). «quam ob rem», _for this reason_. «rēs adversae», _adversity_. «rēs frūmentāria», _grain supplies_. «rēs gestae», _exploits_. «rēs militāris», _science of war_. «rēs pūblica», _the commonwealth_. «rēs secundae», _prosperity_ «re-scindō, -ere, -scidī, -scissus» [[«re-», _back_, + «scindō», _cut_]], _cut off, cut down_ «re-sistō, -ere, -stitī», ---- [[«re-», _back_, + «sistō», _cause to stand_]], _oppose, resist_, with dat. (§501.14) «re-spondeō, -ēre, -spondī, -spōnsus» [[«re-», _in return_, + «spondeō», _promise_]], answer, reply (§420.a) «re-vertō, -ere, -ī», ----, or dep. verb «re-vertor, -ī, -sus sum» [[«re-», _back_, + «vertō», _turn_]], _turn back, return_. Usually active in the perf. system «re-vinciō, -īre, -vīnxī, -vīnctus» [[«re-», _back_, + «vinciō», _bind_]], _fasten_ «rēx, rēgis», m. [[cf. «regō», _rule_]], _king_ «Rhēnus, -ī», m. _the Rhine_, a river of Germany «rīpa, -ae», f. _bank_ «rogō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _ask_. Cf. «petō, postulō, quaerō» «Rōma, -ae», f. _Rome_. See map «Rōmānus, -a, -um», adj. [[«Rōma», _Rome_]], _Roman_, follows its noun. As a noun, m. and f. _a Roman_ «rosa, -ae», f. _rose_ «rōstrum, -ī», n. _beak_ of a ship. In plur., _the rostra_, the speaker’s stand in the Roman Forum «rota, -ae», f. _wheel_ «Rubicō, -ōnis», m. _the Rubicon_, a river in northern Italy. See map «rūmor, -ōris», m. _report, rumor_ «rūrsus», adv. [[for «reversus», _turned back_]], _again, in turn_ «rūs, rūris» (locative abl. «rūrī», no gen., dat., or abl. plur.), n. _the country_ (§501.36.1). Cf. «ager, patria, terra» S «Sabīnus, -a, -um», adj. _Sabine_. As a noun, m. and f. _a Sabine_. The Sabines were an ancient people of central Italy. See map «sacrum, -ī», n. [[«sacer», _consecrated_]], _something consecrated, sacrifice;_ usually in plur., _religious rites_ «saepe», adv., compared «saepius, saepissimē», _often, frequently_ «saevus, -a, -um», adj. _cruel, savage_ «sagitta, -ae», f. _arrow_ «saliō, -īre, -uī, saltus», _jump_ «salūs, -ūtis», f. _safety; health_. «salūtem dīcere», _send greetings_ «salūtō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«salūs», _health_]], _greet, salute_ «salvē», imv. of «salveō», _hail, greetings_ «sanguis, -inis», m. _blood_ (§247.2.a] «sānitās, -ātis», f. [[«sānus», _sound_]], _health, sanity_ «sapiēns, -entis», adj. [[part. of «sapiō», _be wise_]], _wise, sensible_ «satis», adv. and indecl. noun, _enough, sufficient, sufficiently_ «saxum, -ī», n. _rock, stone_ «scelus, -eris», n. _crime, sin_ «scēptrum, -ī», n. _scepter_ «schola, -ae», f. _school_, the higher grades. Cf. «lūdus» «scientia, -ae», f. [[«sciēns», _knowing_]], _skill, knowledge, science_ «scindō, -ere, scidī, scissus», _cut, tear_ «sciō, -īre, -īvī, -ītus», _know_ (§420.b). Cf. «cognōscō» «scrībō, -ere, scrīpsī, scrīptus», _write_ «scūtum, -ī», n. _shield, buckler_ «sē», see «suī» «sēcum» = «sē» + «cum» «secundus, -a, -um», adj. [[«sequor», _follow_]], _following, next, second; favorable, successful_. «rēs secundae», _prosperity_ «sed», conj. _but, on the contrary_. «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_ «sēdecim», indecl. numeral adj. _sixteen_ «sedeō, -ēre, sēdī, sessus», _sit_ «semper», adv. _always, forever_ «senātus, -ūs», m. [[cf. «senex», _old_]], _council of elders, senate_ «sentiō, -īre, sēnsī, sēnsus», _feel, know, perceive_ (§420.d). Cf. «intellegō», «videō» «septem», indecl. numeral adj. _seven_ «septimus, -a, -um», numeral adj. _seventh_ «sequor, -ī, secūtus sum», dep. verb, _follow_ (§493) «serpēns, -entis», f. [[«serpō», _crawl_]], _serpent, snake_ «sertae, -ārum», f. plur. _wreaths, garlands_ «servitūs, -ūtis», f. [[«servus», _slave_]], _slavery, servitude_ «servō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _save, rescue, keep_ «servus, -ī», m. _slave_ «sēsē», emphatic for «sē» «sex», indecl. numeral adj. _six_ «Sextus, -ī», m. _Sextus_, a Roman first name «sī», conj. _if_ «sīc», adv. _thus, in this way_. Cf. «ita», «tam» «Sicilia, -ae», f. _Sicily_. See map «sīc-ut», _just as, as if_ «signifer, -erī», m. [[«signum», _standard_, + «ferō», _bear_]], _standard bearer_ (p. 224) «signum, -ī», n. _ensign, standard; signal_ «silva, -ae», f. _wood, forest_ «similis, -e», adj., compared «similior, simillimus», _like, similar_ (§307) «simul», adv. _at the same time_ «simul ac» or «simul atque», conj. _as soon as_ «sine», prep. with abl. _without_ (§209) «singulī, -ae, -a», distributive numeral adj. _one at a time, single_ (§334) «sinister, -tra, -trum», adj. _left_ «Sinuessa, -ae», f. _Sinues´sa_, a town in Campania. See map «sitis, -is» (acc. «-im», abl. «-ī», no plur.), f. _thirst_ «situs, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «sinō», _set_]], _situated, placed, lying_ «socius, socī», m. _comrade, ally_ «sōl, sōlis» (no gen. plur.), m. _sun_ «soleō, -ēre, solitus sum», semi-dep. verb, _be wont, be accustomed_ «sollicitus, -a, -um», adj. _disturbed, anxious_ «sōlum», adv. [[«sōlus», _alone_]], _alone, only_. «nōn sōlum ... sed etiam», _not only ... but also_ «sōlus, -a, -um» (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī»), adj. _alone, only_ (§108) «solvō, -ere, solvī, solūtus», _loosen, unbind_. «nāvem solvere», _set sail_ «somnus, -ī», m. _sleep_ «soror, -ōris», f. _sister_ «spatium, spatī», n. _space, distance; time; opportunity_ «spectāculum, -ī», n. [[«spectō», _look at_]], _show, spectacle_ «spectō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _look at, witness_ «spērō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[spēs, _hope_]], _hope, expect_ (§420.c) «spēs, speī», f. _hope_ (§273.2) «splendidē», adv. [[«splendidus»]], compared «splendidius, splendidissimē», _splendidly, handsomely_ «splendidus, -a, -um», adj. _brilliant, gorgeous, splendid_ «Stabiānus, -a, -um», _Stabian_ «stabulum, -ī», n. [[cf. «stō», _stand_]], _standing place, stable, stall_ «statim», adv. [[cf. «stō», _stand_]], _on the spot, at once, instantly_ «statua, -ae», f. [[«sistō», _place, set_]], _statue_ «statuō, -ere, -uī, -ūtus» [[«status», _station_]], _decide, determine_ «stilus, -ī», m. _iron pencil, style_ (p. 210) «stō, -āre, stetī, status», _stand_ «strātus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «sternō», _spread_]], _paved_ (of streets) «strepitus, -ūs», m. [[«strepō», _make a noise_]], _noise, din_ «stringō, -ere, strīnxī, strictus», _bind tight; draw, unsheathe_ «studeō, -ēre, -uī, ----», _give attention to, be eager_, with dat. (§501.14) «studium, studī», n. [[cf. «studeō», _be eager for_]], _eagerness, desire, zeal, devotion_ «stultus, -a, -um», adj. _foolish, stupid_ «Stymphālis, -idis», adj. f. _Stymphalian, of Stympha´lus_, a lake in southern Greece «Stymphālus, -ī», m. _Stympha´lus_, a district of southern Greece with a town, mountain, and lake, all of the same name «suādeō, -ēre, -sī, -sus», _advise, recommend_, with subjv. of purpose (§501.41) «sub», prep, with acc. and abl. _under, below, up to; at_ or _to the foot of_ «sub-igō, -ere, -ēgī, -āctus» [[«sub», _under_, + «agō», _drive_]], _subdue, reduce_ «subitō», adv. [[«subitus», _sudden_]], _suddenly_ «sub-sequor, -ī, -secūtus sum», dep. verb [[«sub», _below_, + «sequor», _follow_]], _follow close after, follow up_ «suc-cēdō, -ere, -cessī, -cessus» [[«sub», _below_, + «cēdō», _go_]], _follow, succeed_ «suī», reflexive pron. _of himself (herself, itself, themselves)_ (§480). «sēcum» = «sē» + «cum». «sēsē», emphatic form of «sē» «sum, esse, fuī, futūrus», irreg. verb, _be; exist_ (§494) «summus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree, compared «superus, superior, suprēmus» or «summus» (§312), _supreme, highest; best, greatest_. «in summō colle», _on the top of the hill_ «sūmō, -ere, sūmpsī, sūmptus», _take up; assume, put on_. «sūmere supplicium dē», _inflict punishment on_ «super», prep. with acc. and abl. _over, above_ «superbia, -ae», f. [[«superbus», _proud_]], _pride, arrogance_ «superbus, -a, -um», adj. _proud, haughty_ «superior», comp. of «superus» «superō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«superus», _above_]], _go over; subdue, overcome; surpass, excel_ «super-sum, -esse, -fuī, ----», _be over, survive_, with dat. (§501.15) «superus, -a, -um», adj., compared «superior, suprēmus» or «summus», _above, upper_ (§312) «supplicium, suppli´cī», n. [[«supplex», _kneeling in entreaty_]], _punishment, torture_. «supplicium sūmere dē», _inflict punishment on_. «supplicium dare», _suffer punishment_ «surgō, -ere, surrēxī», ---- [[«sub», _from below_, + «regō», _straighten_]], _rise_ «sus-cipiō, -ere, -cēpī, -ceptus» [[«sub», _under_, + «capiō», _take_]], _undertake, assume, begin_ «suspicor, -ārī, -ātus sum», dep. verb, _suspect, surmise, suppose_ «sus-tineō, -ēre, -tinuī, -tentus» [[«sub», _under_, + «teneō», _hold_]], _hold up, bear, sustain, withstand_ «suus, -a, -um», reflexive possessive adj. and pron., _his, her, hers, its, their, theirs_ (§98) T «T.», abbreviation of «Titus» «taberna, -ae», f. _shop, stall_ «tabula, -ae», f. _tablet_ for writing «tālis, -e», adj. _such_. «tālis ... quālis», _such ... as_ «tam», adv. _so, such_. Cf. «ita, sīc» «tamen», adv. _yet, however, nevertheless_ «tandem», adv. _at length, finally_ «tangō, -ere, tetigī, tāctus», _touch_ «tantum», adv. [[«tantus»]], _only_ «tantus, -a, -um», adj. _so great, such_. «tantus ... quantus», _as large as_ «tardus, -a, -um», adj. _slow, late; lazy_ «Tarpēia, -ae», f. _Tarpeia_ (pronounced _Tar-pē´ya_), the maiden who opened the citadel to the Sabines «Tarquinius, Tarqui´nī», _Tarquin_, a Roman king. With the surname «Superbus», _Tarquin the Proud_ «Tarracīna, -ae», f. _Tarraci´na_, a town in Latium. See map «taurus, -ī», m. _bull_ «tēctus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «tegō», _cover_]], _covered, protected_ «tēlum, -ī», n. _weapon_ «temerē», adv. _rashly, heedlessly_ «tempestās, -ātis», f. [[«tempus», _time_]] _storm, tempest_ «templum, -ī», n. _temple, shrine_ «tempto, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _try, test; make trial of, attempt_ «tempus, -oris», n. _time_ (§464.2.b). «in reliquum tempus», _for the future_ «teneō, -ēre, tenuī», ----, _hold, keep_ «tergum, -ī», n. _back_, «ā tergō», _on the rear_, «tergum vertere», _retreat, flee_ «ternī, -ae, -a», distributive numeral adj. _three each, by threes_ (§334) «terra, -ae», f. _earth, ground, land_. «orbis terrārum», _the whole world_ «terror, -ōris», m. [[cf. «terreō», _frighten_]], _dread, alarm, terror_ «tertius, -a, -um», numeral adj. _third_ «Teutonēs, -um», m. _the Teutons_ «theātrum, -ī», n. _theater_ «Thēbae, -ārum», f. _Thebes_, a city of Greece «Thēbānī, -ōrum», m. _Thebans_, the people of Thebes «thermae, -ārum», f. plur. _baths_ «Thessalia, -ae», f. _Thessaly_, a district of northern Greece «Thrācia, -ae», f. _Thrace_, a district north of Greece «Tiberius, Tibe´rī», m. _Tiberius_, a Roman first name «tībīcen, -īnis», m. [[cf. «tībia», _pipe_]], _piper, flute player_ «timeō, -ēre, -uī», ----, _fear, be afraid of_. Cf. «vereor» «timor, -ōris», m. [[cf. «timeō», _fear_]], _fear, dread, alarm_. Cf. «metus» «Tīryns, Tīrynthis», f. _Ti´ryns_, an ancient town in southern Greece, where Hercules served Eurystheus «toga, -ae», f. [[cf. «tegō», _cover_]], _toga_ «tormentum, -ī», n. _engine of war_ «totiēns», adv. _so often, so many times_ «tōtus, -a, -um», (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī»), adj. _all, the whole, entire_ (§108) «trā-dō, -ere, -didī, -ditus» [[«trāns», _across_, + «dō», _deliver_]], _give up, hand over, surrender, betray_ «trā-dūcō, -ere, -dūxī, -ductus» [[«trāns», _across_, + «dūcō», _lead_]], _lead across_ «trahō, -ere, trāxī, trāctus», _draw, pull, drag_. «multum trahere», _protract, prolong much_ «trā-iciō, -ere, -iēcī, -iectus» [[«trāns», _across_, + «iaciō», _hurl_]], _throw across; transfix_ «trā-nō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«trāns», _across_, + «nō», _swim_]], _swim across_ «trāns», prep. with acc. _across, over_ (§340) «trāns-eō, -īre, -iī, -itus» [[«trāns», _across_, + «eō», _go_]], _go across, cross_ (§413) «trāns-fīgō, -ere, -fīxī, -fīxus» [[«trāns», _through_, + «fīgō», _drive_]], _transfix_ «trānsitus», ---- (acc. «-um», abl. «-ū»), m. [[cf. «trānseō», _cross over_]], _passage across_ «trēs, tria», numeral adj. _three_ (§479) «trīduum, trīduī», n. [[«trēs», _three_, + «diēs», _days_]], _three days’ time, three days_ «trīgintā», indecl. numeral adj. _thirty_ «triplex, -icis», adj. _threefold, triple_ «trīstis, -e», adj. _sad; severe, terrible_ «trīstitia, -ae», f. [[«trīstis», _sad_]], _sadness, sorrow_ «triumphō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«triumphus», _triumph_]], _celebrate a triumph_ «triumphus, -ī», m. _triumphal procession, triumph_. «triumphum agere», _celebrate a triumph_ «trucīdō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _cut to pieces, slaughter._ Cf. «interficiō», «necō», «occīdō» «tū, tuī» (plur. «vōs»), pers. pron. _thou, you_ (§480) «tuba, -ae», f. _trumpet_ «Tullia, -ae», f. _Tullia_, a Roman name «tum», adv. _then, at that time_ «turris, -is», f. _tower_ (§465.2) «tūtus, -a, -um», adj. _safe_ «tuus, -a, -um», possessive adj. and pron. _your, yours_ (§98) U «ubi», rel. and interrog. adv. _where, when_ «ūllus, -a, -um» (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī»), adj. _any_ (§108) «ulterior, -ius, -ōris», adj. in comp. degree, superl. «ultimus», _farther, more remote_ (§315) «ultimus, -a, -um», adj. in superl. degree (see «ulterior»), _farthest_ (§315) «umbra, -ae», f. _shade_ «umerus, -ī», m. _shoulder_ «umquam», adv. _ever, at any time_ «ūnā», adv. [[«ūnus», _one_]], _in the same place, at the same time_ «ūndecimus, -a, -um», numeral adj. [[«ūnus», _one_, + «decimus», _tenth_]], _eleventh_ «undique», adv. _from every quarter, on all sides, everywhere_ «ūnus, -a, -um» (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī»), numeral adj. _one; alone_ (§108) «urbs, -is», f. _city_ (§465.a) «urgeō, -ēre, ursī», ----, _press upon, crowd, hem in_ «ūrus, -ī», m. _wild ox, urus_ «ūsque», adv. _all the way, even_ «ūsus, -ūs», m. _use, advantage_ «ut», conj. with the subjv. _that, in order that, that not_ (with verbs of fearing), _so that, to_ (§350.1) «uter, -tra, -trum» (gen. «-īus», dat. «-ī»), interrog. pron. _which of two? which?_ (§108) «uterque, utraque, utrumque», indef. pron. _each of two, each, both_. «ab utrāque parte», _on both sides_ «ūtilis, -e», adj. [[«ūtor», _use_]], _useful_ «utrimque», adv. [[«uterque», _each of two_]], _on each side, on either hand_ «ūva, -ae», f. _grape, bunch of grapes_ «uxor, -ōris», f. _wife_ V «vāgīna, -ae», _sheath, scabbard_ «vagor, -ārī, -ātus sum», dep. verb, _wander_ «valeō, -ēre, -uī, -itūrus», _be powerful, be well_; in the imperative as a greeting, _farewell_. «plūrimum valēre», _have the most power_ «valētūdō, -inis», f. [[«valeō», _be well_]], _health_ «validus, -a, -um», adj. [[cf. «valeō», _be strong_]], _strong, able, well_ «vallēs, -is», f. _valley_ «vāllum, -ī», n. _rampart, earthworks_ «varius, -a, -um», adj. _bright-colored_ «vāstō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«vāstus», _empty_]], _(make empty), devastate, lay waste_ «vectīgal, -ālis», n. _tax, tribute_ «vehementer», adv. [[«vehemēns», _eager_]], compared «vehementius, vehementissimē», _eagerly, vehemently_ «vehō, -ere, vexī, vectus», _convey, carry_. In the passive often in the sense of _ride, sail_ «vel», conj. _or_. «vel ... vel», _either ... or_. Cf. «aut» «vēlōcitās, -ātis», f. [[«vēlōx», _swift_]], _swiftness_ «vēlōx, -ōcis», adj. _swift, fleet_ «vēlum, -ī», n. _sail_ «vēndō, -ere, vēndidī, vēnditus», _sell_ «veniō, -īre, vēnī, ventus», _come, go_ «ventus, -ī», m. _wind_ «verbum, -ī», n. _word_. «verba facere prō», _speak in behalf of_ «vereor, -ērī, -itus sum», dep. verb, _fear; reverence, respect_ (§493). Cf. «timeō» «Vergilius, Vergi´lī», m. _Vergil_, the poet «vergō, -ere, ----, ----», _turn, lie_ «vērō», adv. [[«vērus», _true_]], _in truth, surely;_ conj. _but, however_. «tum vērō», _then you may be sure_, introducing the climax of a story «vertō, -ere, -tī, -sus», _turn, change_. «tergum vertere», _retreat, flee_ «vērus, -a, -um», _true, actual_ «vesper, -erī», m. _evening_ «vester, -tra, -trum», possessive adj. and pron. _your, yours_ (§98) «vestīgium, vestī´gī», n. [[cf. «vestīgō», _track_]], _footstep, track, trace_ «vestīmentum, -ī», n. [[«vestis», _clothing_]], _garment_ «vestiō, -īre, -īvī, -ītus» [[«vestis», _clothing_]], _clothe, dress_ «vestis, -is», f. _clothing, attire, garment, robe_ «vestītus, -a, -um», adj. [[part. of «vestiō», _clothe_]], _clothed_ «Vesuvius, Vesu´vi», m. _Vesuvius_, the volcano near Pompeii. See map «veterānus, -a, -um», adj. _old, veteran_ «vetō, -āre, -uī, -itus», _forbid, prohibit_ «vexō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _trouble, annoy_ «via, -ae», f. _way, road, street; way, manner_. Cf. «iter» «viātor, -ōris», m. [[«via»]], _traveler_ «victor, -ōris», m. [[«vincō», _conquer_]], _conqueror, victor_. In apposition, with adj. force _ victorious_ «victōria, -ae», f. [«victor», _victor_], _victory_ «vīcus, -ī», m. _village_ «videō, -ēre, vīdī, vīsus», _see, perceive_. Pass. _be seen; seem_ (§420.d) «vigilia,-ae», f. [[«vigil» _awake_]], watch. «dē tertia vigilia», _about the third watch_ «vīgintī», indecl. numeral adj. _twenty_ «vīlicus, -ī», m. [[«vīlla», _farm_]], _steward, overseer of a farm_ «vīlla, -ae», f. _farm, villa_ «vinciō, -īre, vīnxī, vīnctus», _bind, tie,fetter_ «vincō, -ere, vīcī, victus», _conquer, defeat, overcome_. Cf. «subigō, superō» «vīnea, -ae», f. _shed_ (p. 219) «vīnum, -ī», n. _wine_ «violenter», adv. [[«violentus», _violent_]], compared «violentius, violentissimē», _violently, furiously_ «vir, virī», m. _man, husband; hero_ (§462.c) «virīlis, -e», adj. [[vir, _man_]], _manly_ «virtūs, -ūtis», f. [[«vir», _man_]], _manliness; courage, valor; virtue_ (§464.1) «vīs», («vīs»), f. _strength, power, might, violence_ (§468) «vīta, -ae», f. [[cf. «vīvō», _live_]], _life_, «vītam agere», _spend or pass life_ «vīto, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _shun, avoid_ «vīvō, -ere, vīxī, ----», _live_. Cf. «habitō, incolō» «vīvus, -a, -um», adj. [[cf. «vīvō», _live_]], _alive, living_ «vix», adv. _scarcely, hardly_ «vocō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus», _call, summon, invite_. Cf. «appellō, nōminō» «volō, -āre, -āvī, -ātūrus», _fly_ «volō, velle, voluī, ----», irreg. verb, _will, be willing; wish_ (§497). Cf. «cupio» «volūmen, -inis», n. _roll, book_ «Vorēnus, -ī», m. _Vore´nus_, a centurion «vōs», pers. pron.; _you_ (see «tū») (§480) «vōtum, -ī», n. [[neut. part. of «voveō», _vow_]], _vow, pledge, prayer_ «vōx, vōcis», f. [[cf. «vocō», _call_]], _voice, cry; word_ «vulnerō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus» [[«vulnus», _wound_]], _wound, hurt_ «vulnus, -eris», n. _wound, injury_ «vulpēs, -īs», f. _fox_ [Illustration: EQUES ROMANUS] ENGLISH-LATIN VOCABULARY This vocabulary contains only the words used in the English-Latin exercises. For details not given here, reference may be made to the Latin-English vocabulary. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4, after verbs indicate the conjugation. A «a, an», _commonly not translated_ «able (be)», possum, posse, potuī, ----(§495) «abode», domicilium, domici´lī, _n._ «about» (_adv._), circiter «about» (_prep._), dē, _with abl._ «about to», _expressed by fut. act. part._ «abundance», cōpia, -ae, _f._ «across», trāns, _with acc._ «active», ācer, ācris, ācre «advance», prōgredior, 3 «advantage», ūsus, -ūs, _m._ «advise», moneō, 2 «after» (_conj_.), postquam; _often expressed by the perf.part._ «after» (_prep._), post, _with acc._ «against», in, contrā, _with acc._ «aid», auxilium, auxi´lī, _n._ «all», omnis, -e; tōtus, -a, -um (§108) «allow», patior, 3 «ally», socius, socī, _m._ «almost», paene; ferē «alone», ūnus, -a, -um; sōlus, -a, -um (§108) «already», iam «also», quoque «always», semper «ambassador», lēgātus, -ī, _m._ «among», apud, _with acc._ «ancient», antīquus, -a, -um «and», et; atque (ac); -que «and so», itaque «Andromeda», Andromeda, -ae, _f._ «angry», īrātus, -a, um «animal», animal, -ālis, _n._ «announce», nūntiō, 1 «annoying», molestus, -a, -um «another», alius, -a, -ud (§109) «any», ūllus, -a, -um (§108) «any one, anything», quisquam, quicquam _or_ quidquam (§486) «appearance», fōrma, -ae, _f._ «appoint», creō, 1 «approach», adpropinquō, 1, _with dat._ «are», _used as auxiliary, not translated_; _as a copula_, sum (§494) «arise», orior, 4 «arm», bracchium, bracchī, _n._ «armed», armātus, -a, -um «arms», arma, -ōrum, _n. plur._ «army», exercitus, -ūs, _m._ «around», circum, _with acc._ «arrival», adventus, -us, _m._ «arrow», sagitta, -ae, _f._ «art of war», rēs mīlitāris «as possible», _expressed by_ quam _and superl._. «ask», petō, 3; quaerō, 3; rogō, 1 «assail», oppugnō, 1 «at», in, _with acc. or abl.; with names of towns, locative case or abl. without a preposition_ (§268); _time when, abl._ «at once», statim «at the beginning of summer», initā aestāte «Athens», Athēnae, -ārum, _f._ «attack», impetus, -us, _m._ «attempt», cōnor, 1; temptō, 1 «away from», ā _or_ ab, _with abl._ B «bad», malus, -a, -um «baggage», impedīmenta, -ōrum, _n. plur._ «bank», rīpa, -ae, _f._ «barbarians», barbarī, -ōrum, _m. plur._ «battle», proelium, proelī, _n._; pugna, -ae. _f._ «be», sum (§494) «be absent, be far», absum (§494) «be afraid», timeō, 2; vereor, 2 «be away», absum (§494) «be in command of», praesum, _with dat._ (§§494, 426) «be informed», certior fīō «be off, be distant», absum (§494) «be without», egeō, _with abl._ (§180) «beast (wild)», fera, -ae, _f._ «beautiful», pulcher, -chra, -chrum «because», quia; quod «because of», propter, _with acc._; _or abl. of cause_ «before, heretofore» (_adv._), anteā «before» (_prep._), ante, _with acc._; prō, _with abl._ «begin», incipiō, 3 «believe», crēdō, 3, _with dat._ (§153) «belong to», _predicate genitive_ (§409) «best», optimus, _superl. of_ bonus «betray», trādō, 3 «better», melior, _comp. of_ bonus «between», inter, _with acc._ «billow», fluctus, -us, _m._ «bird», avis, -is, _f._ (§243.1) «blood», sanguis, -inis, _m._ «body», corpus, -oris. _n._ «bold», audāx, -ācis; fortis, -e «boldly», audācter; fortiter «boldness», audācia, -ae, _f._ «booty», praeda, -ae, _f._ «both, each» (_of two_), uterque, utraque, utrumque «both ... and», et ... et «boy», puer, -erī, _m._ «brave», fortis, -e «bravely», fortiter «bridge», pōns, pontis, _m._ «bright», clārus, -a, -um «bring back», reportō, 1 «bring upon», īnferō, -ferre, -tulī, -lātus, _with acc. and dat._ (§426) «brother», frāter, -tris, _m._ «building», aedificium, aedifi´cī. _n._ «burn», cremō, 1; incendō, 3 «business», negōtium, negō´tī, _n._ «but, however», autem, sed «by», ā, ab, _with abl._; _denoting means, abl. alone_; _sometimes implied in a participle_ «by night», noctū C «Cæsar», Caesar, -aris, _m._ «calamity», calamitās, -ātis, _f._ «call», vocō, 1; appellō, 1; nōminō, 1 «call together», convocō, 1 «camp», castra, -ōrum, _n. plur._ «can, could», possum, posse, potuī, ---- (§495) «capture», capiō, 3; occupō, 1 «care», cūra, -ae, _f._ «care for», cūrō, 1 «careful», attentus, -a, -um «carefulness», dīligentia, -ae, _f._ «carry», ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus (§498); portō, 1 «carry on», gerō, 3 «cart», carrus, -ī, _m._ «cause», causa, -ae, _f._ «cavalry», equitātus, -ūs, _m._ «cease», cessō, 1 «Cepheus», Cēpheus, -ī, _m._ «certain (a)», quīdam, quaedam, quoddam (quiddam) (§485) «chicken», gallīna, -ae, _f._ «chief», prīnceps, -cipis, _m._ «children», līberī, -ōrum, _m.plur._ «choose», dēligō, 3 «choose, elect», creō, 1 «citizen», cīvis, -is, _m. and f._ (§243.1) «city», urbs, urbis, _f._ «clear», clārus, -a, -um «cohort», cohors, -rtis, _f._ «come», veniō, 4 «command», imperō, 1, _with dat._ (§45); iubeō, 2; praesum, _with dat._ (§426) «commit», committō, 3 «commonwealth», rēs pūblica, reī pūblicae «concerning», dē, _with abl._ «conquer», superō, 1; vincō, 3 «construct» (_a ditch_), perdūcō, 3 «consul», cōnsul, -ulis, _m._ «contrary to», contrā, _with acc._ «Corinth», Corinthus, -ī, _f._ «Cornelia», Cornēlia, -ae, _f._ «Cornelius», Cornēlius, Cornē´li, _m._ «corselet», lōrīca, -ae, _f._ «cottage», casa, -ae, _f._ «country», _as distinguished from the city_, rūs, rūris, _n.; as territory_, fīnēs, -ium, _m., plur. of_ fīnis «courage», virtūs, -ūtis, _f._ «crime», scelus, -eris, _n._ «cross», trānseō, 4 (§499) «crown», corōna, -ae, _f._ D «daily», cotīdiē «danger», perīculum, -ī, _n._ «daughter», fīlia, -ae, _f._ (§67) «day», diēs, -ēī, _m._ «daybreak», prīma lūx «dear», cārus, -a, -um «death», mors, mortis, _f._ «deed», rēs, reī, _f._ «deep», altus, -a, -um «defeat», calamitās, -ātis, _f._ «defend», dēfendō, 3 «delay» (_noun_), mora, -ae, _f._ «delay» (_verb_), moror, 1 «demand», postulō, 1 «dense», dēnsus, -a, -um «depart», discēdō, 3; exeō, 4; proficīscor, 3 «dependent», cliēns, -entis, _m._ «design», cōnsilium, consi´lī _n._ «desire», cupiō, 3 «destroy», dēleō, 2 «Diana», Diāna, -ae, _f._ «differ», differō, differre, distulī, dīlātus (§498) «different», dissimilis, -e «difficult», difficilis, -e «difficulty», difficultās, -ātis, _f._ «diligence», dīligentia, -ae, _f._ «dinner», cēna, -ae, _f._ «disaster», calamitās, -ātis, _f._ «distant (be)», absum, -esse, āfuī, āfutūrus (§494) «ditch», fossa, -ae, _f._ «do», agō, 3; faciō, 3; _when used as auxiliary, not translated_ «down from», dē, _with abl._ «drag», trahō, 3 «drive», agō, 3 «dwell», habitō, 1; incolō, 3; vīvō, 3 «dwelling», aedificium, aedifi´cī, _n._ E «each», quisque, quaeque, quidque (quodque) (§484) «each of two», uterque, utraque, utrumque «each other», inter _with acc. of a reflexive_ «eager», ācer, ācris, ācre; alacer, alacris, alacre «eager (be)», studeō, 2 «eagerness», studium, studī, _n._ «eagle», aquila, -ae, _f._ «easily», facile «easy», facilis, -e «either ... or», aut ... aut «empire», imperium, impe´rī, _n._ «employ», negōtium dō «encourage», hortor, 1 «enemy», hostis, -is, _m. and f._; inimīcus, -ī, _m._ «enough», satis «entire», tōtus, -a, -um (§108) «expectation», opīniō, -ōnis, _f._ «eye», oculus, -ī, _m._ F «faithless», perfidus, -a, -um «famous», clārus, -a, -um «far», longē «farmer», agricola, -ae, _m._ «farther», ulterior, -ius «father», pater, patris, _m._ «fatherland», patria, -ae, _f._ «favor», faveō, 2 «favorable», idōneus, -a,-um; secundus, -a, -um «fear», metus, -ūs, _m._; timor, -ōris, _m._ «fear, be afraid», timeō, 2 «few», paucī, -ae, -a «field», ager, agrī, _m._ «fifteen», quīndecim «fight», contendō, 3; pugnō, 1 «find», reperiō, 4 «finish», cōnficiō, 3 «fire», ignis, -is, _m._ (§243.1) «firmness», cōnstantia, -ae, _f._ «first», prīmus, -a, -um «flee», fugiō, 3 «flight», fuga, -ae, _f._ «fly», volō, 1 «foe», see «enemy» «follow close after», subsequor, 3 «food», cibus, -ī, _m._ «foot», pēs, pedis, _m._ «foot-soldier», pedes, -itis, _m._ «for» (_conj._), enim, nam «for» (_prep._), _sign of dat._; dē, prō, _with abl.; to express purpose_, ad, _with gerundive; implied in acc. of time and of extent of space_ «for a long time», diū «forbid», vetō, 1 «forces», cōpiae, -ārum, _f., plur. of_ cōpia «forest», silva, -ae, _f._ «fort», castellum, -ī, _n._; castrum, -ī, _n._ «fortification», mūnitiō, -ōnis, _f._ «fortify», mūniō, 4 «fortune», fortūna, -ae, _f._ «fourth», quārtus, -a, -um «free», līber, -era, -erum «free, liberate», līberō, 1 «frequent», crēber, -bra, -brum «friend», amīcus, -ī, _m._ «friendly» (_adj._), amīcus, -a, -um «friendly» (_adv._), amīcē «friendship», amīcitia, -ae, _f._ «frighten», perterreō, 2 «from», ā _or_ ab, dē, ē, ex, _with abl._ _Often expressed by the separative ablative without a prep._ «from each other», inter, _with acc. of a reflexive pron._ «full», plēnus, -a, -um G «Galba», Galba, -ae, _m._ _garland_, corōna, -ae, _f._ «garrison», praesidium, praesi´dī, _n._ «gate», porta, -ae, _f._ «Gaul», Gallia, -ae, _f._ «Gaul» («a»), Gallus, -ī, _m._ «general», imperātor, -ōris, _m._ «Geneva», Genāva, -ae, _f._ «gentle», lēnis, -e «German», Germānus, -a, -um «Germans» («the»), Germānī, -ōrum, _m. plur_. «Germany», Germānia, -ae, _f._ «get» (_dinner_), parō, 1 «girl», puella, -ae, _f._ «give», dō, dare, dedī, datus «give over, surrender», dēdō, 3; trādō, 3 «give up», omittō, 3 «go», eō, 4 (§499) «go forth», prōgredior, 3 «god», deus, -ī, _m._ (§468) «goddess», dea, -ae, _f._ (§67) «gold», aurum, -ī, _n._ «good», bonus, -a, -um «grain», frūmentum, -ī, _n._ «grain supply», rēs frūmentāria «great», ingēns, -entis; magnus, -a, -um «greatest», maximus, -a, -um; summus, -a, -um «guard», praesidium, praesi´dī, _n._ H «hand», manus, -ūs, _f._ «happy», laetus, -a, -um «harbor», portus, -ūs, _m._ «hasten», contendō, 3; mātūrō, 1; properō, 1 «hateful», invīsus, -a, -um «haughty», superbus, -a, -um «have», habeō, 2 «have no power», nihil possum «he», is; hic; iste; ille; _or not expressed_ «head», caput, -itis, _n._ «hear», audiō «heart», animus, -ī, _m._ «heavy», gravis, -e «Helvetii» («the»), Helvētiī, -ōrum, _m. plur._ «hem in», contineō, 2 «hen», gallīna, -ae, _f._ «her», eius; huius; istīus; illīus; _reflexive_, suus, -a, -um (§116) «hide», abdō, 3 «high», altus, -a, -um «highest», summus, -a, -um «hill», collis, -is, _m._ «himself», suī. See «self» «hindrance», impedīmentum, -ī, _n._ «his», eius; huius; istīus; illīus; _reflexive_, suus, -a, -um (§116) «hither», citerior, -ius (§315) «hold», teneō, 2 «home», domus, -ūs, _f._ (§468). «at home», domī (§267) «hope» (_noun_), spēs, speī, _f._ «hope» (_verb_), spērō, 1 «horse», equus, -ī, _m._ «horseman», eques, -itis, _m._ «hostage», obses, -idis, _m. and f._ «hostile», inimīcus, -a, -um «hour», hōra, -ae, _f._ «house», domicilium, domici´lī, _n._; domus, -ūs, _f._ (§468) «hurl», iaciō, 3 I «I», ego (§280); _or not expressed_ «if», sī. «if not», nisi «ill», aeger, -gra, -grum «immediately», statim «in» (_of place_), in, _with abl._; (of time or of specification) _abl. without prep._ «in order that», ut, _with subjv._; «in order that not, lest», nē, _with subjv._ «in vain», frūstrā «industry», dīligentia, -ae, _f._ «inflict injuries upon», iniūriās īnferō _with dat._ (§426) «inflict punishment on», supplicium sūmō de «inform some one», aliquem certiōrem faciō «injure», noceō, 2, _with dat._ (§153) «injury», iniūria, -ae, _f._ «into», in, _with acc._ «intrust», committō, 3; mandō, 1 «invite», vocō, 1 «is», _used as auxiliary, not translated_; _as a copula_, sum (§494) «island», īnsula, -ae, _f._ «it», is; hie; iste; ille; _or not expressed_ «Italy», Italia, -ae, _f._ «its», eius; huius; istīus; illīus; _reflexive_, suus, -a, -um (§116) «itself», suī. See «self» J «join battle», proelium committō «journey», iter, itineris, _n._ (§468) «judge» (_noun_), iūdex, -icis, _m._ «judge» (_verb_), iūdicō, 1 «Julia», Iūlia, -ae, _f._ «just now», nūper K «keep», contineō, 2; prohibeo, 2; teneō, 2 «keep on doing something», _expressed by the impf. indic._ «kill», interficiō, 3; necō, 1; occīdō, 3 «king», rēx, rēgis, _m._ «kingdom», rēgnum, -ī, _n._ «know», cognōscō, 3, _in perf._; sciō, 4 L «labor» (_noun_), labor, -ōris, _m._ «labor» (_verb_), labōrō, 1 «lack» (_noun_), inopia, -ae, _f._ «lack» (_verb_), egeō, 2, _with abl._ (§180) «lady», domina, -ae, _f._ «lake», lacus, -ūs, _m._ (§260.2) «land», terra, -ae, _f._ «language», lingua, -ae, _f._ «large», ingēns, -entis; magnus, -a, -um «larger», maior, maius «lately», nūper «Latona», Lātōna, -ae, _f._ «law», lēx, lēgis, _f._ «lay waste», vāstō, 1 «lead», dūco, 3 «leader», dux, ducis, _m. and f._ «learn, know», cognōscō, 3 «leave, depart from», discēdō, 3 «leave behind, abandon», relinquō, 3 «left», sinister, -tra, -trum «legion», legiō, -ōnis, _f._ «legionaries», legiōnāriī, -ōrum, _m. plur._ «length», longitūdō, -inis, _f._ «lest», nē, _with subjv._ «letter» (_of the alphabet_), littera, -ae, _f_; (_an epistle_) litterae, -ārum, _f. plur_. «lieutenant», lēgātus, -ī, _m._ «light», lūx, lūcis, _f._ «like» (_adj._), similis, -e «like, love», amō, 1 «line of battle», aciēs, aciēī, _f._ «little», parvus, -a, -um «live», habitō, 1; incolō, 3; vīvō, 3 «long», longus, -a, -um «long, for a long time», diū «long for», dēsīderō, 1 «look after», cūrō, 1 «love», amō, 1 M «maid, maid servant», ancilla, -ae,_f._ «make», faciō, 3 «make war upon», bellum īnferō _with dat._ (§426) «man», homō, -inis, _m. and f._; vir, virī, _m._ «man-of-war», nāvis longa «many», multī, -ae, -a, _plur. of_ multus «march», iter, itineris, _n._ (§468) «Mark», Mārcus, -ī, _m._ «marriage», mātrimōnium, mātrimō´nī, _n._ «master», dominus, -ī, _m._; magīster, -trī, _m._ «matter», negōtium, negō´tī, _n._; rēs, reī, _f._ «means, by means of», _the abl._ «messenger», nūntius, nūntī, _m._ «midnight», media nox «mile», mīlle passuum (§331.b) «miles», mīlia passuum «mind», animus, -ī, _m._; mēns, mentis, _f._ «mine», meus, -a, -um «mistress», domina, -ae, _f._ «money», pecūnia, -ae, _f._ «monster», mōnstrum, -ī, _n._ «month», mēnsis, -is, _m._ «moon», lūna, -ae, _f._ «more» (_adj._), plūs, plūris (§313); _or a comparative. Adverb_, magis «most» (_adj._), plūrimus, -a, -um; _superl. degree. Adverb_, maximē; plūrimum «mother», māter, mātris, _f._ «mountain», mōns, montis, _m._ «move», moveō, 2 «moved», commōtus, -a, -um «much (by)», multō «multitude», multitūdō, -inis. _f._ «my», meus, -a, -um «myself», mē, _reflexive_. See «self» N «name», nōmen, -inis, _n._ «nation», gēns, gentis, _f._ «near», propinquus, -a, -um «nearest», proximus, -a, -um «nearly», ferē «neighbor», fīnitimus, -ī, _in._ «neighboring», fīinitimus, -a, -um «neither», neque _or_ nec; «neither ... nor», neque (nec) ... neque (nec) «never», numquam «nevertheless», tamen «new», novus, -a, -um «next day», postrīdiē eius diēī «next to», proximus, -a, -um «night», nox, noctis, _f._ «nine», novem «no», minimē; _or repeat verb with a negative_ (§210) «no, none», nūllus, -a, -um (§109) «no one», nēmō, nūllīus «nor», neque _or_ nec «not», nōn «not even», nē ... quidem «not only ... but also», nōn sōlum ... sed etiam «nothing», nihil _or_ nihilum, -ī, _n._ «now», nunc «number», numerus, -ī, _m._ O «obey», pāreō, 2, _with dat._ (§153) «of», _sign of gen._; dē, _with abl._; «out of», ē _or_ ex, _with abl._ «often», saepe «on» (_of place_), in, _with abl._; (_of time_) _abl. without prep._ «on account of», propter, _with acc._; _or abl. of cause._ «on all sides», undique «once» (_upon a time_), ōlim «one», ūnus, -a, -um (§108) «one ... another», alius ... alius (§110) «only» (_adv._), sōlum; tantum «opportune», opportunus, -a, -um «opposite», adversus, -a, -um «oracle», ōrāculum, -ī, _n._ «orator», ōrātor, -ōris, _m._ «order», imperō, 1; iubeō, 2 «ornament», ōrnāmentum, -ī, _n._ «other», alius, -a, -ud (§109) «others (the)», reliquī, -ōrum, _m. plur._ «ought», dēbeō, 2 «our», noster, -tra, -trum «ourselves», nōs, _as reflexive object._ See «self» «overcome», superō, 1; vincō, 3 «own (his, her, its, their)», suus, -a, -um P «part», pars, partis, _f._ «peace», pāx, pācis, _f._ «people», populus, -ī, _m._ «Perseus», Perseus, -ī, _m._ «persuade», persuādeō, 2, _with dat._ (§153) «pitch camp», castra pōnō «place» (_noun_), locus, -ī, _m._ «place, arrange», conlocō, 1 «place, put», pōnō, 3 «place in command», praeficiō, 3, _with acc. and dat._ (§426) «plan (a)», cōnsilium, cōnsi´lī, _n._ «please», placeō, 2, _with dat._ (§154) «pleasing», grātus, -a, -um «plow», arō, 1 «Pompeii», Pompēiī, -ōrum, _m. plur._ «possible (as)», _expressed by_ quam _and superl_. «powerful (be)», valeō, 2 «praise», laudō, 1 «prefer», mālō, mālle, māluī, ---- (§497) «prepare for», parō, 1, _with acc._ «press hard», premō, 3 «protection», fidēs, fideī, _f._ «province», prōvincia, -ae, _f._ «public», pūblicus, -a, -um «Publius», Pūblius, Pūblī, _m._ «punishment», poena, -ae, _f._; supplicium, suppli´cī, _n._ «purpose, for the purpose of», ut, quī, _or_ quō, _with subjv._; ad, _with gerund or gerundive_; causā, _following the genitive of a gerund or gerundive_ «pursue», īnsequor, 3 Q «queen», rēgīna, -ae, _f._ «quickly», celeriter «quite», _expressed by the comp. degree_ R «rampart», vāllum, -ī, _n._ «rear», novissimum agmen «reason», causa, -ae, _f._ «receive», accipiō, 3; excipiō, 3 «recent», recēns, -entis «recently», nūper «redoubt», castellum, -ī, _n._ «refuse», recūsō, 1 «remain», maneō, 2 «remaining», reliquus, -a, -um «reply», respondeō, 2 «report» (_noun_), fama, -ae, _f._; rūmor, -ōris, _m._ «report» (_verb_), adferō; dēferō; referō (§498) «republic», rēs pūblica «require», postulō, 1 «resist», resistō, 3, _with dat._ (§154) «rest (the)», reliquī, -ōrum, _m. plur._ «restrain», contineō, 2 «retainer», cliēns, -entis, _m._ «retreat», pedem referō; terga vertō «return», redeō, 4; revertor, 3 «revolution», rēs novae «Rhine», Rhēnus, -ī, _m._ «right», dexter, -tra, -trum «river», flūmen, -inis, _n._; fluvius, fluvī, _m._ «road», via, -ae, _f._ «Roman», Rōmānus, -a, -um «Rome», Rōma, -ae, _f._ «row», ōrdō, -inis, _m._ «rule», regō, 3 «rumor», fāma, -ae, _f._; rūmor, -ōris, _m._ «run», currō, 3 S «sacrifice», sacrum, -ī, _n._ «safety», salūs, -ūtis, _f._ «sail», nāvigō, 1 «sailor», nauta, -ae, _m._ «sake, for the sake of», causā, _following a gen._ «same», īdem, eadem, idem (§287) «savages», barbarī, -ōrum, _m. plur._ «save», servō, 1 «say», dīcō, 3 «school», lūdus, -ī, _m._; schola, -ae, _f._ «scout», explōrātor, -ōris, _m._ «sea», mare, -is, _n._ «second», secundus, -a, -um «see», videō, 2 «seek», petō, 3 «seem», videor, 2, _passive of_ videō «seize», occupō, 1; rapiō, 3 «self», ipse, -a, -um (§286); suī (§281) «send», mittō, 3 «set fire to», incendō, 3 «set out», proficīscor, 3 «seven», septem «Sextus», Sextus, -ī, _m._ «she», ea; haec; ista; illa (§115); _or not expressed_ «ship», nāvis, -is, _f._ (§243.1) «short», brevis, -e «shout», clāmor, -ōris, _m._ «show», dēmōnstrō, 1 «Sicily», Sicilia, -ae, _f._ «sick», aeger, -gra, -grum «side», latus, -eris, _n._ «siege», obsidiō, -ōnis, _f._ «since», cum, _with subjv._ (§396); _the abl. abs._ (§381) «sing», canō, 3; cantō, 1 «sister», soror, -ōris, _f._ «sit», sedeō, 2 «size», magnitūdō, -inis, _f._ «skillful», perītus, -a, -um «slave», servus, -ī, _m._ «slavery», servitiūs, -ūtis, _f._ «slow», tardus, -a, -um «small», parvus, -a, -um «snatch», rapiō, 3 «so», ita; sīc; tam «so great», tantus, -a, -um «so that», ut; «so that not», ut nōn «soldier», mīles, -itis, _m._ «some», _often not expressed_; quis (quī), qua (quae), quid (quod); aliquī, aliqua, aliquod «some one», quis; aliquis (§487) «some ... others», aliī ... aliī (§110) «something», quid; aliquid (§487) «son», fīlius, fīlī, _m._ «soon», mox «space», spatium, spatī, _n._ «spear», pīlum, -ī, _n._ «spirited», ācer, ācris, ācre; alacer, alacris, alacre «spring», fōns, fontis, _m._ «spur», calcar, -āris, _n._ «stand», stō, 1 «state», cīvitās, -ātis, _f._ «station», conlocō, 1 «steadiness», cōnstantia, -ae, _f._ «stone», lapis, -idis, _m._ «storm», oppugnō, 1 «story», fābula, -ae, _f._ «street», via, -ae, _f._ «strength», vīs, (vīs), _f._ «strong», fortis, -e; validus, -a, -um «sturdy», validus, -a, -um «such», tālis, -e «suddenly», subitō «suffer punishment», supplicium dō «sufficiently», satis «suitable», idōneus, -a, -um «summer», aestās, -ātis, _f._ «sun», sōl, sōlis, _m._ «supplies», commeātus, -ūs, _m._ «surrender», trādō, 3 «suspect», suspicor, 1 «swift», celer, -eris, -ere; vēlōx, -ōcis «sword», gladius, gladī, _m._ T «take, capture», capiō, 3 «take part in», intersum, -esse, -fuī, -futūrus, _with dat._ (§426) «take possession of», occupō, 1 «tall», altus, -a, -um «task», opus, operis, _n._ «teach», doceō, 2 «teacher», magister, -trī, _m._ «tear» (_noun_), lacrima, -ae, _f._ «tell», dīcō, 3; nārrō, 1 «ten», decem «terrified», perterritus, -a, -um «terrify», perterreō, 2 «than», quam «that» (_conj. after verbs of saying and the like_), _not expressed_ «that» (_pron._), is; iste; ille «that, in order that», _in purpose clauses_, ut; _after verbs of fearing_, nē (§§349, 366, 372) «that not, lest», _in purpose clauses_, nē; _after verbs of fearing_, ut (§§349, 366, 372) «the», _not expressed_ «their», _gen. plur. of_ is; _reflexive_, suus, -a, -um (§116) «their own», suus, -a, -um (§116) «then, at that time», tum «then, in the next place», deinde, tum «there», _as expletive, not expressed_ «there, in that place», ibi «therefore», itaque «they», iī; hī; istī; illī; _or not expressed_ «think», arbitror, 1; exīstimō, 1; putō, 1 «third», tertius, -a, -um «this», hic, haec, hoc; is, ea, id «though», cum. _with subjv._ (§396) «thousand», mīlle (§479) «three», trēs, tria (§479) «through», per, _with acc._ «thy», tuus, -a, -um «time», tempus, -oris, _n._ «to», _sign of dat._; ad, in, _with acc._; _expressing purpose_, ut, quī, _with subjv._; ad, _with gerund or gerundive_ «to each other», inter, _with acc. of a reflexive pron._ «to-day», hodiē «tooth», dēns, dentis, _m._ «top of», summus, -a, -um «tower», turris, -is, _f._ (§243.2) «town», oppidum, -ī, _n._ «townsman», oppidānus, -ī, _m._ «trace», vestīgium, vestī´gī, _n._ «trader», mercātor, -ōris, _m._ «train», exerceō, 2 «tree», arbor, -oris, _f._ «tribe», gēns, gentis, _f._ «troops», cōpiae, -ārum, _f. plur._ «true», vērus, -a, -um «trumpet», tuba, -ae, _f._ «try», cōnor, 1; temptō, 1 «twelve», duodecim «two», duo, duae, duo (§479) U «under», sub, _with acc. or abl._ «undertake», suscipiō, 3 «unharmed», incolumis, -e «unless», nisi «unlike», dissimilis, -e «unwilling» («be»), nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, ---- (§497) «up to», sub, _with acc._ «us», nōs, _acc. plur. of_ ego V «very», _superl. degree_; maximē; ipse, -a, -um (§285) «victor», victor, -ōris, _m._ «victory», victōria, -ae, _f._ «village», vīcus, -ī, _m._ «violence», vīs, (vīs), _f._ «violently», vehementer «voice», vōx, vōcis, _f._ W «wage», gerō, 3 «wagon», carrus. -ī, _m._ «wall», mūrus, -ī, _m._ «want», inopia, -ae, _f._ «war», bellum, -ī, _n._ «watch», vigilia, -ae, _f._ «water», aqua, -ae, _f._ «wave», fluctus, -ūs, _m._ «way», iter, itineris, _n._ (§468); via, -ae, _f._ «way, manner», modus, -ī, _m._ «we», nōs, _plur. of_ ego; _or not expressed_ «weak», īnfīrmus, -a, -um «weapons», arma, -ōrum, _n. plur._; tēla, -ōrum, _n. plur._ «wear», gerō, 3 «weary», dēfessus, -a, -um «what», quis (quī), quae, quid (quod) (§483) «when», ubi; cum (§396); _often expressed by a participle_ «where», ubi «which», quī, quae, quod (§482); «which of two», uter, utra, utrum (§108) «while», _expressed by a participle_ «whither», quō «who» (_rel._), quī, quae (§482); (_interrog._) quis (§483) «whole», tōtus, -a, -um (§108) «whose», cuius; quōrum, quārum, quōrum, _gen. of_ quī, quae, quod, _rel._; _or of_ quis, quid, _interrog_. «why», cūr «wicked», malus, -a, -um «wide», lātus, -a, -um «width», lātitūdō, -inis, _f._ «wild beast», fera, -ae, _f._ «willing» («be»), volō, velle, voluī, ---- (§497) «win» (_a victory_), reportō, 1 «wind», ventus, -ī, _m._ «wine», vīnum, -ī, _n._ «wing», cornū, -ūs, _n._ «winter», hiems, -emis, _f._ «wisdom», cōnsilium, consi´lī, _n._ «wish», cupiō, 3; volō, velle, voluī, ---- (§497); «wish not», nōlō, nōlle, nōluī, ---- (§497) «with», cum, _with abl.; sometimes abl. alone_ «withdraw», sē recipere «without», sine, _with abl._ «woman», fēmina, -ae, _f._; mulier, -eris, _f._ «wonderful», mīrus, -a, -um «word», verbum, -ī, _n._ «work», labor, -ōris, _m._; opus, -eris, _n._ «worse», peior, peius, _comp. of_ malus «worst», pessimus, -a, -um, _superl. of_ malus «wound» (_noun_), vulnus, -eris, _n._ «wound» (_verb_), vulnerō, 1 «wreath», corōna, -ae, _f._ «wretched», miser, -era, -erum «wrong», iniūria, -ae, _f._ Y «year», annus, -ī, _m._ «yes», certē; ita; vērō; _or, more usually, repeat the verb_ (§210) «yonder (that)», ille, -a, -ud «you», _sing_. tū; _plur_. vōs (§480); _or not expressed_ «your», _sing_. tuus, -a, -um; _plur._ vester, -tra, -trum (§98.b) Z «zeal», studium, studī, _n._ INDEX The numbers in all cases refer to sections. «ā»-declension of nouns, 57, 461 «ā»-verbs, conjugation of, 488 «ablative» case, 48, 50 absolute, 381 after a comparative, 309 of accompaniment, 104 of agent, 181 of cause, 102 of description, 444, 445 of manner, 105 of means or instrument, 103 of measure of difference, 317 of place from which, 179 of place where, 265 of separation, 180 of specification, 398 of time, 275 «accent», 14-16 «accompaniment» abl. of, 104 «accusative» case, 33 as subject of the infinitive, 214 object, 37 of duration and extent, 336 of place to which, 263, 266 predicate, 392 with prepositions, 340 «adjectives», 54, 55 agreement, 65 comparison regular, 301 by adverbs, 302 irregular, 307, 311, 312, 315 declension of comparatives, 303 of first and second declensions, 83, 93, 469 of third declension, 250-257, 471 with the dative, 143 «adverbs», 319 comparison, 320, 323 formation regular, 320, 321 irregular, 322, 323 «agent» expressed by the abl. with _ā_ or _ab_, 181 «agreement» of adjectives, 65, 215.a of appositives, 81 of predicate nouns, 76 of relative pronouns, 224 of verbs, 28 «aliquis», 487 «alius», 108, 110, 470 «alphabet», 1-3 «alter», 108, 110 «antepenult», 9.3; accent of, 15 «apposition», 80, 81 «article» not used in Latin, 22.a «base», 58 «cardinal numerals», 327-329, 478 «case», 32.2 «causal clauses» with _cum_, 395, 396 «cause», expressed by the abl., 102 «characteristic» subjv. of, 389, 390 «comparative» declension of, 303 «comparison» abl. of, 309 degrees of, 300 of adjectives, 300-315 irregular, 311-315, 473, 475 of adverbs regular, 320-476 irregular, 323, 477 positive wanting, 315 six adjectives in _-lis_, 307 «complementary infinitive», 215 «compound verbs» with the dative, 425, 426 «concessive» «clauses» with _cum_, 395, 396 «conjugation stems», 184 «conjugations» the four regular, 126, 488-491 irregular, 494-500 «consonants», 2 «copula», 21 «cum» conjunction, 395 «cum» preposition, 209 «dative» case, 43 of indirect object, 44, 45 of purpose, or end for which, 437 with adjectives, 143 with compound verbs, 426 with special verbs, 153 «dea» declension of, 67 «declension», 23, 32 «degree of difference» expressed by the abl., 317 «demonstrative adjectives and pronouns», 112-115, 290-292, 481 «deponent verbs», 338, 339, 493 «descriptive ablative and genitive», 441-445 «descriptive relative clause» with the subjv., 389, 390 «deus» declension of, 468 «difference, measure of», 316, 317 «diphthongs», 6 «direct statements», 414 «distributive numerals», 327.3, 334 «domī» locative, 267 «domus» declension of, 468 «duo» declension of, 479 «duration» of time, expressed by the acc., 336 «ē»-declension of nouns, 272, 273, 467 «ē»-verbs, conjugation of, 489 «ĕ»-verbs, conjugation of, 490 «ego» declension of, 280, 480 «enclitics», 16 «eō» conjugation of, 499 «extent» of space expressed by the acc., 336 «fearing» subjv. after verbs of, 370-372 «ferō» conjugation of, 498 «fifth or ē-declension», 272, 273, 467 «fīlia» declension of, 67 «fīlius» declension of, 87-89 «finite verb» defined, 173 «fīō» conjugation of, 500 «first conjugation», 488 «first or ā-declension», 57, 461 «fourth conjugation», 491 «fourth or u-declension», 259, 260, 466 «from» how expressed, 178-181 «future participle» formation of, 374.c «future perfect» formation of active, 187.3 passive, 202 «future tense» formation of, 137, 156 «gender» in English and in Latin, 60 in the first declension, 61 in the second declension, 72 in the third declension, 247 in the fourth declension, 260 in the fifth declension, 272 «general observations on declension», 74 «genitive» case English equivalents of, 33 of description, 443, 445 of nouns in _-ius_ and _-ium_, 87 partitive, 331 possessive, 38, 409 «gerund» a verbal noun, 402, 403 «gerundive» a verbal adjective, 404 with _ad_ to express purpose, 407 «hic» declension and use of, 290, 291 «how to read Latin», 17 «i» consonant, 3 «i»-stems of nouns, 231, 241-244 «ī»-verbs conjugation of, 491 «īdem» declension of, 287, 481 «iēns» declension of, 472 «ille» declension and use of, 290-293, 481 «imperative» formation of, 161, 175 irregular, 161.2 in commands, 161 «imperfect indicative», formation and use of, 133, 134, 165.1 «imperfect subjunctive», 354 «indefinite pronouns and adjectives», 296, 297, 484-487 «independent clauses», 219 «indirect object», 44, 45 «indirect questions», 430-432 «indirect statements», 414-419 «infinitive» as object, 213 as subject, 216 complementary, 215 definition of, 173 does not express purpose, 352 formation of, 126, 174, 205, 206 in indirect statements, 415-410 used as in English, 213-216 «inflection» defined, 23 «instrument» abl. of, 100.b, 103 «intensive pronoun» _ipse_, declension and use of, 285, 286, 481 «interrogative pronouns and adjectives», 225-227, 483 «intransitive verbs», defined, 20.a with the dative, 153 «iō-verbs of the third conj.», 492 «ipse» declension and use of, 285, 481 «irregular adjectives», 108 «irregular comparison» of adjectives, 307 311, 312 of adverbs, 323 «irregular nouns», 67, 246, 468 «irregular verbs», 494-500 «is» declension and use of, 113-116 «iste» declension and use of, 290, 292, 481 «iter» declension of, 468 «Latin word order», 68 «locative» case, 267 «magis and maximē» comparison by, 302 «mālō» conjugation of, 4.97 «manner» abl. of, 105 «means» abl. of, 103 «measure of difference» abl. of, 316, 317 «mīlle», declension of, 479 construction with, 331.a,b «moods», defined, 121 «-ne», enclitic in questions, 210 «nē», conj., _that not, lest_ with negative clauses of purpose, 350.II with verbs of fearing, 370 «nine irregular adjectives», 108-110 «nōlō» conjugation of, 497 «nominative» case, 35, 36 «nōnne» in questions, 210 «nōs» declension of, 280, 480 «nouns», 19. 2 first declension, 57, 461 second declension, 71-74,87-92,462 third declension, 230-247, 463-465 fourth declension, 259, 260, 466 fifth declension, 272, 273, 467 «num», in questions, 210 «number», 24 «numerals», 327-334, 478, 479 «o»-declension of nouns, 71-74, 87-92, 462 «object», 20 direct, 37 indirect, 44, 45 «order of words», 68 «ordinal numerals», 327. 2, 478 «participial stem», 201.2 «participles», defined, 203 agreement of, 204 formation, of present, 374.b of perfect, 201 of future, 374.c,d of deponent verbs, 375 tenses of, 376 translated by a clause, 377 «partitive genitive», 330, 331 «passive voice» defined, 163 formation of, 164, 202 «penult», 9.3 accent of, 15 «perfect indicative» formation, in the active, 185, 186 in the passive, 202 meaning of, 190 definite, 190 indefinite, 190 distinguished from the imperfect, 190 «perfect infinitive» active, 195 passive, 205 «perfect passive participle», 201 «perfect stem», 185 «perfect subjunctive» active, 361 passive, 362 «person», 122 «personal endings» active, 122 passive, 164 «personal pronouns», 280, 480 «place» where, whither, whence, 263-265 names of towns and _domus_ and _rūs_, 266-268 «pluperfect indicative» active, 187.2 passive, 202 «pluperfect subjunctive» active, 361 passive, 363 «plūs» declension of, 313 «possessive pronouns», 97, 98 «possum» conjugation of, 495 «predicate» defined, 19 «predicate adjective» defined, 55 «predicate noun», 75, 76 «prepositions» with the abl., 209 with the acc., 340 «present indicative», 128, 130, 147 «present stem», 126.a «present subjunctive», 344 «primary tenses», 356 «principal parts», 183 «pronouns» classification of, 278 defined, 19.2.a demonstrative, 481 indefinite, 297, 484-487 intensive, 285, 286, 481 interrogative, 483 personal, 480 possessive, 97, 98 reflexive, 281 relative, 220, 221 «pronunciation», 4-7 «prōsum» conjugation of, 496 «purpose» dative of, 436, 437 expressed by the gerund or gerundive with _ad_, 407 not expressed by the infinitive, 352 subjunctive of, 348-350, 365-367 «quality» gen. or abl. of, 441-445 «quam» with a comparative, 308 «quantity», 11-13 «questions» direct, 210 indirect, 430-432 «quī» declension and use of, 220,221, 482 «quīdam» declension of, 485 «quis» declension and use of, 225-227, 483 «quisquam» declension of, 486 «quisque» declension of, 484 «reflexive pronouns», 281 «relative clauses of characteristic or description», 389, 390 «relative clauses of purpose», 348, 349 «relative pronouns», 220, 221 «result clauses», 384-387 «reviews», 502-528 «rūs» constructions of, 266 «sē» distinguished from _ipse_, 285.a «second conjugation», 489 «second or o-declension», 71-93, 462 «sentences» simple, complex, compound, 219 «separation» abl. of, 180 «separative ablative», 178-181 «sequence of tenses», 356-358 «space» extent of, expressed by the acc., 336 «specification» abl. of, 398 «stems» of nouns, 230 of verbs, 184 «subject» defined, 19.2 of the infinitive, 213, 214 «subjunctive» formation of the present, 344 of the imperfect, 354 of the perfect, 361, 362 of the pluperfect, 361.c, 363 «subjunctive constructions» characteristic or description, 389, 390 indirect questions, 430-432 purpose, 349, 366, 372 result, 385, 386 time, cause, or concession, with _cum_, 395, 396 «subjunctive ideas», 346 «subjunctive tenses», 342, 343 «subordinate clauses», 219 «suī» declension of, 281, 480 «sum» conjugation of, 494 «suus» use of, 98.c, 116 «syllables», 8 division of, 9 quantity of, 13 «syntax» rules of, 501 «temporal clauses» with _cum_, 395, 396 «tense» defined, 120 «tense signs» imperfect, 133 future, 137, 156 pluperfect active, 187.2 future perfect active, 187.3 «tenses» primary and secondary, 356 sequence of, 357, 358 «third conjugation», 490, 492 «third declension of nouns» classes, 231, 463 consonant stems, 232-238, 464 gender, 247 i-stems, 241-244, 465 irregular nouns, 246 «time» abl. of, 275 «time» acc. of, 336 «towns» rules for names of, 266, 267, 268 «transitive verb», 20.a «trēs» declension of, 479 «tū» declension of, 280, 480 «tuus» compared with _vester_, 98. b «u»-declension of nouns, 259, 260, 466 «ultima», 9. 3 «verbs» agreement of, 28 conjugation of, 126, 488-491 deponent, 338, 339, 493 irregular, 494-500 personal endings of, 122, 164 principal parts of, 183 «vester» compared with _tuus_, 98.b «vīs» declension of, 468 «vocabularies» English-Latin, pp. 332-343 Latin-English, pp. 299-331 special, pp. 283-298 «vocative» case, 56.a of nouns in _-us_ of the second declension, 73.b of proper nouns in _-ius_ and of _fīlius_, 88 «voice» defined, 163 «volō» conjugation of, 497 «vōs» declension of, 280, 480 «vowels» sounds of, 5, 6 quantity of, 12 DISPLAY PROBLEMS The illustration in section 77 with interlocked text may not display properly on all browsers. Picture by Itself Two grammatical diagrams were given as images. They are shown here in plain-text format. Prepositions, section 179: _________ ā or ab | | ē or ex /____________| _____|_____________\ \ | Place | / |_________| | | dē | V Demonstrative pronouns, section 290: hic iste ille SPEAKER ---------->-------------->----------------> _this_, _he_; _that_, _he_; _that_, _he_ (near); (remote); (more remote) *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LATIN FOR BEGINNERS *** ***** This file should be named 18251-0.txt or 18251-0.zip ***** This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: https://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/2/5/18251/ Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will be renamed. 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