The Project Gutenberg eBook of West African forests and forestry
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States,
you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: West African forests and forestry
Author: Arthur Harold Unwin
Contributor: John McEwan Dalziel
Release date: June 11, 2026 [eBook #78844]
Language: English
Original publication: London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1920
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/78844
Credits: Galo Flordelis (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/NCSU Libraries)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WEST AFRICAN FORESTS AND FORESTRY ***
WEST AFRICAN FORESTS
AND FORESTRY
[Illustration: FIG. 1.—=Mixed Evergreen Forest on the edge of Barombo
Lake (Elephant Lake), Cotton Trees in foreground.=]
Frontispiece.
WEST AFRICAN FORESTS
AND FORESTRY
BY
A. HAROLD UNWIN
D.OEC., M.CAN., S.F.E.
Late Senior Conservator of Forests, Nigeria
WITH 110 ILLUSTRATIONS
BY THE AUTHOR
T. FISHER UNWIN LTD
LONDON: ADELPHI TERRACE
_First published in 1920_
_(All rights reserved)_
TO
MY MOTHER
PREFACE
While going round inspecting timber areas being worked by European firms
in Nigeria, I have often been asked for a book with illustrations
showing the different kinds of trees which might be felled, and also
giving some account of the trees themselves, as well as the main work of
the Forest Department. It is with the idea of trying to supply this want
that I have mainly compiled this work, in the hope that, however
imperfect it may be, the various timber getters and users in Nigeria may
find it useful.
I have not attempted to give accurate descriptions of the trees, as this
has already been done by Mr. Foster in his work _Notes on Nigerian Trees
and Plants_, and I would refer readers to that volume, and to the
botanical works, such as _Useful Plants of Nigeria_, issued under the
authority of the Director of Kew Gardens, and the _Flora of Tropical
Africa_, by Oliver; but only refer to some specific feature of the trees
that are most common or useful, by which they can be recognized by an
ordinary observer without botanical knowledge.
I wish to acknowledge with thanks the assistance given to me by the
Central and Southern Secretaries for permission to use the annual Forest
Report from the year 1906 onwards.
I wish also to express my thanks to the Under-Secretary of State for the
Colonies for permission to use my Reports on the Forests of Sierra Leone
and the Afforestation of Togo.
To Mr. H. N. Thompson, the Chief Conservator of Forests of Nigeria, I am
indebted for much useful information obtained from his Report on the
Gold Coast Forests.
To Mr. R. E. Dennett, Deputy Chief Conservator of Forests, who has given
me much help and advice in compiling this work, and more especially for
reading through the proofs, I tender my grateful thanks.
Two most valuable chapters on the Forests and botanical features of the
Northern Provinces of Nigeria were written by Dr. J. M. Dalziel, to whom
I owe grateful thanks for his encouragement in this work.
My greatest thanks are due to Mr. C. E. Lane-Poole, Commissioner of
Forests, Victoria, for the use of the list of the Sierra Leone trees.
To M. Chevalier I return grateful thanks for his list of the Ivory Coast
trees.
For the constant and unfailing interest and devotion to the work of Miss
Christina E. Lacy, acting as amanuensis, I beg to extend my heartfelt
thanks.
Further thanks are also due to my wife, who has lent not only practical
assistance, but has been the mainspring of inspiration for the
completion of this work.
CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE 7-8
TABLE OF CHAPTERS 9, 10
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 11-16
CHAPTER I
THE FORESTS OF WESTERN AFRICA 17-19
CHAPTER II
THE GAMBIA 20
DESCRIPTIONS OF TREES AND FORESTS 20
APPENDIX I. THE FOREST LAW. (FEES) 23
APPENDIX II. FOREST EXPORTS 24
CHAPTER III
SIERRA LEONE 25
I. THE FORESTS 25
II. NOTES ON TIMBER TREES. (EXPORT AND LOCAL USE) 26
III. TREES CUT FOR LOCAL USE 31
IV. MINOR FOREST PRODUCE 35
V. THE FOREST DEPARTMENT, SIERRA LEONE 39
VI. BOTANICAL AND VERNACULAR NAMES OF INDIGENOUS TREES, WITH 41
DESCRIPTION
APPENDIX I. EXPORTS OF FOREST PRODUCE 63
APPENDIX II. FOREST PRODUCE, 1827-1835 64
APPENDIX III. IMPORTS OF TIMBER INTO SIERRA LEONE 65
CHAPTER IV
LIBERIA 66
I. THE GOLA FOREST 66
II. NOTES ON THE MOST VALUABLE TREES 66
III. THE CONDITIONS OF WORKING TIMBER 69
IV. BOTANICAL AND VERNACULAR NAMES OF INDIGENOUS TREES 70
APPENDIX. FOREST EXPORTS 80
CHAPTER V
THE IVORY COAST 81
A NOTE ON THE FOREST AND MAHOGANY INDUSTRY 81
BOTANICAL AND VERNACULAR NAMES OF TREES. BY MONSIEUR 83
AUGUST CHEVALIER
APPENDIX. FOREST EXPORTS 90
CHAPTER VI
THE GOLD COAST 91
THE FORESTRY POSITION 91
NOTES ON INDIGENOUS TREES 93
BOTANICAL AND VERNACULAR NAMES. (FROM MR. H. N. 93
THOMPSON’S REPORT)
APPENDIX. FOREST EXPORTS 115
CHAPTER VII
TOGO 116
I. THE FORESTS 116
II. THE FOREST PLANTATIONS 119
III. THE DISTRICT PLANTATIONS 122
IV. NOTES ON INDIGENOUS TREES. BOTANICAL AND VERNACULAR NAMES 127
APPENDIX I. INTRODUCED SPECIES OF TREES PLANTED 148
APPENDIX II. CENSUS OF PLANTATIONS 149
APPENDIX III. EXPORTS OF FOREST PRODUCE 150
CHAPTER VIII
NIGERIA 151
I. THE RIVERS, PORTS AND FORESTS 151
II. THE MAHOGANY AND TIMBER INDUSTRIES 155
III. THE PERMANENT FORESTS OR FOREST RESERVES 160
IV. AFFORESTATION IN NIGERIA 166
V. THE FOREST DEPARTMENT 184
VI. REVIEW OF THE BOTANICAL FEATURES OF N. NIGERIA. BY DR. J. 188
M. DALZIEL
SOME TREES OF HAUSALAND. BY DR. J. M. DALZIEL 205
APPENDIX I. BOTANICAL AND VERNACULAR NAMES OF INDIGENOUS 218
TREES. NORTHERN PROVINCES
APPENDIX II. EXPORTS OF FOREST PRODUCE 226
APPENDIX III. IMPORTS OF TIMBER INTO NIGERIA 227
APPENDIX IV. THE FEES AND ROYALTIES ON TIMBER TREES 228
CHAPTER IX
THE NIGERIAN TIMBER TREES 235
CHAPTER X
THE FORESTS AND TIMBER PRODUCTION OF THE BRITISH SPHERE 415
OF THE CAMEROONS
(WITH A NOTE ON THE FRENCH AND BELGIAN CONGO AND
SPANISH GUINEA)
NOTES ON DESCRIPTIONS OF TREES. BOTANICAL AND 425
VERNACULAR NAMES
APPENDIX I. EXPORTS OF FOREST PRODUCE 444
APPENDIX II. EXPORTS OF TIMBER ACCORDING TO PORT OF 445
SHIPMENT
APPENDIX III. EXPORTS OF TIMBER ACCORDING TO DESTINATION 446
CHAPTER XI
THE OIL BEANS, SEEDS AND NUTS OF THE FOREST 447
CHAPTER XII
THE OIL PALM AND PALM KERNEL INDUSTRY 464
CHAPTER XIII
THE FOREST IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE 485
CHAPTER XIV
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WEST AFRICAN FORESTS 496
INDEX 501
ILLUSTRATIONS
I.
1. Mixed Evergreen Forest on the edge of Barombo _Frontispiece_
Lake (Elephant Lake). Cotton Trees in foreground
II. SIERRA LEONE.
_To face page_
2. Red Ironwood (_Lophira procera_), in the Forest, 16
Gumah
3. Mature Cola Tree (_Cola vera_), growing in Fundo 16
village, Protectorate of Sierra Leone
4. View of Gumah Mountain from the Gumah 16
5. African Oak (_Oldfieldia Africana_), showing 24
bole in middle foreground, near Bureh Town Bridge
6. African Oak (_Oldfieldia Africana_), showing 24
scaly bark at base of tree, the late Mr. C. W.
Smythe standing beside it
7. _Pterocarpus esculentus_ in flower near Fakar 40
Kole, at the edge of the Peninsular Forest
8. Forest of true Gum Copal (_Copaifera 40
salikounda_), showing nearly all the trees bare
of foliage and dying, due to overtapping, near
Sussuwuru, Moyamba District
9. True Gum Copal (_Copaifera salikounda_), showing 40
base of stem with tapping squares, near the bank
of the Rokell River, north of Moyamba District
III. LIBERIA.
10. Large Brimstone Tree (_Sarcocephalus sp._), Gola 66
Forest
11. African Satinwood (_Afrormosia laxiflora_), Gola 66
Forest
12. Gola Forest, general view, near Morro River 80
13. Mahogany (_Khaya Ivoriensis_), the late Mr. C. 80
W. Smythe standing beside it, Gola Forest
14. Young Yawey Cedar (_Heritiera?_), Gola Forest 80
IV. TOGO.
15. Teak Plantation of 1908, 35¾ feet high, Sokode, 90
in 1911
16. Teak Plantation of 1907 and 1908 on hill-side, 90
Atakpame
17. One-year-old Oil Palms amongst seven- to 116
ten-year-old trees, 1911
18. Two-year-old Oil Palm Plantation, Sokode 116
19. Three-year-old Oil Palm Plantation, Sokode 116
20. Four-year-old Oil Palm Plantation, Sokode 116
21. _Chlorophora excelsa_, 1911 126
22. Five-year-old Oil Palm Plantation, Sokode 126
23. Five-year-old _Khaya Senegalensis_, 1911 126
24. Teak Plantation made in 1907 at Pfandu, in 1911 136
25. _Khaya Klaineana_, 17 feet in girth, Misahohe 136
Station
26. Corner of a 1907 Teak Plantation, Pfandu, in 1911 136
V. WESTERN CIRCLE, NIGERIA.
EBUTTEMETTA GARDENS.
27. Large Teak Tree (_Tectona grandis_), about 150
sixteen years old, Ebuttemetta Gardens
28. Large Para (_Hevea Braziliensis_), Ebuttemetta 150
Gardens, age about sixteen years
VI. WESTERN CIRCLE, NIGERIA.
OLOKEMEJI ARBORETUM AND RAILWAY PLANTATION AND
TWO STUDIES OF CAPSULES.
29. The Chief Conservator of Forests’ House, with 162
five-year-old _Albizzia Lebbek_ standing beside
it
30. Three capsules of Mahogany (_Khaya grandis 162
Ivoriensis_ and _Punchii_), from banks of Owena
River
31. Capsules of three species of Entandrophragma: 162
_E. macrophyllum_, the largest; _E. utilis_, the
next in size; and _E. cylindricum_, the smallest
32. _Cedrela odorata_, seven years old, with Forest 174
Office in background, Olokemeji
33. _Cedrela odorata_, Cigar-box Cedar, girth 5 174
feet, twelve years old, Olokemeji Arboretum
34. Teak (_Tectona grandis_), ten years old, 174
Olokemeji Arboretum
35. Teak, six years old, Olokemeji Arboretum 184
36. _Khaya Senegalensis_, five years old, from seed 184
obtained by H. N. Thompson, Esq., in Shaki
District
37. Mature Iroko Tree (_Chlorophora excelsa_), 184
over 12 feet in girth in 1911, since cut down
and used for building the Chief Conservator of
Forests’ house
VII. NORTHERN PROVINCES, NIGERIA.
38. Marsh or “fadama” with islets of foliage, Benué 196
overflow near Yola
39. The Lower Niger in flood 196
40. Fringing Forest on River Benué, in the rainy 196
season
41. A Baobab (_Adansonia digitata_) 208
42. Giginya or “Fan Palm” (_Borassus flabellifer_, 208
var. _Æthiopum_), with waterlilies (_Nymphæaceæ_)
VIII. WESTERN CIRCLE, OLOKEMEJI ARBORETUM.
43. Mahogany (_Khaya grandis_), 6½ years old, 216
showing bent leader, owing to previous one being
eaten out by the leading-shoot borer
44. 1909 Mahogany (_Khaya grandis_ and _K. Punchii_) 216
Plantation after six years’ growth, near road to
Chief Conservator’s house, Olokemeji Arboretum
45. The largest Mahogany (_Khaya Punchii_), seven 216
years old, Olokemeji Arboretum, in the Forest
Reserve
46. Corner of the 1908 Teak Plantation, Olokemeji 228
Arboretum, showing it at the end of the dry
season, March 1915, Captain Owens
47. _Cedrela odorata_, Cigar-box Cedar, three years 228
old (seen close), R. E. Dennett, Esq.
48. Corner tree of the 1908 Teak Plantation, with H. 228
N. Thompson, Esq., 1911
49. Shea Butter Tree (_Butyrospermum Parkii_), 234
standing near the Conservator of Forests’ house,
June 1915, after being protected from fire eight
years
50. Teak (_Tectona grandis_), three years old, 234
Compartment 2, Range 2, Olokemeji Forest Reserve
51. Shea Butter Tree (_Butyrospermum Parkii_) in 234
fruit, April 1911, standing near the Conservator
of Forests’ house. This tree has been protected
from fire for nearly four years
52. Shea Butter Tree (_Butyrospermum Parkii_), 234
standing near the Conservator of Forests’
house. The same tree of which the fruit was
photographed April 1911
IX. WESTERN CIRCLE, NIGERIA.
STUDIES OF TREES, OLOKEMEJI RESERVE.
53. Mature Opepe (_Sarcocephalus esculentus_), in 250
middle of picture, across Ogun River, Olokemeji
Forest Reserve
54. Mature Oganwo (_Khaya Punchii_), near Dajopa, 250
Olokemeji Reserve, showing base of stem for
nearly 12 feet stripped of bark
55. Large Emido (_Mimusops multinervis_), 10 feet in 250
girth, Dajopa, Olokemeji Forest Reserve
56. Large-leaved Mahogany (_Khaya grandis_), 14 260
feet in girth, with smaller Iroko (_Chlorophora
excelsa_), standing at the side, Olokemeji
Forest Reserve
57. Arere (_Triplochiton Nigericum_), 120 feet high, 260
thirty years old
58. Ebony (_Diospyros mespiliformis_), 7 feet 6 260
inches in girth, on Dajopa Road, Olokemeji
Reserve
59. Large Ayin (_Anogeissus leiocarpus_), 10 feet in 272
girth, Dajopa, Olokemeji Forest Reserve
60. Oil Palm in bearing, two bunches of fruit in 272
view, Olokemeji Forest Reserve
61. Base of 14-foot Bilinga (_Afzelia Africana_), 284
Dajopa Forest Reserve, Olokemeji Reserve
62. Shea Butter (_Butyrospermum Parkii_), 7 feet in 284
girth, near Oniloku Road, Olokemeji Reserve
63. Afara (_Terminalia superba_), base of mature 284
tree over 12 feet in girth, Olokemeji Reserve
64. _Afzelia Africana_, 14 feet in girth, showing 284
bole and usual fork, Ijaiye Range, Dajopa,
Olokemeji Forest Reserve
X. WESTERN CIRCLE.
FOREST TREES, ILARO.
65. _Khaya Ivoriensis_, 14 feet 8 inches in girth, 294
Ilaro Forest Reserve
66. Iroko (_Chlorophora excelsa_), 8 feet in girth, 294
standing in Ilaro Forest Reserve after Forest
was cleared
XI. WESTERN CIRCLE.
DRY ZONE VEGETATION, OYO DISTRICT.
67. _Khaya Senegalensis_, 1910, on bank of Ogun 308
River, near Iporin, Oyo Province
68. Locust Tree (_Parkia filicoidea_), in bearing, 308
Oyo District, 1910
XII. WESTERN CIRCLE.
STUDIES OF FOREST VEGETATION, ADO AND MAMU
FOREST.
69. Mature Iroko (_Chlorophora excelsa_) and Teak, 320
one year old, Mamu Forest Reserve, Ibadan
Province, 1915
70. Large full-grown Iroko Tree (_Chlorophora 320
excelsa_) standing near Ibadan, Jebu Ode Road,
Mamu Forest Reserve, in May 1910. See Fig. 69,
which is of the same tree taken five years later
71. Untouched Forest on summit of Ado Rock, Oyo 320
Province, 1910
XIII. WESTERN CIRCLE, OSHUN AND MAMU FORESTS.
72. Forest on banks of Oshun River, looking 332
downstream, Oshun Forest Reserve
73. Large Arere Tree (_Triplochiton Nigericum_) 332
already girdled and dead
74. Forest on banks of Oshun River, looking 332
upstream, Oshun Forest Reserve, Jebu Ode District
75. Ride between Compartments C and D, Mamu Forest 332
Reserve, Funtumia seedlings on either side, six
to eight years old
XIV. WESTERN CIRCLE, NIGERIA, ONDO AND IWOYE
FORESTS.
76. Path in Iwoye Forest, Western Circle, showing 342
parts of four mahogany trees in the picture
77. Mature Cocoanut Grove near stream in the middle 342
of Idanre Town, 1910
XV. CENTRAL CIRCLE, NIGERIA, IFON FOREST.
78. Osse River, looking downstream, edge of the 354
Pool, Ifon District
79. Mixed Forest near Osse, looking upstream, Ifon 354
District
XVI. CENTRAL CIRCLE, NIGERIA, EBEKWI FOREST.
80. Heavy Sapeli Mahogany (_Entandrophragma utilis_) 364
standing near the road between Uyeri and Benin
City, Benin Province
81. Agba (Benin), (_Pterogopodium?_), standing near 364
Ifon Road, south of Uyeri, Benin Province
XVII. CENTRAL CIRCLE, NIGERIA.
OGBA PLANTATION, BENIN.
82. Benin Satinwood (_Afrormosia laxiflora_) 376
standing in the Ogba Plantation, Benin District
83. Mixed Mahogany Plantation, _Khaya grandis_ 376
on left, _K. Punchii_ in centre, and
Entandrophragma in the right foreground, six
years old, near Ogba, Benin Province
84. Ogea, Gum Copal (_Daniellia caudata_), standing 376
in the Ogba Plantation, Benin Province
XVIII. CENTRAL CIRCLE, OBAGIE FOREST, BENIN.
85. _Khaya anthoteca_, 16 feet in girth, Obagie 384
Forest Reserve, Benin Province
86. Okan (_Cylicodiscus Gabunensis_), African 384
Greenheart, 24 feet in girth, standing in Obagie
Forest Reserve, Benin Province
XIX. CENTRAL CIRCLE, NIGERIA, KOKO TOWN
MAHOGANY.
87. Koko Town, with raft of mahogany logs moored 396
near the bank
88. Mahogany logs floating in the river above Koko 396
Town
XX. CENTRAL CIRCLE, NIGERIA, OSSE RIVER FOREST.
89. Funtumia Rubber Plantation, both sides of the 408
road, Igwoshudi, Benin
90. Mahogany Plantation, _Khaya Punchii_, twelve 408
years old, near Noami, on the banks of the Osse
River, Benin Province
91. Entandrophragma log with three sides already 408
squared and fourth partially cut ready for
squaring
92. Stump of _Khaya Punchii_ with log at base, left 408
in the Benin Forest
XXI. EASTERN CIRCLE, NIGERIA, STUDIES OF TREES.
DEGEMA FOREST STATION, INCLUDING IMO BRIDGE.
93. _Mimusops Djave_, about twelve years old, 414
standing near Prison, Degema Station, Eastern
Circle
94. Mature Light African Greenheart, _Piptadenia 414
Africana_, standing in the middle of Degema
Station
95. Young Oil Bean Tree in bearing, _Pentaclethra 414
macrophylla_, Degema Station
96. Red Oak, _Berlinia acuminata_, 20 feet in girth, 414
standing near the Sombreiro River, Degema Station
97. Base of Red Oak, _Berlinia acuminata_, showing 428
smooth bark with comparatively few large scales,
Degema Station
98. Iroko, _Chlorophora excelsa_, nursery bed, with 428
seedlings two years old, at the side of Forest
House, Degema
99. The temporary Wooden Bridge over the Imo, on 446
the Eastern Division, Nigerian Railway. Note,
only native, locally grown timber used in its
construction
100. Medium-sized African Pearwood, _Mimusops Djave_, 446
standing in the middle of the road outside
Degema Station on the road to Illimema, since
felled, and logs sold in England
101. Inoi Tree, _Poga oleosa_, standing at the edge 446
of the Degema Station grounds
XXII. EASTERN CIRCLE, NIGERIA, CALABAR
ARBORETUM AND STATION.
102. Oil Palm, _Elæis Guineensis_, eight years old, 460
in bearing, showing nine out of the twenty-one
bunches of fruit on the tree
103. Seven-year-old Oil Palm in bearing, rather 460
over-pruned, showing male inflorescence just
below boy’s finger and bunch of fruit in the
middle of the picture
104. Mature _Brachystegia spicæformis_ standing at 472
the side of the Calabar Road, Calabar, showing
the typical shape of the crown and branches
105. Base of mature _Brachystegia spicæformis_ 472
standing at the side of the Calabar Road,
Calabar, showing both the scaly untouched bark
and the wounded section covered with nodules
XXIII. EASTERN CIRCLE, NIGERIA, CROSS RIVER.
TEAK PLANTATIONS, NDEH.
106. Rest House Teak Plantation at Ndeh, showing rows 486
of trees 9 feet apart and 4 feet between
107. View between the lines of one-year-old Teak 486
Plantation at Ndeh, in which trees were planted
4 feet apart
XXIV. EASTERN CIRCLE, NIGERIA, STUDIES OF TREES.
IKRIGON FOREST.
108. Shinglewood, _Terminalia scutifera_, 12 feet in 496
girth, standing in the Ikrigon Forest Reserve,
Eastern Circle
109. Iroko, _Chlorophora excelsa_, 15 feet in girth, 496
standing in Ikrigon Forest Reserve
110. Mahogany, _Khaya Senegalensis (?)_, standing at 496
the edge of Ikrigon Forest Reserve, showing base
of trunk with old bark wounds already healed over
[Illustration: FIG. 2.—=Red Ironwood (Lophira procera) in the Forest,
Gumah.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 3.—=Mature Cola Tree (Cola vera), growing in Fundo
Village, Protectorate of Sierra Leone.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 4.—=View of Gumah Mountain, from the Gumah.=]
WEST AFRICAN FORESTS
AND FORESTRY
CHAPTER I
THE FORESTS OF WESTERN AFRICA
From a large scale-map of Africa, the various British West African
Colonies and Protectorates, as well as Liberia, French Ivory Coast, the
late German Colonies of Togo and Cameroons, can be seen on the western
side of that Continent. In fact, these territories are all within the
Tropics, and also between the latitudes of 13° North in the Gambia to
nearly the Equator in the Cameroons, and between longitude of 17° West
to 10° East. Roughly speaking, Upper Guinea, as this part is usually
called, covers an area of 100 to 200 miles wide by a length of over
1,500 miles, as a sylvan belt mainly of one type of vegetation, which
botanically, however, only begins to alter as the boundary of the
Cameroons is approached in the eastern part of Nigeria. Therefore one
finds several trees extending right through this area, and also an
almost unbroken forest all the way along the coast line, and roughly 100
to 150 miles inland. The width of the forest varies rather according to
the aspect of the coast line, because the prevalent wind being south-
west, the greatest rainfall, and thus the heaviest type of forest,
occurs when the coast line runs at right angles to the prevailing wind.
This occurs, for instance, near Calabar, Nigeria in the Cameroons, part
of the Gold Coast near Axim, and Sierra Leone near Freetown. In some
instances this effect is accentuated by the proximity of mountains near
the coast, as, for instance, north of Calabar and north of Benin. One
tree, which might be taken as a type, is the Rhodesian Mahogany,
_Afzelia Africana_, which is found right in this belt of forest on its
northern side. As the name implies, it is also found in Rhodesia, near
the Victoria Falls. Mahogany, _Khaya Senegalensis_, is another tree
found in the Gambia, also in Nigeria right up to the Cameroon border,
over 1,500 miles away.
However, in this huge forest belt there are great variations in the
rainfall, from 20 to over 175 inches in the Oban Hills of Nigeria. There
are also, naturally, variations in soil and elevation, which make
differences in the character of the forest. The proximity to the sea
causes yet another difference in the type of vegetation, combined as it
often is with low elevation.
Broadly speaking, then, one can differentiate several distinct types of
forest, though owing to slight changes in a locality the one merges into
the other and very sharp boundary lines cannot be drawn.
I. The Mangrove Swamps are usually near the sea coast, though not always
at the sea coast; a strip of Evergreen Forest is usually found actually
on the sandy dunes of the sea coast. The Mangrove Swamps also extend up
the rivers near the coast as a fringe a mile or more wide.
II. The Evergreen Forest is usually found on the sea coast, also
extending inland up the rivers, and also on low land up to an elevation
of a few hundred feet, as, for instance, the forest on the banks of the
Calabar River.
III. The Freshwater Swamp Forests are also found in this type of
locality.
IV. The Mixed intermediate Forest is found usually where the rainfall
does not exceed 60 inches, or in slightly hilly country, and contains a
few deciduous trees. Typical trees of this forest are the _Triplochiton
Nigericum_ and _Mimusops multinervis_. It contains both evergreen and
deciduous trees.
V. The Fringing Forest, or “Gallerie” Forest of the Germans, is found at
the edge of rivers or lakes, where the rainfall is otherwise too low for
the mixed deciduous forests.
VI. The Savannah Forest, sometimes so-called Dry-zone Forest, usually
occurs with a rainfall of 30 to 50 inches. The typical tree of this is
the _Lophira alata_.
VII. The Evergreen Forest of the hills, chiefly above an altitude of
2,000 or 3,000 feet. It is especially noticeable on Mount Itakum and the
Boji Hills (elevation 5,000 feet).
VIII. The Open Orchard Forest, with shrubby trees of small growth.
These, then, roughly follow the Œcological Divisions according to
Warming, which are as follows:
Mangrove Swamp,
True Savannah,
Treeless Savannah, low and high grass,
Bush Savannah,
Tree Savannah,
Savannah Forest,
Sclerophyllus formations, such as
Bush and Forest,
Bamboo Forest.
Forests are in addition named after the locality, such as Benin Forests,
Oban Forests, Ondo Forests. Again, yet another nomenclature is after the
kind of tree represented, such as Evergreen Forest, where all the trees
are evergreen all the year round; for instance, Calabar Forests, Ondo,
South Benin.
The mixed forests and intermediate forests, where the trees are both
evergreen and deciduous, growing side by side, such as Olokemeji
Forests, Benin Forests, Obubra Forests, and Bende Forests. Thus
summarising the Nigerian Forests, we get the following formations:
1. Nigerian Swamp Evergreen: Mangrove, type tree.
2. Evergreen Forests _Lophira procera_, _Parinarium_.
2a. Freshwater Swamp Forests _Cynometra mitragyne_.
3. Mixed Deciduous, intermediate _Triplochiton_, Iroko,
Forests _Chlorophora excelsa_.
3a. Fringing Forests Mixed, deciduous really.
4. Canopied Deciduous Forests Olokemeji: _Berlinia_, _Afzelia_.
(sometimes termed dense Savannah
Forests)
5. Open Deciduous Forests _Paradaniella Oliverii_, _Eugenia
Owariensis_, _Terminalia
Togoensis_.
6. Tree Savannah Orchard Forest _Lophira alata_, Shea butter,
_Acacia_; _Iwu, Oyo, Ndeh_.
7. Treeless Savannah Grass, a few stunted bushes of
_Acacia Isoberlinia_, North Ogoja.
CHAPTER II
THE GAMBIA
In the early part of the nineteenth century a considerable quantity of
African Mahogany, obtained from _Khaya Senegalensis_, a dry-zone
mahogany-tree, was shipped to England; in fact, this was the original
source of African Mahogany, as also it was the first tree from which it
was obtained. Even now this tree is one of the most prevalent in the
strip of land on both banks of the Gambia, so far as British territory
is concerned.
At the present time no mahogany is being shipped from the Gambia, but
recently an Ordinance was passed regulating the cutting of firewood and
forest trees.
Forests in the ordinary sense of the word cannot be said to exist in the
Gambia, but no doubt a considerable amount of timber could be obtained
from the dry-zone country. The total length of the colony is 300 miles,
and approximately 5 miles wide, on either side of the Gambia River,
which makes it in the aggregate a considerable tract of country, in all
4,500 square miles, of which the colony proper occupies 4 square miles.
So far only Rosewood (_Pterocarpus erinaceus_), Mahogany (_Khaya
Senegalensis_), and small pieces of Baywood, probably also a mahogany,
have been reported from the Gambia. In 1908 a certain amount of wood was
cut for the making of charcoal by a man from the Canary Islands. In
1909, 102 tons of charcoal were exported, and in 1910, 176 tons, valued
at £634. Since then no other returns are available, so apparently this
industry has come to an end. There is no Forest Officer in the Gambia,
and no proposals for Forest Reserves have been put forward by the
Government. Part of the land near the mouth of the Gambia is swampy and
covered with the usual Mangrove forests.
In the _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, vol. viii, 1910, p. 244, it
is stated that the specimens of rosewood and mahogany forwarded to the
Imperial Institute were reported on as follows:
Rosewood (_Dalbergia sp._), reddish-yellow with darker lines and red
pores, solid and compact, resembling rosewood except in colour. The
timber would not pass as rosewood on the market. It has an agreeable
odour, is hard and heavy, weighing 45½ lb. per cubic foot. It turned and
polished well, sawed very easily, but was difficult to plane; planing
left a smooth, bright surface.
Mahogany (_Khaya Senegalensis_) may be looked upon as inferior baywood,
the wood light in colour, of poor figure, hard to plane, but when planed
leaves the surface bright and woolly in alternate bands; very cross
grained, sawed and turned easily. Weight, 41½ lb. per cubic foot. Should
be very useful locally, but probably not of sufficient value for much
export trade.
Even in this comparatively small colony a certain amount of forest land
should be preserved, more especially that which is unsuitable for
agriculture. In every country there is always some poor or rocky land
which is not favourable to the growing of agricultural crops.
The oil palm is another useful tree, which yields the well-known palm
oil and kernels; however, here the oil is required locally for
alimentary purposes, and therefore only the palm kernels are exported.
The following shows the exports for five years:
Year. Tons. £ s. d.
1910 467 5,640 0 0
1911 443 4,756 0 0
1912 445 6,518 0 0
1913 545 9,026 0 0
1914 494½ 7,814 17 11
It will be noticed that the very high prices ruling for part of 1913 and
the beginning of 1914 had the effect of causing increased exports to be
made.
Here, as in the case of other products, planting could be undertaken
with advantage, as the yield of kernels and oil is good; even if the
increased amount of oil produced was sold locally, the increased output
of kernels would find a market in England, where they are needed.
It is a tree which allows cultivation of field crops to be made between
the oil palms for several years before the palms become too big and shut
out the light necessary for field crops. In the drier climate of the
Gambia a planting distance of probably 16 feet would be sufficient to
ensure a good yield, and yet give sufficient distance between the trees
to allow room for them even when mature.
If an Agricultural or Forest Department, which at present does not exist
in the Gambia, could not supply young seedlings or nuts for planting,
one of the trading firms could secure them from one of the other West
Coast Protectorates. Of course, in many cases, if the natives could be
induced to believe that a good price would always be paid for kernels,
they would no doubt make small plantations of oil palms themselves, as
some fruit always falls to the ground in the picking, is thus not
boiled, and so is suitable for furnishing seed for planting. It is, of
course, inadvisable to plant boiled nuts, as many do not germinate,
owing to the germ having been destroyed by the boiling of the fruit;
others do, however, as can be seen in the young oil palms sprouting from
heaps of uncracked nuts which the natives leave near the villages.
APPENDIX I
FOREST FEES IN GAMBIA
A new list was published by the Legislative Council in Gambia which
fixes the different rates of fees for the right of felling useful timber
for export.
The fees are as follows:
_Felling of Useful Timber for Export._
For each sort of useful trunk 10s. per trunk.
_Felling of Useful Timber which is not intended for Export._
For each trunk, Rosewood (Jacaranda, 5s. per trunk.
Palisander wood)
For each trunk, Mahogany 1s. per foot after felling.
For each trunk in Mandingo Falls 9d. per foot after felling.
For each trunk in Tumbo 8d. per foot after felling.
For each trunk in Jaffo 6d. per foot after felling.
For each trunk, Cotton-tree 4d. per foot after felling.
For every other valuable tree 4d. per cubic foot.
APPENDIX II
THE GAMBIA—FOREST EXPORTS
[Quant.: Quantity.]
----------+-------------------+-------------------+--------------------
| 1909. | 1910. | 1911.
Products.+-----------+-------+-----------+-------+-----------+--------
| Quant. | £ | Quant. | £ | Quant. | £
----------+-----------+-------+-----------+-------+-----------+--------
Cane | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | |
Gum | — | — | — | — | — | —
Arabic | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Ground |53,644 tons|323,231|58,456 tons|387,943|47,931 tons|437,472
nuts | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Palm | 389 tons | 3,526| 467 tons | 5,640| 444 tons | 4,758
kernels | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Rubber |15,548 lb. | 1,550| 7,148 lb. | 952|10,733 lb. | 836
| | | | | |
Wax |48,969 lb. | 2,180|25,718 lb. | 1,274|33,871 lb. | 1,514
| | | | | |
Wood and | 4 pkgs. | 4| 162 pkgs. | 63| 155 pkgs. | 28
timber | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Oil | 361 gals. | 39| 108 gals. | 12| — | —
(palm) | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Lumber | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | |
Gum copal| — | — | 90 lb. | — | — | —
----------+-----------+-------+-----------+-------+-----------+--------
TOTALS | 4 pkgs. |330,530| 162 pkgs. |395,885| 155 pkgs. |444,608
| | | | | |
|54,033 tons| |58,923 tons| |48,375 tons|
| | | | | |
|64,509 lb. | |32,956 lb. | |44,604 lb. |
| | | | | |
| 361 gals. | | 108 gals. | | |
----------+-----------+-------+-----------+-------+-----------+--------
[Continued]
----------+-------------------+-------------------+--------------------
| 1912. | 1913. | 1914.
Products.+-----------+-------+-----------+-------+-----------+--------
| Quant. | £ | Quant. | £ | Quant. | £
----------+-----------+-------+-----------+-------+-----------+--------
Cane | — | — | — | — | 59 bdls. | 4
| | | | | |
Gum | — | — | — | — | 2 tons | 44
Arabic | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Ground |64,169 tons|502,069|67,404 tons|622,098|66,884 tons|650,460
nuts | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Palm | 445 tons | 6,518| 546 tons | 9,026| 494 tons | 7,814
kernels | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Rubber | 4,335 lb. | 409|12,995 lb. | 1,027| 3,548 lb. | 102
| | | | | |
Wax |30,830 lb. | 1,164|31,518 lb. | 990|15,513 lb. | 473
| | | | | |
Wood and | 178 pkgs. | 55|1,562 pkgs.| 20| 30 pkgs. | 10
timber | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Oil | — | — | — | — | — | —
(palm) | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Lumber | 273 feet | 2| — | — | — | —
| | | | | |
Gum copal| — | — | — | — | — | —
----------+-----------+-------+-----------+-------+-----------+--------
TOTALS | 178 pkgs. |500,218|1,562 pkgs.|633,161| 30 pkgs. |658,911
| | | | | |
|64,614 tons| |67,950 tons| |67,382 tons|
| | | | | |
|35,165 lb. | |44,513 lb. | |19,061 lb. |
| | | | | |
| 273 feet | | | | 59 bdls. |
----------+-----------+-------+-----------+-------+-----------+--------
[Illustration: FIG. 5.—=African Oak (Oldfieldia Africana), showing bole
in middle foreground, near Bureh Town Bridge.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 6.—=African Oak (Oldfieldia Africana), showing Scaly
Bark at base of tree, the late Mr. C. W. Smythe standing beside it.=]
To face p. 24.
CHAPTER III
SIERRA LEONE
I. THE FORESTS.
The Colony and Protectorate of Sierra Leone cover an area of
approximately 34,000 square miles, or, to make it more comprehensible,
it is almost the same size as Ireland. Probably in the earliest times
the whole territory was covered with some kind of arborescent growth,
varying from open savannah and deciduous forest to close, impenetrable
evergreen rain forest.
Now scarcely 1 per cent. of this forest remains, one of the most
important tracts being the Sierra Leone or Peninsular Mountain Forest,
situated on the mountain due east of Freetown. The whole of this region
was once covered with forest, now reduced to an area of approximately 48
square miles, or 30,000 acres. All this tract down to the 500-foot
control line has been reserved as a permanent forest, so that eventually
the whole peninsular forest will have an area of 75 square miles.
Illustrations Nos. 2 and 4 show a general view of these forests.
Other important mountain forests are those situated on the Kassewe
Hills, Kagnari Mountains, Kambui Hills, Panguma Hills, Nimmini
Mountains, Loma Mountains, Bunbola Hills, and Maramper Hills. In
addition to these areas, timber trees are felled at Kangahan and Yonni,
as well as in the peninsular mountains and Maramper Hills, especially
for local use.
Turning now to a consideration of the forests more in detail, one
naturally first deals with the most accessible ones, i.e. of the
peninsular mountains. From the beautiful harbour of Freetown, Sierra
Leone, one sees the edge of these forests between Leicester Peak and
Sugar Loaf Mountains. From these two points it skirts the hill station,
extending thence roughly parallel to the sea as far as Kent; the largest
wooded slopes face the ocean, only a narrow strip of forest being found
on the landward side of the mountains near Burehtown and John Obey. The
forest extends practically from the water’s edge on the estuary of the
Bureh River right up the mountains to an elevation of 2,000 feet, with a
rainfall of upwards of 160 inches per year. Silvan vegetation is very
luxuriant, the giant trees standing close together, often entwined and
joined to each other by various large creepers, the whole forming an
almost impenetrable grove, into which only the diffused light of the sun
reaches. The undergrowth is not very thick, except where old trees have
fallen or where mature trees have been felled; this is partly owing to
the dense shade of the tall trees, and therefore the trunks of these
trees can be seen. A large Cedar Mahogany 23 feet in circumference was
seen. This specimen of a mahogany was one of the largest trees found,
and shows to what size the trees attain in this peninsular forest. One
of the commonest trees found is the Red Ironwood, or sometimes called in
Sierra Leone Ironpost, botanically known as _Lophira procera_. A picture
of a large specimen of one of this species is shown as illustration No.
2. Another very common tree is a species of Mimusops, known as pearwood,
or sometimes mahogany, when sold as timber. The African Violetwood,
sometimes known as Blackwood, is comparatively common. Rhodesian
Mahogany, usually called Kontah, botanically known as _Afzelia
Africana_, is also found. Real African Oak (_Oldfieldia Africana_) is
seen singly scattered throughout forests. A patch of true Gum Copal
trees is found, as well as isolated specimens in some parts of the
forest. Rock Elm (_Chlorophora excelsa_) is seen both in the forest and
in the clearings made for farms. The Oil Palm (_Elaeis guineensis_) is
sparsely distributed in the forest, but more frequent in the abandoned
farms. The above-named trees are representative of some of the very
large number of hardwoods and other trees of economic value in the
forest. There are, however, also a very large number of softwoods found
scattered amongst the other trees in the forest; a beautiful Whitewood
(_Alstonia Congensis_) is, for instance, one of such softwoods. The
Cotton Tree (_Eriodendron anfractuosum_) is probably the one most
commonly found. Various Albizzias are also met with in a similar manner.
II. NOTES ON TIMBER TREES.
Taking now the different species of timber trees individually, the
following are most important:
1. Real African Oak (_Oldfieldia Africana_), which is termed Tortorza by
the Timanis and Paulai by the Mendis. As illustration No. 5 shows, this
is a very large and tall tree. It often attains a bole length of 50 feet
and a girth of 16 feet. It is found singly, scattered through the
forest. The habit of its branches, open crown, and greyish bark make it
look not unlike a European oak. In reality the bark is scaly, gradually
peeling off in flakes. The tree in illustration No. 6 shows this
characteristic peculiarity to advantage, and also shows a medium-sized
tree, approximately 10 feet in girth. The tree fruits moderately, and
has an indehiscent capsule not unlike the shape, size and colour of an
oak-apple. The capsule has five faint ribs on its surface, but contains
only three seeds. The little seedling, with light grey stem and white
lenticels, is easily recognized. It usually has also only three leaflets
on its leaves, instead of forming true digitate leaves as a full-grown
tree. The sapling once started shows fairly rapid growth, and during the
early years stands a good deal of shade. It should therefore be
classified as a slight shade-bearer. African Oak is a dark reddish-brown
wood, which is very hard and most durable. It has, of course, a much
closer grain than ordinary oak. A very smooth surface can be obtained by
planing the timber. Locally, small trees are cut for conversion by pit-
saw into timber for boat keels. This timber was exported as teak from
Sierra Leone 1827 to 1835 for use in the English Navy. It was afterwards
lost sight of, though the natives continued to use it locally. During
1908 a few round logs of short length (12-16 feet) of this timber were
exported to England and sold in a Liverpool market for 2s. 6d. per cubic
foot (extreme measure).
2. Ironpost, or African Oak, or Red Ironwood (_Lophira procera_), is the
most common tree throughout the peninsula. According to the Conservator
of Forests in Sierra Leone, 80 per cent. of the trees of the peninsular
forest are _Lophira procera_. All stages of growth are found, from the
smallest seedlings to the largest tree, over 100 feet high and 20 feet
in girth. In the forest the tree has an orange-coloured bark, which
rapidly turns grey when exposed to the rays of the sun. The bole is not
always quite cylindrical, especially near the base, where it often
develops rather angular root protuberances. This seems to occur more
often on rocky ground, such as that where the tree is found in the
peninsula. For a similar reason the bole is not always straight, though
in the ordinary way the tree has a comparatively small crown with short
branches. Thus, in proportion to the size of the tree, the bole is very
long, the twigs are thickish, and the long thin paper-knifelike leaves
appear at the ends of them. Seedlings seem to come up wherever suitable
conditions of reproduction are found. A clear bole is typical of these
trees in the pole stage of growth. Illustration No. 2 shows a large
specimen on the edge of the forest, and there are many large trees with
the peculiar root protuberances, growing in the forest. The timber is
very hard and of a dark red colour, which it retains when dry. The
heartwood forms comparatively early in the life of the tree, and
although the sapwood is white, it is almost as hard as the heartwood.
For this reason comparatively small trees yield timber, and thus can be
felled earlier than trees in which the heartwood forms later. Of course,
in this connection it should not be forgotten that the market does not
desire logs of too small a size, i.e. of 18 inches or under, when
squared. Locally this is known as Ironpost, and is sold for house-
building, and, as its name implies, it is used for the uprights of the
house. The Public Works Department have a regular schedule of timbers
which are used, and this timber is mentioned amongst them, and is bought
from native contractors at 3d. per superficial foot for boards, and 3d.
to 6d. per linear foot for beams and posts. This timber has been used as
a substitute for real African Oak, when it is sold as African Oak. A
regular supply of logs could be obtained from the peninsular forest.
3. Cedar Mahogany (_Pseudocedrela sp._; termed Bissimi by the Mendis).
This tree, which grows to a very large size, is not very prevalent. The
largest tree, some 23 feet in girth, was found above the Gumah. The bole
is usually very long and straight, which makes it very cylindrical. This
last characteristic of the tree is all the more accentuated by its
having no root projections at its base. This species appears to be one
of the largest trees in the forest. It is apparently a very fast-growing
tree, forming heartwood comparatively early, though the sapwood is
rather wide (up to 10 inches in a tree 7 feet in diameter). This timber
has not been exported, but wood from similar trees on the coast has been
exported and sold in the European market as mahogany (scented). There is
no reason to believe, therefore, that the wood from this tree would not
fetch a similar price. Owing to this tree being so fullwooded, a larger
proportion of the bole can be converted into logs than is the case with
other kinds of mahogany trees which have large root flanges.
4. African Walnut (_Lovoa Klaineana_). This is a medium-sized tree of
the Mahogany family, which, owing to the brown colour of the wood, has
been termed African Walnut in the timber trade. Although not very
prevalent, it yields one of the timbers suitable for export.
5. Satin Mahogany (_Guarea sp._) is another medium-sized tree which is
prevalent in most parts of the peninsula. The grain of the timber is of
course similar to Mahogany, as the tree from which it is obtained
belongs to the Mahogany family. The timber when planed has a satiny
sheen on it, which may make it valuable in the European market. It has
not been cut for local use.
6. African Pearwood (_Mimusops sp._) is a large tree with a good bole of
fair length. Only a moderate number of this species were found, but
there are at least two, if not three, other species of Mimusops which
yield a timber which has been sold as mahogany. The grain of the timber
of the first-named tree is more open, sometimes figured, and of a
lighter reddish colour than the other species. These other trees yield a
dark-red timber of close grain, which is much harder than mahogany.
These Mimusops are found at a higher altitude than most timber trees.
The forest, therefore, above an elevation of 2,000 feet, is much more
valuable owing to the presence of this tree. These trees attain a girth
of 12 feet and a height of upwards of 150 feet. The bark of the trunk of
the tree is smoother than that of mahogany.
7. White Mahogany (_Canarium Schweinfurthii_), also known sometimes as
Gaboon Mahogany, is a very tall forest tree which attains a bole length
of 70 feet, with a girth of 10 feet. It is not very plentiful, but is
one of the light-coloured species of mahogany. It has a definite
shipping value of 2s. 6d. in the round per cubic foot.
8. African Mammee or Mammy Apple (_Ochrocarpus Africanus_) is a large
tree attaining a girth of 10 feet, with a bole length of 30 feet. It is
moderately prevalent. The timber has a pretty grain, and is of a reddish
colour, which is similar to mahogany.
9. Dita (_Detarium Senegalense_) is a large tree with the bole length of
30 feet and a girth of 12 feet. Although it is not a very common tree,
it is a useful addition to the number of trees which yield timber
similar to mahogany. The fruit is large, has an edible pericarp, and is
sold in the market under the name of Dita.
10. Red Cedar (species of Sterculiaceæ) is a large and straight-growing
tree, which reaches a girth of 10 feet. The tree has very characteristic
root flanges, which can be seen in illustration No. 10. The timber has a
mahogany-like grain, though of a somewhat more open texture. It is one
of the most prevalent trees in the peninsular forest.
11. Kontah, or Mahogany (_Afzelia Africana_), is a large tree with oval
crown and bole length of 30 feet. Only a few specimens were met with in
the forest, though the tree often grows up in old clearings. The timber
is of a reddish-brown colour, somewhat hard and very durable. It takes
the place of an oak timber economically, although it is not really of
that type. The grain of the timber has much longer and more open pores
than oak, though it could probably be sold as an oak or teak substitute
in the European market.
12. Rock Elm, also known as African Oak or Teak, is a common tree
attaining large dimensions. Being a very durable wood of moderate
hardness, it largely takes the place of European oak in the economy of
the country, which, with its yellowish light-brown wood, rapidly
becoming a nice old-oak brown colour, makes it a very similar timber,
although, as the first name, Rock Elm, indicates, the tree is
botanically a member of the Elm family. White ants occasionally attack
its sapwood, but make no progress in the heartwood. The wood is not
attacked by fungi to any extent. Wherever the rainfall is sufficient,
seedlings of this tree come up in the old farms, and when cut down it
sprouts again from the stump.
13. East Indian Walnut (_Albizzia Lebbek_) is a medium-sized tree which
grows very quickly. The heartwood, which matures comparatively early, is
a light-brown colour, similar to walnut. The timber has an open, pretty
grain. It is one of the trees which comes up in old farms, provided
rainfall is moderate.
14. Satinwood (_Zanthoxylum macrophyllum_) is a medium-sized tree with a
clear bole of 30 feet, combined with a narrow crown and small branches.
It is a very common tree in the peninsular forest, and it is also found
growing up in the old farms, where the rainfall is adequate (60 inches).
The wood is the typical light-yellow colour. The grain of the timber is
very fine and hard, which makes it less liable to shrink than other more
open-grained woods. The heartwood forms early, though where trees grow
up very quickly, roughly only half of the diameter width of a tree is
made of heartwood. That is to say, in a tree a foot in diameter,
approximately 6 inches will be heartwood. In the evergreen forest there
is another species of Zanthoxylum which attains a rather larger size
than the first named. It is, however, not quite so prevalent as the
other species. In common with other species of Zanthoxylum, it bears all
round the stem extremely large woody spines. In this species the spiny
protuberances are exactly like small round cones of wood, with a
diameter 2 inches at the base. Yet a third species of _Zanthoxylum
Senegalense_ yields a similar satinwood, almost as close grained, which,
however, is found growing as a small tree at the edge of the deciduous
forest before the dry-zone belt is reached. This tree is characterised
by its much smaller leaf, with pinnæ broader in proportion to their
length than the former species. In a similar manner the woody
protrusions on the stem do not project more than three-quarters of an
inch from it, compared to those of the second-named species, which
attain a length of 3 inches. The timber of this dry-zone Satinwood is
just as valuable as the former species. It is fairly prevalent in the
more open forest where it is found. It withstands the annual grass fires
to some extent, and seedlings appear in the neighbourhood of mature
trees.
15. Violetwood is a medium-sized tree with a smooth bark not unlike
beech, and a bole of up to 20 feet in length and 12 feet in girth. It
is, however, a little crooked in growth, but this is not an undesirable
feature, because the texture of the grain often thus becomes figured.
Specimens which were collected showed this growth, and a few species had
a very pretty figured grain. It is quite a common tree in the peninsular
forest. The fruit of this tree is a pod about a foot long and an inch
wide, containing on the average eight oblong flattish beans. The wood is
of a greenish-brown colour, and is very hard, heavy and durable, judging
by the timber of fallen trees. The timber when planed has a scent of
violets, hence the English name which I have given to it. The tree has
not been cut for use as an export timber, though it is well worth a
trial. It is not used locally, so that all available supplies of timber
could be used for export.
16. _Pterocarpus erinaceus_ (African Rosewood) is a small tree of the
savannah forest, which is found in the Karina district and other parts
of the country. It is one of the commonest trees, and occurs in small
groups scattered throughout these forests. The timber is a reddish-brown
colour and of a similar texture to the ordinary Camwood or Padauk, of
which genus it is a member. The wood, however, of this species is much
harder than that of the others, and the coloration is often partially
streaked, both features being due probably to the much slower growth
owing to the annual grass fires. From the neighbouring territory of
Senegal the timber has been exported to France as African Rosewood,
where it finds a good market; but it is doubtful if it could compete
with the Bahia Rosewood in the English market, owing to its less
brilliant colour; the timber is, however, worth a trial.
17. _Baphia nitida_ (Camwood) is a small-sized tree, which is commonly
found at the edge of villages and in old farms. It is a somewhat slow-
growing tree, in which the heartwood forms none too early and in a
somewhat irregular manner, occasionally small patches forming
comparatively near the bark. The wood is hard, and the heartwood of a
deep claret-red colour. The timber is close grained and of fine texture,
which planes very smooth after being cut and dried. In recent years much
smaller quantities of Camwood have been sent away (see Appendix I) than
between the years 1827 and 1835 (see Appendix II), when between 5 and
802 tons were exported. In this connection, too, there can be no doubt
that Camwood is obtained from the tree known botanically as _Baphia
nitida_, because this tree is found in Sierra Leone, whereas Barwood, or
the so-called Camwood of Nigeria, the produce of _Pterocarpus
tinctorius_ or Osun, which has not yet been reported from the
neighbourhood of Sierra Leone, could not have been absolutely killed out
between the years 1835 and 1900.
III. TREES CUT FOR LOCAL USE.
1. _Morinda citrifolia?_ (the Brimstone) is the most common tree, from
which the largest amount of timber which is used locally is obtained.
Growing, as it does, with a girth up to 20 feet and a bole length of 50
feet, the local sawyers can usually make a very large number of 12-feet
planks 1 inch thick out of each tree. The chief use of this timber is
for weather-boards, which are sold at 10s. per 100 feet. All the native
houses in Freetown are faced with weather-boards of this kind of timber.
After being cut down, shoots sprout out from the stump, forming in a few
years small trees of useful size, especially in old farms. The name of
this tree, Brimstone, denotes the wonderful sulphur-like colour of the
wood. The durability of this timber for outside work and its termite-
resisting qualities have given it a premier position amongst local
timbers. The Brimstone has a fruit not unlike coffee, and bears seeds
plentifully; it should therefore not be difficult to raise seedlings for
making plantations. The trees grown from stool-shoots do not appear to
attain nearly such a large size as those grown from seedlings in the
forest.
2. _Chlorophora excelsa_ (Rock Elm, African Oak) is a common tree which
is cut for local use. The heartwood, which rapidly darkens from a light-
yellow brown colour to a dark old-oak brown colour on exposure to air,
is very durable for inside or outside work. Though white ants attacks
and destroy the sapwood, they make little or no progress in properly
seasoned heartwood. Locally it realises 10s. per 100 feet. It is
plentiful, and has a distinct tendency to spread into old farms, where
the seedlings have more light to develop than in the forest.
3. _Iyawey_ (Red Cedar, or Isganwe) is also a common tree which is cut
for local use. It is a large and straight-growing tree, and attains a
girth of about 10 feet. Owing to the wood being comparatively soft, easy
to saw and of a nice red colour, it fetches 12s. per 100 feet, which is
more than is obtained for several other local timbers.
4. _Oldfieldia Africana_ (Black Oak, Beechwood) is cut for local use,
for sale as planks at 2¼d. per foot, and uprights and beams at 3s. per
cubic foot. One of the chief uses of this timber is for the keelsons of
the locally made sea-going boats. Owing to the difficulty of the local
sawyers in handling heavy logs on the raised wooden pit-saw framework on
which the logs are sawn, only comparatively small trees are felled, and
consequently there is more waste, and undersized trees are prematurely
sacrificed owing to the poor methods of the local sawyers. Less timber,
especially heartwood, is thus obtained.
5. _Parinarium sp._ (White Oak) is a moderately common tree. It attains
a good height and a girth of 12 feet. It has large root flanges reaching
about 10 feet up the bole. Although a somewhat hard wood, it is used
locally either as planks and posts or as beams and logs. It is said to
be durable, and is worth 2s. per cubic foot when sawn.
6. _Afzelia Africana_ (Mahogany, Kontah) is a medium-sized tree which is
not very prevalent in the forest, but is much more so outside in the
open forest country. The timber, which is hard, has an open grain with a
good yellow-brown colour, not unlike Iroko. It is very durable, and used
as planks and logs. In the plank it is sold at 6d. per superficial foot,
and in the log at 3s. 6d. per cubic foot. This is considered one of the
best local woods, partly owing to its grain being somewhat similar to
mahogany. Seedlings appear in old farms where there are but few
grasshoppers. Otherwise trees grown in a nursery are attacked by these
insects, as well as by rodents of different kinds.
7. _Daniellia Ogea_ (Blue Bessie) is sold as planks at 3d. per
superficial foot. It is closely related to _Paradaniella Thurifera_; the
former tree is more prevalent in the green forest, and the latter in the
open deciduous forests, which attains a girth of 10 feet and a bole
length of 30 feet, while the first-named species reaches a girth of over
20 feet and a bole length of over 100 feet. It is sold locally chiefly
for house-building.
8. _Griffonia palescens Koronko_ is felled for sale as planks at 2½d.
per superficial foot.
9. _Coula edulis?_ (Almond Wood) is a medium-sized tree which is cut
into planks 1 to 2 inches thick and up to 12 feet long, and sold at 2½d.
per superficial foot.
10. _Rhizophora racemosa_ (Mangrove) grows in pure “stands” in the
swamps near the sea coast, chiefly in the estuaries of the rivers. It
attains a girth of 4 feet and a height of 80 feet. It is sold as poles 9
to 12 feet in diameter at the rate of 2½d. per cubic foot. Very large
areas of mangrove forest occur, so that ample supplies of this kind of
timber are assured. Locally it is often used for house-building, and is
preferred to many other timbers.
11. _Ochrocarpus Africanus_ (Mammy Apple) is a large tree attaining a
girth of 10 feet and a bole length of 30 feet. It is evidently not so
prevalent as it used to be, owing to the fact that the best trees have
been felled. Seedlings, however, appear very readily from the large
fruit when it falls in suitable germinating places in the forest. It is
much prized locally on account of its pretty grain and red mahogany-like
colour. It is sold as planks, joists or posts at 3d. or 3½d. per
superficial foot.
12. _Anisophyllea laurina_ (Monkey Apple) is a very lofty tree,
attaining a girth of 12 feet and a bole length of 40 feet. Although
moderately prevalent in the forests, it is very plentiful outside in the
deciduous forests. It shoots up very strongly from the stump after an
old tree has been cut down. Wood obtained from these stool-shoots is,
however, not so good or of such large size as that obtained from
seedling trees. The timber is a light-brown colour, but a very pretty
grain, full of medullary rays, giving it a sheen not unlike oak. Locally
it is sold as joists and posts at the price of 3d. to 6d. per
superficial foot.
13. _Lophira procera_ (Red Oak, Kokank, also known as Ironpost) is sold
as planks, posts and beams at 3½d. to 6d. per superficial foot. It is
chiefly used for house-building. A full description of this tree is
given under the heading of the export timbers, so that nothing more need
be added here.
14. _Parinarium excelsum_ (Rough-skinned Plum) is a very common tree,
which attains a girth of 12 feet and a bole length of 30 feet. It yields
a hard timber with open grain. It is sold locally as planks or logs at
6d. per cubic foot for building timber. The fruit, which, as the name
indicates, is like a green plum, is covered with white lenticels, making
the surface very rough. The flesh is of a yellowish colour and soft,
with a pasty nature. It has a sweet, pleasant taste. The wood, when
freshly cut, has a sweet, beeswax-like scent, similar to that of the
fruit.
15. Whismore, which is sold as planks at 2½d. per superficial foot, is
another very useful timber, not unlike cedar in texture. The tree comes
up very readily in old farms, and has very large tripinnate leaves.
Apparently it grows very fast, though this does not appear to hinder the
early formation of heartwood, which is of a very light brown colour,
though the sapwood is quite white. It attains a girth of about 9 feet
and a bole length of 50 feet. The bark forms very characteristic
fissures, dividing it into more or less diamond-shaped pieces, rather
reminiscent of the European Elm. Although the tree does not occur in
actual groups, more than one will usually be found in the same locality.
16. _Uapaca Heudelotti_ (Sugar Plum, Red Cedar) is a large tree with
rather a spread of crown and numerous aerial roots. It attains a girth
of 9 feet and a bole length of 20 feet. The timber has a close and fine
grain, and is of a reddish colour. Locally it is cut and used for the
ribs of sea-going boats. It is apparently quite durable for this
purpose. It is very prevalent, and usually grows near waterways.
17. _Pycnanthus Kombo_ (White Cedar) is a very large tree which attains
a girth of 12 feet and a bole length of 80 feet. It is very prevalent,
and can be recognised by the flat crown and long straight branches
coming out at right angles to the stem. When cut it exudes a reddish-
coloured mass of semi-liquid nature. The bark reminds one of the
Mahoganies, though on the whole it is more fissured. The timber is soft
and of a pinkish colour, though it gives more the impression that it is
white and tinged with red. It has a very open grain with particularly
long pores, reminding one of cedar (_Cedrela_). It is cut locally for
sale as planks.
18. _Pterocarpus Erinaceus_ (African Rosewood) is mentioned amongst the
number of possible export timber-bearing trees. It is also used locally
in the making of a musical instrument called Balangi, after the timber
has lain some months in the ground. In the drier portions of the country
it is a useful tree for house-building. It seeds readily, and is usually
found in large quantities.
19. _Baphia nitida_ (Camwood) is also one of the export produce bearing
trees, but which has been used as a colouring matter for putting on the
body from time immemorial. The local people, however, prefer to use
cakes of the ground-up produce of the Barwood (_Pterocarpus Tinctorius_)
from Southern Nigeria, which commands a higher price. That this product
of _Baphia nitida_ is the true Camwood is practically proved by the fact
that this tree was first identified from Sierra Leone, whence it is all
exported, and also by the fact that Barwood, or the Southern Nigeria
Camwood, is not found in Sierra Leone.
Although the above completes the description of the most important local
timber trees, there are many others which might be used with
satisfaction. One of these trees, known as Yabonji by the Mendis, has a
grain, colour and softness similar to white pine, and is sold locally as
yellow pine. _Erythrophlœum Guineense_ (Sassybark) yields a hard timber
suitable for bridge-building, as it is very durable and grows to a large
size, though not always with a very long bole. Mountain Mahogany, a
species of Lonchocarpus, has a grain similar to pine, with resin-like
canals in the wood. It grows to a large size, with a straight bole 50
feet in length and a girth of 10 feet. Combwood (_Conapharingia
pachysiphon_) is a small tree, which yields a yellow wood similar in
texture and grain to boxwood, though a little softer. Locally it is used
for making native combs. There is also a so-called Leopardwood, termed
Koligi by the Mendis, which has a curious striped grain a little
reminiscent of a leopard’s skin; hence the name. The local inhabitants
have various chewsticks, which are obtained from guttiferous trees or
Vernonia species. _Carapa Gayensis_ is found and used locally both as a
timber and also the seeds for making an oil for the skin. In connection
with all this local felling it should be noticed that there is scope for
sawn timber of all kinds, more especially when it is taken in
conjunction with the fact that over 2,000,000 feet board measure of
planks, etc., are imported every year. A small mill placed near Bureh
Town would probably be able to supply all wants as far as Freetown and
the immediate neighbourhood were concerned, and water power might be
available from the Gumah River, which flows down very rapidly to the
sea. A mill, on the whole, is more economical in conversion than the
local sawyer, as all slabs are left to rot in the forest, but these a
mill would consume in power-making, or they would be resawn into smaller
boards or shingles. At present there is no sawmill in the whole country,
so that there is an open field for this venture, with a forest adjacent
to the market and suitable conditions of labour.
IV. MINOR FOREST PRODUCE.
No account of the Sierra Leone forest would be complete without a
description of the two chief vegetable products of the forest, namely
Palm Oil and Kernels and Gum Copal.
Turning first of all to Gum Copal, known botanically as _Copaifera
Salikounda_, which is a true copal gum, not to be confused with the gum
from _Daniellia Ogea_ and other allied species, illustrations Nos. 8 and
9 show this tree standing in the open, and also the shape of the trunk
at nearer inspection. It will be seen that it is rather a tall tree,
with open thin crown and straight upward-spreading branches. The bole
usually does not exceed 30 feet in length, and then forks or divides
into three main stems. The curious marks on the stem, making the tree
look as if it were attacked with some form of canker, are those made by
tapping the trees for the gum. At the beginning of the dry season small
squares of bark, about an inch across, are removed from the tree,
beginning at the ground, upwards to 20 and 30 feet. At the corners of
each little square gum gradually exudes during the dry season in the
form of an ever-increasing sized globular tear, which hardens on
exposure to the air. By the end of the dry season, as in February or
March, it has attained a size of half an inch or so, and is then quite
hard and white and nearly transparent. Only a few little pieces of bark
adhere to its surface, and these are easily removed. Then these tears
are collected in a bag, sorted, and then sold to the European firms in
Sierra Leone and elsewhere. The average tree yields 1 lb. of gum copal
per year.
In the peninsular forest a patch of Gum Copal trees is found near Bureh
Town. In the Protectorate, irregular belts occur, such as that on the
Kassewe Hills and north of Moyamba. On the banks of the Rokell River,
too, it occurs in single specimens dotted along the bank. The smooth
grey bark of the stem is not unlike Beech, except for the fact that it
is pitted by the tapping squares, which occlude only very gradually.
The leaves are in pairs, but have such a straight inner edge that they
appear like one leaf which has been cut in half down the middle. The
main vein of the leaf is at one side of it. In this manner the leaf is
unmistakable, though a Cynometra leaf is somewhat similar, and also a
Bauhinia; but in the former the vein is more in the centre and the
leaves are quite separate and not close together, and in the latter they
are joined at the base. The tree appears to be easily killed by
overtapping. Before the formation of the Forest Department, whole
forests had been destroyed in this way, one of which I saw north of
Moyamba during an inspection of the Gum Copal belt.
The timber of this tree is a red-brown colour, of hard texture, with a
pretty grain. It is, of course, of the type of purple-heart. It is very
durable and termite-proof, though a borer attacks it slightly. The wood
of trees killed by overtapping proves to be quite sound and useful for
any purpose where a hard timber is required.
The tree can be grown from the flat, round, paper-like seeds, which are
bought at £1 a bushel in Sierra Leone. The tree usually bears well, and
the seed is collected off the ground. Young self-sown seedlings are
found, which shows that the seeds germinate readily too. It does not
stand transplanting very well, but with care soon recovers. It grows
rapidly, and reaches a tapable size in ten years, approximately. It does
not seem very exacting with regard to soil. In the peninsula it grows on
rocky soil, and in Moyamba on an alluvial soil.
Recently the exports have decreased, as the following figures show,
chiefly owing to the destruction of the trees by overtapping. However,
when the forests have recovered, the younger trees have matured, and the
trees since planted are in bearing, and an increase may be expected. It
is the most valuable, Gum Copal usually being worth 8d. to 1s. 6d. a
pound, but if quite clean and white it fetches as much as 2s. 6d. a
pound. Its chief use is for varnish-making, though the best grades are
used for pharmaceutical preparations. It is far easier to tap than
rubber, and the cost of preparation is therefore very low, so that it
should prove worth cultivating on a large scale. The market for Gum
Copal is a comparatively large one, and other sources of supply, such as
those of Kauri Gum from New Zealand, are decreasing, or not entirely
meeting the demand. It is only a question of time before the whole
supply will have to be obtained from cultivated trees.
It stands a certain amount of shade during the first four years, but
from the fifth year onwards it is distinctly a light-loving species. On
the whole it is almost a gregarious tree, as usually groups of trees are
found up to fifty or more, and in a whole forest the prevalent tree will
be Gum Copal; for instance, in the Gum Copal belt near Susuwuru. A
planting distance of 6 feet will probably prove advantageous, as the
tree has a distinct tendency to branch low down on the stem if not
forced to grow up straight by the presence of other trees. Then in the
tenth year a judicious thinning out of the weakest trees by tapping to
death would give additional space to the others and allow for greater
girth increment for the other clean-stemmed trees. An early financial
yield would also thus be obtained.
In the economy of the country, more important even than the Gum Copal is
the Oil Palm (_Elæis Guineensis_), which is found in the Forest,
scattered in groups and belts amongst farms inland, as at Blama, and
near the sea coast, as at Sherbro, and also as isolated individual trees
in the drier parts of the Protectorate. Towards the northernmost part of
the country it is not seen at all, though climatically there is nothing
to stop it growing if planted in suitable localities. It tends to spread
with increasing cultivation of the ground, so long as the rainfall is
sufficient and the soil moist enough for it. In the forest itself it is
very sparsely distributed. Owing to the large population and the
comparatively small area on which the Oil Palm is really plentiful, more
palm oil is eaten than exported. This is most clearly seen in the
quantity of exports of both products, which show a much larger
proportion of kernels than oil.
The fruit usually ripens in January, February, March, or sometimes
earlier, and is left for six months. Usually the trees have to some
extent been cleared by the natives, then on a certain day the bunches of
fruit may be cut. This takes place after the natives have cut the bush
down for making the chief’s farm. It also ensures, incidentally, that
most of the fruit is quite ripe, though this is not the reason why the
natives may not begin cutting off the bunches when they like. The
bunches of fruit are left in the forest at convenient places at the edge
of the path, covered with palm leaves. After a week or so these are
taken to the village, and all the drupes cut off with a machete. These
are next put in large earthenware pots with a little water, which are
then placed over a good fire. In about an hour the fruit is thoroughly
steamed. The fruit is then piled into a trough of beaten clay with a
palm-nut bottom, or even stones. Water is poured in, and the fruit is
pounded with the feet and also with a small pestle. The oil gradually
rises in yellow fatty masses on the surface of the water, and is
collected with the hand and put into a clean pot. As soon as a pot is
filled, it is placed over a good fire to boil. When it has been boiled
thoroughly it is strained, the strained oil being that usually eaten or
sold to firms for export. The residue of dirt and pieces of fibre is
used as an illuminant in the native lamps. The nuts are placed in the
sun to dry for two or three months, after which they are cracked with a
stone or a piece of iron and the kernels collected in boxes or bags for
sale. The fibre in the washing trough is thoroughly squeezed by hand and
all oil extracted. The water is let out of the trough gradually, and all
oil collected from the sides of it. It is also washed down with water to
collect the more adhesive particles. Even so, there is a large
percentage of waste. An oil is also made from the kernels by heating
them in an iron vessel over a fire. This oil is used for the skin or for
wounds.
In the ordinary way oil palms are not planted, though in moving to a new
area where farms have not been made before the natives take oil-palm
fruit with them, which get scattered as nuts; these germinate and form
the nucleus of a group of oil palms in that locality. Considering the
large population and its increasing need for the oil, the planting of
oil palms appears to be remunerative.
Palm Wine-tree (_Raphia vinifera_) is used very largely where it is
found in the extensive forests near the rivers and sea coast in swampy
places. Piassava fibre is obtained from this source, but so far has not
been used in Sierra Leone for this purpose, whereas in the neighbouring
country some of the best piassava is obtained. The people are, however,
otherwise occupied, so that until there is a greater population it is
unlikely that this industry will be taken up. The approximate area of
wine palms is 3,000 square miles in various parts of the whole country.
Some of the best areas are found on the banks of the Mano, Morro, Maho
and Rokell Rivers. The long fronds of the leaves yield the steering and
pushing poles for canoes, also most useful rafters and scantlings for
houses. The leaves themselves are made into mats for covering the
houses. They are said to last seven years when properly put on. The
fruit of the tree is used for stupefying fish, which can then be very
easily speared by the natives. The tree is usually set on fire to draw
the palm wine, though this more often happens subsequently to the taking
of the wine. A tree does not last more than three years with severe
tapping, such as it is subject to by the natives.
_Borassus flabellifer_ (Fan Palm, Bottle Palm) is found in the northern,
drier part of the Protectorate, but so far is not used to any extent for
house-building, for which the timber is most suitable, being very
durable, of good length, and can be split. The nuts of the large
coconut-like fruit are useful as a substitute for vegetable ivory,
though thus far no use has been made of them. The approximate area of
distribution of this species of tree is about 4,000 square miles. Quite
a trade is done in various kinds of bark, altogether from about fifteen
different species of trees, of which most are collected in the
Peninsular Forest. Amongst them is found the Sasswood, or that of
_Erythrophlœum Guineense_, the notorious native poison, though it is not
at all certain that nowadays in Sierra Leone it is used for this
purpose.
V. THE FOREST DEPARTMENT OF SIERRA LEONE.
In the course of 1911 a Forest Department was formed by the appointment
of a Conservator of Forests; this has been gradually enlarged until
there are now three Assistant Conservators of Forests as well. The chief
work of the Department so far has been the drafting and passing of a
Forestry Ordinance in 1912 and the demarcation of two Forest Reserves.
The Peninsular Forest, with its new boundaries, comprises 75 square
miles, and the Kassewe Hill. Other areas have been set aside, notably
the Kagnari Hills and Kambui Hills as Forest Reserves, and Nimmini and
Loma Forests examined previous to demarcation with a view to their
reservation. The Gum Forests were closed to tappers with the consent of
the chief, so that the trees could recover from previous overtapping. In
addition to this work, some rubber planting has been done in the Gumah,
and one Assistant spends all his time on this work, nurseries having
been formed in different places—Mano, Bo, and Falaba. A large number of
botanical specimens of the trees and shrubs have been forwarded to Kew
for identification, so that gradually the silvan vegetation is becoming
known. No planting of oil palms (_Elæis Guineensis_) has been undertaken
yet, despite the large export of this product. Rubber planting has not
been forgotten either. So far very little revenue has been received for
timber-felling fees, which means really that in the past the forests
have been destroyed, and now only small quantities can be cut. It does
indeed make one pause and think what immense forests must have existed
in the days of 1827, when so many loads of timber were exported, as
shown in the table on p. 64. If those forests had been preserved then,
they would be yielding high returns now, and the Department would be
self-supporting, instead of having money invested first in plantations
before returns are obtained. However, now that the Department has been
formed, a definite Forest Ordinance has been passed, under which Forest
Reserves can be made, and the future of the existing forests is thus
assured. Sooner or later all of them will yield a monetary return,
besides benefiting the country climatically and preserving the soil.
One can really look upon Forestry as a kind of Endowment Assurance, with
returns which may begin at once with existing forests, or later with
afforestation begun now. The return is always sure, more especially now,
with continually rising timber prices. In Sierra Leone, of course, for
some years money will have to be put into Forestry work before adequate
returns can be made, owing to the reckless mismanagement of the forest
in the early part of the nineteenth century. For the purpose of easy
reference, a list of some of the most important timber trees is
appended, and with both the Mendi and Timani names, when it is possible
to give these, and an English equivalent is also given where one uses a
name suggestive of the use of the timber.
So far the Department has not leased any areas for the exploitation of
timber for export or local use, though there are several areas
available, such as the peninsular forest. Even an organization of the
sawyers and boat-builders would be a useful work, and machinery for
cutting the various woods would lead to greater production and a saving
of timber, of which so much is now wasted. Again, the enormous demand
for firewood in Freetown, most of which is waterborne, could be more
advantageously met with a small sawmill or movable plant in connection
with the other wood-using industries already named. The mangrove swamps
would provide material ready at hand for conversion. The railway
requires firewood at certain points; there again is scope for improved
methods of dealing with it, yielding profit both to the contractor and
to the Forest Department.
[Illustration: FIG. 7.—=Pterocarpus esculentus in flower near Fakar
Kole, at the edge of the Peninsular Forest.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 8.—=Forest of true Gum Copal (Copaifera salikounda),
showing nearly all the trees bare of foliage and dying, due to
overtapping, near Sussuwuru, Moyamba District.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 9.—=True Gum Copal (Copaifera salikounda), showing
base of stem with tapping squares, near the bank of the Rokell River,
north of Moyamba District.=]
To face p. 40.
VI.—INDIGENOUS FOREST TREES
Species marked with an asterisk (*) are Lane Poole’s[1]; those marked
with an obelisk (†) are the Author’s.
=Pandanaceæ.=
_Pandanus candelabrum_. Screw Pine. Bambi (Mendi).
_Pandanus sp._ near _P. candelabrum_.* Screw Pine. Pambei (Mendi).
It is a tree with wide-spreading prop roots always growing in running
fresh water. The leaves are used in basket-making.
=Palmæ.=
_Elæis Guineensis_.* Oil Palm. Ankump (Timani); Tui, Tauwi, Taupwi
(young trees), (Mendi).
The well-known Oil Palm. It is a most useful tree, thriving best near
villages, but growing abundantly in the northern part of the forests.
The nuts contain a large quantity of oil. They are used also for
planting.
_Borassus flabellifer_.* Fan or Daleb Palm. Tunka (Timani); Hoke
(Mendi).
It grows to about 70 feet in the grass country. Umbrellas are made
from the leaves, also baskets. The stems are used for building-posts.
_Raphia vinifera_.* Wine Palm. Ankent (Timani); Duvui (Mendi).
Sometimes called the Tombo Palm. It is very gregarious, being
frequently found forming almost a small forest in swampy ground.
_Raphia sp._ near _R. Gaertneri_.* Kili (Mendi).
It is a small plant of only 10 feet, growing in the swamps. It does
not yield wine. Baskets and mats are made from the leaf stalks and
thatch from the leaves.
_Calamus sp._* Balui (Mendi).
This is a climbing palm or rattan, growing to the top of the highest
trees, having a diameter of 2 inches, armed with strong hooked spines.
The stem, when split, is used for tying the rafters of houses; lengths
of it are used as clothes-lines. Suspension bridges are even made over
the river.
_Calamus sp._* Tambelei (Mendi).
This species grows as high as the preceding one, but is only ½ inch in
diameter. Besides being used as cordage, it is employed as thatching.
=Liliaceæ.=
_Dracæna Mannii_.* Ningei (Mendi).
This tree grows to 30 feet in height, and is called the Asparagus Tree
by Europeans, because the flavour of the young leaves is like
asparagus. The natives eat them chopped with their rice.
=Ulmaceæ.=
_Trema affinis_.* Gombei (Mendi).
A small tree, from 25 to 30 feet. It springs up in cleared farms; the
wood is of little use except as thatching laths. The bark is peeled
and eaten for coughs.
_Trema Africana_.* †
A medium-sized tree.
=Moraceæ.=
_Ficus Vogelii_.* Jol, Lopi (Timani); Gonwi (Mendi).
A much-branched tree, yielding a latex, which coagulated has been sold
at from 6d. to 1s. a lb. in London as paste rubber.
_Ficus sp._* Wild Fig or Sandpaper Tree. Indäihen (Mendi).
This species has rough leaves like sandpaper, hence its name. They are
used to clean woodwork.
_Ficus platyphytes_. Gonwé (Mendi).
_Chlorophora excelsa_.* Iroko, Teak, African Oak. Tema (Timani); Sime
or Semei (Mendi).
It is found particularly near old clearings, but not so frequently in
the forest. It is a termite-resisting timber; called Teak, Oroko or
African Oak, when exported, it is worth about 1½d. per superficial
foot. At one time the latex was used as an adulterant for rubber. It
polishes well and makes very handsome furniture. Canoes, pestles,
rice-basins, etc., are made from it. Dr. Unwin suggests that Iroko is
a corruption for rock elm.
_Musanga Smithii_.* Corkwood. Ofika (Timani); Govwi (Mendi).
It is a common tree, growing to about 60 feet in old farm lands, and
affords a shade for forest species to get a footing. It is remarkable
for its wide-spreading prop roots and large palmate leaves.
_Myrianthus arboreus_.* Fofoi (Mendi).
A small tree.
_Myrianthus sp._* Fofoi (Mendi).
A small tree.
_Myrianthus serratus_.* Fofoi (Mendi).
A small tree with edible fruit.
=Olacaceæ.=
_Coula edulis_.* Tokei (Mendi).
It is a large tree bearing walnut-like nuts, the kernels of which are
good to eat both raw and cooked. Oil is obtained from the kernels,
which are valued at £7 a ton.
_Olax_.*
A small tree.
=Loranthaceæ.=
_Loranthus langwensis_.* Mistletoe. Gongui (Mendi).
This is the common mistletoe, which may be seen growing on a great
number of trees. Specially common on Guava and Kola Trees.
=Menispermaceæ.=
_Triclisia macrophylla_. Ndawi (Mendi).
A climbing shrub.
=Anonaceæ.=
_Xylopia Æthiopica_.* The Spice Tree. Umberikum (Timani); Kewe or Hewe
(Mendi).
Its fruit is much in demand as medicine.
_Xylopia sp. Dinklagei_.* Mountain Spice. Kapus (Timani); Hui, Hewe
(Mendi).
_Monodora Myristica_.* Calabash Nutmeg or False Nutmeg. Gboite (Mendi).
It is a medium-sized tree, with rose-pink, sweet-smelling flowers. The
fruit is the false nutmeg.
_Xylopia sp._ near _X. Elliotii_.* Yellow Wood. Belvi or Kpaini
(Mendi).
This tree grows to a medium height, with thin but very straight stem
up to 18 inches in diameter. Its wood has been exported to Europe,
where it has taken the place of American whitewood.
_Xylopia parviflora_.*
A tall tree of 20 feet, growing on the bank of the Moa River.
_Cleistopholis sp._ near _C. patens_.* Moigbwamy (Mendi).
This tree grows to a height of 80 feet. Strips of the bark are used by
the natives for making brow-bands and shoulder-straps when carrying
palm hampers.
_Hexalobus grandiflorus_.* Njahewe (Mendi).
It is a large, wide-crowned tree, with conspicuous white flowers.
_Pachypodanthium Staudtii_.*
A large-boled forest tree, with grey, rough bark, of which the timber
is very hard to saw.
_Stenanthera hamata_.*
A small tree.
_Uvaria Afzelii_.*
A tree of 15 feet in height, with very heavy-scented flowers.
_Uvaria sp._*
A tall, straight tree, with blackish-green longitudinally ribbed bark.
_Uvaria macrocarpa_.* Finger Root.
This tree is found 15 feet in height. The root is used medicinally by
the Creoles, and by them called Finger Root.
=Myristicaceæ.=
_Pycnanthus Kombo_.* White Cedar. Kuwul (Timani); Boye (Mendi).
It is a very tall tree, attaining a girth of 12 feet, which is cut
locally, but not for export, owing to its soft wood and open grain.
=Moringaceæ.=
_Moringa pterygosperma_.* Horse-radish Tree; or Oil of Ben Tree.
The oil in the seeds is 38 per cent., and they are valued at £9 a ton
in London. The oil is suitable for lubricating clocks and watches. The
wood is not used.
=Rosaceæ.=
_Parinarium macrophyllum_.* Gingerbread Plum. Ndawei (Mendi).
It is a small tree bearing a fruit the size of a goose’s egg. The
fruit is the edible ginger-plum.
_Parinarium excelsum_.* Rough-skinned Plum. Abbis (Timani); Ndanwi
Badgi (Mendi).
This tree attains a large size and seeds very readily. It yields a
useful hardwood; is felled locally and for building purposes. The
grain of the wood is too open to be of much use for export. It is of a
reddish-brown colour. The pulp around the seed is eaten.
=Leguminosæ.=
_Paradaniella thurifera_.* Ilorin Balsam Tree. Bessi (Timani); Bessi
Kpessei or Gbassei (Mendi).
A quick-growing, soft-wooded tree, pretty evenly distributed through
the forest. It attains a girth of 9 feet and a bole length of 30 feet.
It is cut locally for house-building and other purposes. A fragrant
resin is exuded and much used as a scent by the Creoles and natives.
_Erythrophlœum Guineense_. Sasswood. Kukorn (Timani); Gogwi (Mendi).
A large but not very straight-growing tree, which attains a girth of 9
feet. It has been exported, but the price obtained for it is not
available. The wood is hard, but works up well, and has been used by
the Public Works Department of Southern Nigeria.
_Erythrophlœum sp._ near _E. micranthum_.* † Sasswood or Redwater Tree.
The bark contains a virulent poison, which is used as an ordeal. It is
a large forest tree, having a green bole. The wood is used to make
canoes.
_Erythrina Senegalensis_.*
A tree 20 feet high, with handsome red flowers. The branches are armed
with prickles. The wood is used for fencing.
_Erythrina sp._* Malei (Mendi).
This is a large tree, 80 feet in height, with wide-spreading branches.
The stem is pale grey and covered with strong prickles. The flowers
are pink.
_Piptadenia Africana_.* K’Kuperb (Timani); Mbeli or Mbelignli (Mendi).
This tree is very plentiful, and attains a large size. The wood is of
a brown colour, hard and durable. Strong canoes are made from it.
_Cynometra Vogelii_.*
A small tree.
_Xylia Evansii_.* † Bunga (Timani); Tegai (Mendi).
A medium tree.
_Griffonia palescens_. Koronko (Timani); Koronko (Mendi).
_Pentaclethra macrophylla_.* Oil Bean Tree. Kekung (Timani); Fai, Fae
(Mendi).
The wood is of a brown colour, hard and durable. The natives use the
ashes of the burnt pods for making soap. The wood is sold for 1s. 1d.
per cubic foot in the English market.
_Parkia Africana_. Locust Bean. Ebbe (Timani); Gumwi (Mendi).
_Parkia filicoidea_. Forest Locust. Gimwi (Mendi).
_Parkia biglobosa_.* Locust Bean.
A wide crowned tree, 50 feet in height, bearing conspicuous red
flowers and long pods. The pulp around the seed is edible, but the
seed itself is considered a great delicacy ground and mixed in soup.
_Parkia sp._ Gumni (Mendi).
The tree is much like the _P. biglobosa_, but is found growing wild in
the forests. It differs in having well-developed buttress roots. The
seed is not eaten.
_Lonchocarpus_. Mountain Mahogany. Ali (Timani); Jumbowill (Mendi),
probably Peltophorum sp.
A very tall and straight tree, with a bole of 50 feet and a girth of
10 feet. It is found everywhere, especially on the edges of old
clearings and in old farms. It has been felled for export, but no data
are available as to its worth. The wood resembles pine, being soft and
full of resin-like canals.
_Lonchocarpus cyanescens_.* Big-leaved Indigo. Jalei, Walwei (Mendi).
A valuable dye is obtained from the leaves, which takes the place of
indigo and is sold at from 4s. to 4s. 6d. a pound in England.
_Lonchocarpus sericeus_.*
A branched and gnarled tree growing on the sea shore, its roots often
being washed by the tide. The timber is close-grained, hard and
durable.
_Cassia Sieberiana_.* Bongbo or Bangbwei (Mendi).
A small tree bearing handsome yellow flowers. A decoction is made from
the root to ease elephantiasis, also stomach troubles.
_Copaifera Guibourtiana_.* Sierra Leone Gum Copal. Akak (Timani); Kobwi
(Mendi).
This tree was found growing on the ridges and low-lying land near York
and Bureh Town, also in Ronietta, Karene District, and Kassewe Hills.
It is noted for its gum. The dead wood works up very well, having a
fine grain and red colour, and should be of value for export. Locally
it has only been used for bridge-building. The average price paid by
local traders for the gum appears to be 1s. a pound.
_Copaifera salikounda_.* Buini (Mendi).
A large tree.
_Pterocarpus esculentus_. Atont (Timani); Batwi (Mendi).
_Pterocarpus erinaceus_.* Rosewood. Katai (Timani); Bundwi Batwi
(Mendi).
This is a small but valuable tree, confined principally to the drier
parts of the country, particularly in the Karina forests. The wood
finds a good market in France. Locally it is used to make a musical
instrument called “Balangi.” The seeds are intoxicating when eaten
raw.
_Macrolobium sp._ Jamostima (Mendi).
_Macrolobium Palisotii_. K’Pal (Timani); Bumbi (Mendi).
_Macrolobium sp.?_* _Limba?_ African Violet Wood. Tunfall (Timani);
Pfandi or Mbombi (Mendi).
It yields a wood with a pleasant scent, which grows to a stem length
of 20 feet and girth of 12 feet. The wood would probably be figured,
owing to its peculiar growth, ebony-like, hard, heavy and of a
greenish-brown colour. It bears a pod about a foot long and an inch
wide. The tree grows in great quantities, but it is not used locally,
owing to its hardness. It should be tried in European markets.
_Macrolobium elongatum_.*
It is a small shrubby tree.
_Macrolobium sp._ near _M. Heudelotii_.* †
A medium-sized tree found chiefly near water. The pod is larger than
the other Macrolobiums.
_Macrolobium Limba_.* Mbombi (Mendi).
This tree reaches a height of 40 feet. Its roasted leaves, when ground
and mixed with water and ashes, are used for ulcers.
_Dialium Guineense_.* Black Tumbler or Velvet Tamarind. Mabump (Temni),
(Timani); Mamboi (Mendi).
A medium-sized tree bearing edible, velvety seed-vessels.
_Dialium Senegalense_. Black Tumbler. Baut, I (Timani); Burogono Mambui
(Mendi).
_Afzelia bracteata_.* Konta. Konta (Timani); Bendiguri or Kpendeideli
(Mendi).
_Afzelia Africana_.*
These two trees are very much alike as far as timber is concerned. The
wood is much used locally, and it may be of value for export, as the
texture is similar to mahogany. The _A. Africana_ yields a
particularly good mahogany substitute under the name of Kontah or
Counter wood.
_Afzelia sp._*
A large-crowned tree.
_Berlinia acuminata_.* Kpendei (Mendi).
This tree grows to a height of 80 feet, having a very conspicuous
flower. It is much used in cabinet-making.
_B. Heudelotiana_.* Helei (Mendi).
A large tree, 50 feet in height.
_B. sp._ near _B. stipulaceæ_.* Tzabembi (Mendi).
A large tree, the seeds of which are made into counters by the Mendis
to play Warry.
_Brachystegia sp._* Bodgei (Mendi).
It reaches the height of 150 feet, and is one of the largest forest
trees, with wide buttress roots.
_Cryptosepalum tetraphyllum_.* Hellebolei (Mendi).
A large tree.
_Cylicodiscus gabunensis_.* African Greenheart. Mbeli-deli (Mendi).
It is very similar to _Piptadenia Africana_ in appearance, and also
yields a strong, hard wood.
_Dalbergia sp._* Dalbergia Rosewood. Balakenta (Timani); Firbandu
Ndambabuli (Mendi).
A small tree.
_Baphia polygalaceæ_.* Ndambabuli (Mendi).
A climber, 10 feet in height. The stem used for killing fish.
_Baphia nitida_.* Camwood Tree. Mat, Kam (Timani); Bendwi or Bunduei
(Mendi).
A small tree from which dyewood, a fast red dye, is obtained. The wood
is hard and heavy, and is used for rice-mortar pestles and walking-
sticks.
_Albizzia Brownii_.* Albizzia. Bakbwi or Bpakpei (Mendi).
This is a medium-sized tree yielding a reddish wood of moderately fine
grain, somewhat resembling mahogany. The heartwood is very pretty. It
should be saleable in Liverpool market.
_Albizzia fastigiata_.* Folei-kpakpei, Bakbaboi (Mendi).
This species rarely attains a diameter at the base of more than 18
inches. It nearly always has a rotten heart.
_Detarium Senegalense_.* Mahogany, Dita. Kita (Timani); Dupwi II, Kolei
(Mendi).
It is a very lofty tree, which yields a wood sold as mahogany in the
Liverpool market. The grain is not so close as is usual in mahogany,
but the colour is good. The fruit is edible and eaten locally. Dita is
the name given to it. It is not very common.
_Detarium sp._*
A large tree of 60 or 70 feet in height, probably a new species.
_Millettia_ cf. _drastica_.*
A small tree.
_Millettia Lane-Poolei_.* Togbeli (Mendi).
A small tree or shrub about 15 feet in height, with white, scentless
flowers. There are three other varieties, with flowers ranging from
white and pink to mauve.
_Millettia pallens_.*
A medium-sized tree with mauve flowers.
_Millettia sp._ near _M. Sangana_.*
A medium-sized tree with erect pods and mauve flowers.
_Millettia rhodantha_.*
A medium-sized tree with yellow, aromatic wood.
_Mimosa Dinklagei_.* Gumgui (Mendi).
A medium-sized tree, 50 feet in height.
_Newtonia insignis_.*
A tree about 80 feet in height, with well developed buttress roots.
_Peltophorum_.* Njomboguli (Mendi).
A large tree.
_Ormosia monophylla_.*
=Linaceæ.=
_Ochthocosmus Africanum_.* Tuanyei (Mendi).
A small, fairly common tree.
=Humiriaceæ.=
_Saccoglottis Gabunensis_.*
This tree yields a first-class timber. The bark strips off cleanly and
is sold in Calabar at 5s. a roll 30 inches long and 18 inches in
diameter.
=Rutaceæ.=
_Zanthoxylum macrophyllum_.* Spiny Satinwood. Witkoran (Timani); Pfui
II (Mendi).
This tree yields a very pretty yellow wood, with a somewhat open
grain.
_Zanthoxylum sp._ Satinwood. Bek (Timani); Pfui (Mendi).
A medium-sized tree, with most peculiar conically shaped woody
protrusions on the bark. It has not been cut locally.
_Zanthoxylum rubescens_.*
An armed tree from 12 to 15 feet high.
=Burseraceæ.=
_Canarium Schweinfurthii_. White Mahogany. Beri (Mendi).
This tree is not very common. A very large tree which has been found
150 feet high, with a bole of 70 feet and a girth of 10 feet. It could
be cut locally and would make a valuable addition to local furniture
woods. It is, however, hard to saw.
=Meliaceæ.=
_Lovoa Klaineana_.* † African Walnut.
It is a medium-sized tree, not very common; the value of the timber
varies from 1¾d. to 3d. per foot.
_Lovoa sp._ near _L. Klaineana_. African Walnut.
A medium-sized tree.
_Carapa procera_.* Crabwood, Coondi, Kakunt (Timani); Kuwi Kowi
(Mendi).
It is a medium-sized tree, which is evenly distributed everywhere. It
yields a mahogany-like wood, which has been sold in the Liverpool
market.
_Carapa Gayensis_.
_Guarea_. Satin Mahogany. Kaffi (Mendi).
A fair-sized tree, having a grain similar to mahogany, but with a
satiny sheen which may make it very valuable. It is not cut locally,
but might be tried for export.
_Guarea sp._ near _leptotricha_.* † Kaffi (Mendi).
A tree.
_Pseudocedrela_. Cedar Mahogany. Bissimi (Mendi).
This tree grows to a very large size. The timber is similar to that of
a tree found in Southern Nigeria, but it appears to be a different
species; the sapwood is wider and the heartwood has a better colour.
It is fairly common.
_Pseudocedrela sp._ near _P. utilis_.*
A large tall tree, yielding a handsome wood.
_Ekebergia_.*
Medium-sized tree.
_Khaya_.*
Dr. A. H. Unwin found a Khaya in a Gola forest which has since been
ceded to Liberia. The Khayas yield timber (African Mahogany), gum,
tanning-barks and medicaments.
_Trichilia Heudelotii_.*
_Trichilia sp._ near _T. Prieuriana_.*
A medium-sized tree.
_Trichilia sp._* Jawei (Mendi).
_Turræa sp._*
A small tree, from 12 to 15 feet.
=Polygalaceæ.=
_Carpolobia alba_.* Bofelei or Gibofoyoi (Mendi).
It is a small tree called Poor Man’s Candle.
_Carpolobia lutea_.*
A shrub or small tree.
=Dichapetalaceæ.=
_Chailletia toxicaria_.* Magbevi (Mendi).
A violent poison is made from the kernel, used by the natives to
destroy dogs and vermin. They have also used it to poison well-water
in hostile villages. The pulp of the fruit is harmless and edible.
=Euphorbiaceæ.=
_Ricinodendron Heudelotii_. Mahogany. Kino (Timani); Boi (Mendi).
This tree yields a mahogany valued at 2d.-3½d. per superficial foot.
It is rather an uncommon tree, but as it seeds very readily and
develops rapidly, more could be planted. A large number are found
along the river banks.
_Ricinodendron Africanus_.* Gbolei (Mendi).
A tree 90 feet high with horse-chestnutlike leaf. The timber is soft,
and used for making masks for Bundu devils, also rice spoons and
plates. The seeds are rich in oil, but the natives do not extract it;
they are, however, used by the native women in the rattle for their
Bundu dance.
_Uapaca Guineensis_.* Sugar Plum, Red Cedar. Kulil (Timani); Kondi
(Mendi).
A large spreading tree with aerial roots. It is cut locally and used
for the ribs of local boats. The wood is of a reddish colour and fine
grain, which might sell as mahogany. Some species yield edible fruits.
_Uapaca Heudelotii_.*
This is a tree growing up to 60 feet along the bank of the Moo River.
_Uapaca Togoensis_.*
This tree grows in the riverside forests.
_Oldfieldia Africana_.* Real African Oak. Tortorza (Timani); Paulai,
Pawi Kpaoloe (Mendi).
This tree attains a large size, a height of 120 feet and diameter at
the base of 5½ feet. The bole often reaches 60 feet without a branch,
though sometimes the bole is short, owing to its growing in a laterite
soil. It is more frequent in the southern than the northern forests.
It has not been cut locally, though the natives recognise it as a very
hard wood. It has been used for dock gates.
_Cyclostemon_. Toye (Mendi).
_Flueggea microcarpa_.* Tigwi (Mendi).
_Amanoa bracteata_.* Jagbouei (Mendi).
A tree which grows up to 5 feet in diameter, and straight from the
ground to a height of 60 feet. It is then much branched. The timber is
not used.
_Anthostema Senegalense_.* Mamboi (Mendi).
It is a small tree growing on the sea shore.
_Antidesma laciniatum_.
A tree attaining a height of 25 feet.
_Bridelia ferruginea_.*
It is a small tree of about 20 feet high, very much branched. All
through the dry season it drips water at night.
_Bridelia micrantha_.* Igili (Mendi).
This species also reaches a height of 20 feet. It is used for making
charcoal, and a medicine is made from meat stewed in the water in
which the roots have been boiled.
_Hasskarlia didymostemon_.*
This tree grows to a height of 50 feet, with a diameter at the base of
20 feet. It is one of the diœcious trees.
_Hymenocardia acida_.* Fagbajoi (Mendi).
A small tree, knotted, gnarled and branched, growing both in the open
and in the forest.
_Hymenocardia Heudelotii_.*
A small tree.
_Hymenocardia lyrata_.* †
This species is found in the peninsular forests.
_Macaranga Barteri_.* Ndeiwei (Mendi).
It is a medium-sized armed tree, reaching about 50 feet, and 18 inches
in diameter at the base. A light wood used for firewood.
_Macaranga heterophylla_.* Fofui (Mendi).
A medium-sized tree.
_Macaranga monandra_.* Ndeiwei (Mendi).
It is a medium-sized armed tree, up to 50 feet high, and 8 inches at
the base, with reddish-brown pubescent branches. It is useless except
as firewood.
_Mæsobotrya sp._*
A small tree.
_Mareya spicata_.* Nguangua (Mendi).
A tree reaching 30 feet in height. The leaves have a bitter taste; a
decoction of them is used as a poison.
_Microdesmis puberula_.* Nikli (Mendi).
A small tree, reaching about 15 feet in height. The fruit is edible.
_Phyllanthus discoideus_.* Tijoi (Mendi).
A common tree, 60 feet in height, with a diameter of 18 inches.
=Anacardiaceæ.=
_Mangifera Africana_.* White Oak or Greenheart. Peri (Timani); Bewe-
Bauban (Mendi).
A tree growing to 40 feet in height, with root flanges extending 10
feet up the stem; it has a girth of 12 feet. The tree is cut locally.
The seeds are edible.
_Spondias lutea_.* Common Plum or the Hog Plum of the Creoles. Luep
(Timani); Bogi or Gbojei (Mendi).
A large tree, with rough, grey bark; it resists the grass fires very
well. They yield timber, tanning material, medicaments and edible
fruit, from which a spirituous drink is prepared.
_Odina sp._*
It reaches a height of 30 feet.
_Sorindeia juglandifolia_.* Creole Damson. Ni-Kaffei (Mendi).
A tree of 50 feet in height, having aerial roots. A broken branch or
scraped root has a resinous smell.
=Icacinaceæ.=
_Leptaulos daphnoides_.* Propri (Timani); Bongani (Mendi).
A small tree.
=Sapindaceæ.=
_Bersama Paullinioides_.* Nyomdobai (Mendi).
A tree growing to a height of 35 feet. It is regarded as an evil tree,
and neither man nor beast touches it. A poison is extracted from the
root, with which Mendis poison their enemies.
_Lecaniodiscus cupanioides_.* †
A small tree.
_Phialodiscus unijugatus_.* Yokomi (Mendi).
A tree of 50 feet in height. This tree bears conspicuous red capsules,
which contain black seeds having a yellow ovule. The leaves and twigs
are macerated in pools in the rivers to kill fish.
_Schmidelia Africana_.* Komigbulei (Mendi).
A small tree.
=Tiliaceæ.=
_Glyphæa Grewioides_.* Swamp Rice. Beibolei (Mendi).
A decoction of the leaves is used for curing gonorrhœa.
=Bombacaceæ.=
_Adansonia digitata_.* Baobab, Cream of Tartar or Monkey Bread. Ungari
(Timani); Sackwi Mbauwi (Mendi).
It is a slow-growing tree, but a valuable one, yielding fibre, paper
pulp and a native medicine. Sodium chloride, potassium and acid
tartrate have been found in the leaves.
_Bombax Buonopozense_.* Kinguei (Mendi).
A large deciduous tree, often called the Red Cotton Tree on account of
its flowers. It yields a fibre called Kapok.
_Eriodendron anfractuosum_. Cotton Tree. Pullum (Timani); Ungwe
(Mendi).
_Eriodendron orientale_.* Cotton Tree. Nhuei (Mendi).
The Cotton Tree of commerce. The fibre fetches from 2d. to 4d. a pound
in London. It grows readily from seed. The seed is valuable, as it
yields an oil, and the ash of the seed contains 28·5 per cent. of
phosphoric acid and 24·6 per cent. of potash (the latter makes a
valuable manure). The wood is used locally for canoes and platters.
=Sterculiaceæ.=
_Sterculia tragacantha_.* African Tragacantha. Kobei (Mendi).
The ashes are used for soap. It yields a gum similar to that of
Tragacanth, _Astragalus gummifer_.
_Sterculia cordifolia_. Red Oak. K’fut (Timani); Buni (Mendi).
_Cola acuminata_.* The Kola Tree. Tuloi (Mendi).
This tree yields the Kola nut, a most valuable export. Very little,
however, is sent to Europe, but great quantities to French Senegal. It
contains great stimulating properties, and enables travellers to march
long distances without food. The tree grows wild in certain forests,
and begins to yield at six or seven years old. The nut is little
thought of by Europeans, owing to its bitter taste. The price varies
from £10 to £12 a measure (160 lb.).
_Cola angustifolia_.* Denbehawi (Mendi).
A small tree, the leaves of which are used as a stomach medicine. The
Munchis use the wood to make their short bows.
_Cola leonensis_.* † Booni (Mendi).
A small tree with large leaves.
_Cola simiarum_.* Baboon Kola. N’goloduloi (Mendi).
A large tree, 60 feet in height. A fine specimen of it grows over the
wooden bridge at Kennema.
_Heritiera_.* Red Cedar or Harmon. Yawi (Mendi).
It yields a very handsome, easily worked wood, useful for any purpose.
The fruit is edible.
_Leptonychia_.* Mbagboldede (Mendi).
It grows only to the size of a shrub or small tree. The leaves are
used to cure thorn wounds.
=Ochnaceæ.=
_Lophira procera_.* African Oak, Red Ironwood, Ironpost. Ringa
(Timani); Hendui or Endwi (Mendi).
This tree attains about the same size of the Oldfieldia; there does
not seem to be any microscopical difference in the texture or grain of
the wood. It is much used by builders, as it is proof against the
attacks of termites. This tree also yields oily seeds and medicaments.
_Lophira Alata_.* Katank (Timani); Endwi (Mendi).
A small tree having seed yielding 43 per cent. oil, valued at £24 to
£25 a ton.
_Gomphia congesta_.* Colonguli (Mendi).
A small tree undergrowth.
_Ochna sp._*
A small tree.
=Guttiferæ.=
_Ochrocarpus Africanus_.* African Apple or Mammy Apple Tree. Mammee,
Bakum (Timani); Kaikumba (Mendi).
A large tree, attaining a girth of 10 feet and a bole of from 20 to 30
feet. It has been cut locally, and is much prized on account of its
pretty grain and red colour. It is used for joinery and similar work.
_Garcinia Kola_.* † Kofé (Mendi).
_Garcinia epunctata_.* †
A small tree.
_Garcinia polyantha_.* Bitter Kola. Sagbei (Mendi).
This is a small tree with thick yellow latex; the fruit is edible.
_Pentadesma butyraceæ_.* Chewstick. Komdi (Timani); Mdayen (Mendi).
Chewstick. This is a very prevalent tree, though it does not reach
very stout dimensions. The roots are used extensively for native
chewsticks.
_Haronga Madagascariensis_.* Mbeli (Mendi).
It is a small tree which grows readily on farm lands. The juice below
the bark is orange-red. The wood resembles that of Proteaceous trees
and is very beautiful.
_Mammea sapota_.*
Locally called Mammy Supporter. It is a handsome tree and has an
edible fruit.
_Vismia leonensis_.*
A small tree of 15 feet.
_Allanblackia floribunda_.*
A medium-sized tree.
=Violaceæ.=
_Alsodeia sp._*
A small tree. Some of these yield timber.
_Alsodeia sp._*
A medium-sized tree growing near the river.
=Flacourtiaceæ.=
_Homalium molle_.* Niagalei (Mendi).
It is a large tree, very tall and straight.
_Homalium sp._* Kologalei (Mendi).
A large straight tree, often confused with _H. molle_.
=Rhizophoraceæ.=
_Anisophyllea laurina_.* Monkey Apple. Kant (Timani); Kanti (Mendi).
This is a very lofty tree, with a bole of 40 feet and girth of 12
feet. It has not been tried as timber away from the locality, but
should be valuable as an export, having a pretty grain, full of
medullary rays. The local value is 3d. to 6d. per lineal foot. It is
fairly common in the forest, but very plentiful outside, as it shoots
up from the stump when cut down. Naturally, the wood from such trees
is not so good as from seedlings.
_Rhizophora racemosa_.* Mangrove. Dingi (Mendi).
This is a small tree of the swamps which is found very useful for
poles and firewood. It fetches a high price from the bakers—£1 10s. to
£1 15s. a cord. The bark contains 18 per cent. of tannin.
=Combretaceæ.=
_Anogeissus_.* †
A chewstick with a black heart. It will kill out Lalong grass.
_Laguncularia racemosa_.*
This is a shrub which grows in the mangrove swamps. It yields a
second-rate tannin bark.
_Terminalia scutifera_.* †
A large straight, tall-boled tree, yielding a useful timber to
shipwrights.
_Terminalia sp._* Bagi (Mendi).
A very large tree, even taller than _T. superba_, and the timber is
yellower. The tree is gnarled and much branched near the sea-shore.
The wood is much used for canoes. Dye and a yellow wash for sore feet
are obtained from the bark.
_Terminalia superba_.* Kojagei (Mendi).
A very large tree of 150 feet or more. The timber is soft and white,
used for indoor work, but it is much attacked by borers.
=Myrtaceæ.=
_Eugenia calophylloides_.*
A small tree.
=Melastomaceæ.=
_Memecylon_, cf. _M. spathulandra_.†
It is a small tree growing in the swamps near Bureh town.
=Araliaceæ.=
_Cussonia Djalonensis_.
A medium-sized to large tree growing in the savannah forests. It has a
thick grey, rough bark.
=Sapotaceæ.=
_Mimusops sp._ Benin Mahogany. Tuntumi (Timani); Sukai I (Mendi).
It is a kind of mahogany which is very common, and attains a girth of
12 feet, with a smaller bole than the ordinary mahogany. The wood is
of a reddish colour and rather hard. This tree is found growing at a
higher altitude than most timber trees, which makes the forest
situated at 2,000 feet much more valuable.
_Mimusops sp._ Mahogany substitute. Bobbyboya Water (Timani).
This is a very large tree, with hard red wood sold as mahogany, not
very plentiful.
_Mimusops_. Mahogany substitute. Abugie (Mendi).
Another species of hard mahogany. It is not very plentiful, but worthy
of export. It is of large size and good “form figure,” somewhat the
shape of a cylinder.
_Mimusops Djave_.* †
A large beautiful tree, yielding a valuable sound timber.
_Mimusops_. African Pearwood. Sukai II (Mendi).
A large tree with a good bole. It has been exported and sold in the
Hamburg market at 6d. a foot. The wood is of a reddish colour, a
little harder than mahogany, and of close grain. It would pay to plant
out any seedlings found.
_Sideroxylon longistylum_. Kafe or Kaffi (Mendi).
Some species yield timber, edible seeds and medicaments.
_Sideroxylon Alymerii_. Teyei (Mendi).
A medium-sized tree bearing a seed rich in oil. The oil of the seed is
very like that of the coconut in taste; it is used for frying food or
for hair-oil.
_Chrysophyllum sp._ Tuinynelli (Mendi).
All the Chrysophyllum species yield timber and edible fruits.
_Chrysophyllum sp._ Star-apple. Terle (Mendi).
_Chrysophyllum ellipticus_.* Beari (Mendi).
A small species growing on the sea-shore.
_Chrysophyllum_. African Star-apple. Bungi (Mendi).
_Chrysophyllum pruniforme_.* Heleilahin (Mendi).
Elephants are fond of the bark.
=Ebenaceæ.=
_Diospyros sp._* †
A medium-sized ebony.
_Maba Mannii_.
A tree.
=Loganiaceæ.=
_Anthocleista nobilis_.* Pongoi-hei (Mendi).
This is a larger species than the _A. parviflora_; it is not armed.
The root is used as a medicine. The wood is soft and useless.
_Anthocleista parviflora_.* Pongoi-hini (Mendi).
In English sometimes called Cabbage Palm. This species reaches
scarcely over 30 feet in height; it is armed with strong, twin-set
spines. The wood is soft and useless.
=Apocynaceæ.=
_Funtumia elastica_.* African Rubber Tree. Emarr (Timani); Buboi
(Mendi).
This tree grows to a height of 50 feet. It is rare in Sierra Leone,
but has been found in Kagnari, Nimmini and Loma Mountains. It yields a
good rubber.
_Funtumia Africana_.* Rubber. Buboi (Mendi).
This species grows to a height of 70 feet. It yields an abundant latex
of no commercial value.
_Polyadoa Elliotii_. Boxwood. K’Palen (Timani); Kofee or Kofei (Mendi).
It is a small tree with greenish pimply bark. The wood is very hard,
like boxwood, and is used to make hair combs and hoe handles. Medicine
is made from the bark.
_Alstonia Congensis_.* † Kauwi (Mendi).
A large, tall tree with a straight stem, found in the peninsular
forests.
_Landolphia Owariensis jenje_.* Common Rubber Vine. Huwi Djenjei
(Mendi).
The export of this rubber was at one time very profitable, but the
natives overtapped the tree, and even dug up the roots to extract the
rubber. The fruit of this species is edible.
_Landolphia Heudelotii_.*
This is a climber 40 feet in height, and one of the most valuable of
the Landolphias, found in many parts; but it is the characteristic
vegetation of the dry interior of Senegambia and the Upper Niger.
_Landolphia leonensis_.* Nali (Mendi).
A climber reaching the tops of the highest trees. The fruit is 3½
inches in diameter. The pulp around the seed is edible. The latex is
used as bird-lime, but yields no rubber, and cannot even be used as an
adulterant.
_Callichilia subsessilis_.*
It is a shrub or small tree having a handsome flower.
_Conopharyngia crassa_.*
A small tree bearing a double fruit as large as a child’s head.
_C. longiflora_.*
A small tree bearing a conspicuous heavy-scented flower.
_Holarrhena Africana_.* Nukoi (Mendi).
A small or medium-sized tree. Wooden serving spoons for rice are made
from the wood. The leaves beaten to a pulp are used for poultices.
_Holarrhena ovata_.* Bubbuoi (Mendi).
Used as a stirring-stick.
_Pleioceras Afzelii_.
A small tree.
_Pleiocarpa tricarpella_.
A small tree.
_Rauwolfia vomitoria_. Kawogei (Mendi).
A very common small tree, 20 feet high. Swizzle-sticks for mixing
drinks are made from it, and the natives use the large branches for
mixing indigo dye.
_Voacanga Africana_.*
A tree 30 feet high bearing very fragrant flowers.
_Voacanga obtusa_.*
A tall tree.
_Voacanga Thonnersii_.*
A medium-sized tree of 50 feet in height, with ornamental cream
flowers. It has been seen growing in the swamp-land near the 180th
milestone on the railway to Kennema.
=Asclepiadaceæ.=
_Xysmalobium granitiolum_.
A small tree in the river bed.
=Borraginaceæ.=
_Cordia sp._ Kpetellahen (Mendi).
It is a large tree growing on river banks. The bark is edible.
=Verbenaceæ.=
_Vitex grandifolia_.
Some of this species yield timber, vegetables, edible fruits and
medicaments.
_Vitex Cienkowskii_.* Heinokohun (Mendi).
A tall tree growing at the edge of the forest.
_Vitex doniana_.* Lubei (Mendi).
A small tree growing in the savannah country in the Koinadugu
district. An ink made from the leaves is used by the Mohammedan
teachers.
_Vitex micrantha_.* Fevei (Mendi).
A tree reaching a height of 70 feet and 2 feet 6 inches at the base.
The timber is useful for many purposes. The Mohammedan teacher has his
school slates made from it.
_Vitex oxycuspis_.* †
A small tree.
_Avicennia Africana_.*
A small tree growing in the mangrove swamps.
_Premna hispida_.* Kafei (Mendi).
A small tree. A decoction for ulcerated mouths is made from the
leaves.
=Bignoniaceæ.=
_Spathodea campanulata_.* Tulip Tree.
It is a large tree yielding timber, edible seeds and medicaments. It
is also used as an ornamental tree.
_Newbouldia lævis_.* Anyolo (Timani); Bogi Ponamagbei (Mendi).
It is a tree reaching a height of 40 feet. Its use is principally
medicinal. The root and leaves are used for scrotal elephantiasis, and
a decoction from the bark is applied to sore feet. It is much used for
quick fences, as it grows readily from stakes.
_Kigelia_.*
A tree 50 feet in height.
_Stereospermum leonense_.*
A medium-sized tree bearing pink blossoms.
=Rubiaceæ.=
_Morinda sp.? citrifolia_.* Brimstone. Ketum (Timani); Bundwi Bundui
(Mendi).
This tree grows to a height of 150 feet, and has been found with a
bole of 50 feet, a girth of 16 to 20 feet, and diameter of 5 feet
without any branches. The wood is of a bright yellow colour, commonly
used for weather-boards. It is sold near Freetown at 10s. per 100
feet. Its English name is given because of the peculiar colour of the
wood. Its durability and ant-resisting qualities have given it a high
place among the local timbers. It is used for building wooden vessels,
mortars, etc. It will shoot up from the stump, so a good deal of small
timber is obtained from old farms. Neither its colour nor grain make
it of any worth for export. The bark is made into a decoction for
malaria, and the natives after marching bathe their feet in the water
in which it has been boiled.
_Morinda confusa_.* Wawae (Mendi).
It is a climber, the leaves of which are used in medicine.
_Morinda quadrangularis_.* Brimstone Bush. Jashuli (Mendi).
A small tree, 30 feet in height and about 1¼ feet in diameter at the
base. It is only useful as firewood. The leaves are used as medicine
in various diseases; supposed to be specially efficacious for malaria.
_Pausynistalia Lane-Poolei_.* Gibowali (Mendi).
It is a large tree having green-brown deciduous bark, on which marked
depressions are left when it comes off. The bole is straight and
branchless up to 40 feet. The flowers are light yellow on first coming
out, afterwards turning a purple pink.
_Pavetta Baconia_.*
A shrub or small tree.
_Psilanthus ebracteolatus_.*
A small tree, 20 feet in height, having white flowers.
_Bertiera glabrata_.* Kafahinei (Mendi).
A small tree, 25 feet in height. The leaves are made into a medicine
to soothe teething babies.
_Blighia sapida_.* Akee Tree. Islii of the Akus.
It is cultivated for its fruit, which is wholesome and savoury.
_Canthium discolor_.* Totengei (Mendi).
A shrub to small tree with strong, sharp spines.
_Corynanthe paniculata_.* Gibowuli (Mendi).
A tree 50 feet high.
_Craterispermum laurinum_.* Alum Bark. Njelei (Mendi).
A tree 25 feet in height, having a diameter of 1 foot at the base. The
bark, when dried and beaten into powder, is used as a remedy for sore
feet. The wood splits easily and is used in thatching.
_Crossopteryx Kotschyana?_ or _Africana_.*
A small tree.
_Croton penduliflorus_.*
A small tree of 35 feet.
_Gaertnera paniculata_.*
This is only found as a small tree on the sea-shore, but said to grow
big in the forest.
_Gardenia sp._ near _G. physophylla_.* Buittigirri (Mendi).
A medium-sized tree growing in swamps.
_Heinsia jasminiflora_.* Pegblagei (Mendi).
It is a tree of about 20 feet in height; the flowers white and much
like jasmin. Scrapings of the bark are used for irritation of the skin
at rice-harvest.
_Mitragyne_. Mbuandae or M’boy (Mendi).
A large, tall tree, 100 feet high and 4½ feet in diameter at the base.
It is only found in swamp-land. It yields a light, white wood much
used in indoor work. The leaves are very large and are used for
wrapping kolas; they are sold in Freetown at 3d. a bundle.
_Morelia Senegalensis_.*
This is a small tree half scandent.
_Oxyanthus unilocularis_.*
A small tree.
_Oxyanthus speciosus_. Pebulai (Mendi).*
This tree is common near Freetown. The bark is aromatic, and when
dried in the sun is used as a scent.
_Randia acuminata_.*
A small tree with large oval fruit.
_Randia genipæflora_.*
A shrub or small tree.
_Randia macrantha_.*
A small tree common everywhere. It bears handsome white fragrant bell-
flowers. The black pulp around the seed is edible.
_Randia malleifera_.* Pondei (Mendi).
A small tree bearing very fragrant white bell-flowers. The seeds when
ground are mixed with water to make a sort of black paint used by the
native women.
_Randia sp._ near _R. macrantha_.*
A small tree, 20 feet in height, bearing an oval-shaped fruit.
_Randia sp._ near _R. caudata_.*
A small tree, 25 feet high, bearing small but conspicuous fan-shaped
fragrant flowers.
_Vangueria nigrescens_.
A small tree.
_Sarcocephalus esculentus_.* Sierra Leone Peach. Ameliki (Timani);
Golli Nyumbuyambei (Mendi).
A very common tree growing to a height of 25 feet. It has conspicuous
white heads of flowers and an edible fruit.
=Compositæ.=
_Vernonia conferta_. African Cabbage Tree, the Soap Tree. Kupkup
(Timani); Kongoli (Mendi).
A small tree about 25 feet in height, growing in the rain forest. The
burnt ashes are used in soap-making and the sediment, when dried, is
used as snuff or Lubi.
APPENDIX I
SIERRA LEONE—FOREST EXPORTS
[Quant.: Quantity.]
---------+-------------------+-------------------+--------------------
| 1910. | 1911. | 1912.
Products.+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------
| Quant. | Value. | Quant. | Value. | Quant. | Value.
---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------
| | £ | | £ | | £
| | | | | |
Camwood | — | 142| 13·382 | 67| — | 36
| | | tons | | |
| | | | | |
Coconuts | — | 116| — | 54| — | 99
| | | | | |
Cocoa | — | 41| — | — | — | 17
seeds | | | | | |
| | | | | |
African | 3·544 | 303| 10·559 | 501| 7·062 | 347
coffee | tons | | tons | | tons |
| | | | | |
Gum copal| 16·446 | 3,075| 27·768 | 2,965| 17·010 | 1,606
| tons | | tons | | tons |
| | | | | |
Ground | 1,229 | 214|874 bush.| 189| 1,202 | 257
nuts | bush. | | | | bush. |
| | | | | |
Kola | — | 12| — | 3| — | —
(bitter) | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Kola | 0·794 | 10| 2·698 | 51| 2·908 | 56
nuts | tons | | tons | | tons |
(dried) | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Kola | 1,924 | 279,185| 1,596 | 194,260| 1,649 | 276,473
nuts | tons | | tons | | tons |
(fresh) | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Palm oil | 436,144 | 38,537| 725,648 | 69,927| 728,509 | 67,314
| gals. | | gals. | | gals. |
| | | | | |
Palm | 35,915 | 559,313| 42,892 | 657,348| 50,750 | 793,177
kernels | tons | | tons | | tons |
| | | | | |
Piassava |983 tons | 19,492|906 tons | 12,501| 1,146 | 15,461
| | | | | tons |
| | | | | |
Rubber | 2·266 | 364| 18·501 | 5,917| 9·808 | 2,962
| tons | | tons | | tons |
| | | | | |
Shea | — | 15| — | 1| — | 3
butter | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Shea nuts| 3·685 | 27| — | — | — | —
| tons | | | | |
---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------
TOTALS | 38,848 | 900,846| 45,468 | 943,791| 53,583 |1,157,816
| tons | | tons | | tons |
| | | | | |
| 1,229 | |874 bush.| | 1,202 |
| bush. | | | | bush. |
| | | | | |
| 436,144 | | 725,648 | | 728,509 |
| gals. | | gals. | | gals. |
---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+----------
[Continued]
---------+-------------------+--------------------
| 1913. | 1914.
Products.+---------+---------+---------+----------
| Quant. | Value. | Quant. | Value.
---------+---------+---------+---------+----------
| | £ | | £
| | | |
Camwood | — | — | — | 142
| | | |
Coconuts | — | 114| — | 116
| | | |
Cocoa | — | 52| — | 41
seeds | | | |
| | | |
African | 7·632 | 598| 3·549 | 303
coffee | tons | | tons |
| | | |
Gum copal| 23·764 | 2,682| 16·258 | 3,075
| tons | | tons |
| | | |
Ground | 2,448 | 488| 1,229 | 214
nuts | bush. | | bush. |
| | | |
Kola | — | 30| — | 12
(bitter) | | | |
| | | |
Kola | 0·843 | 66| 0·794 | 10
nuts | tons | | tons |
(dried) | | | |
| | | |
Kola | 1,865 | 328,003| 1,924 | 279,185
nuts | tons | | tons |
(fresh) | | | |
| | | |
Palm oil | 617,088 | 56,659| 436,144 | 38,537
| gals. | | gals. |
| | | |
Palm | 49,201 | 920,943| 35,915 | 559,313
kernels | tons | | tons |
| | | |
Piassava |839 tons | 12,280|983 tons | 19,492
| | | |
Rubber | 5·500 | 1,292| 2·775 | 364
| tons | | tons |
| | | |
Shea | — | — | — | 15
butter | | | |
| | | |
Shea nuts| — | — | 3·700 | 27
| | | tons |
---------+---------+---------+---------+----------
TOTALS | 51,943 |1,323,207| 38,849 | 900,846
| tons | | tons |
| | | |
| 2,448 | | 1,229 |
| bush. | | bush. |
| | | |
| 617,088 | | 436,144 |
| gals. | | gals. |
---------+---------+---------+---------+----------
APPENDIX II
SIERRA LEONE—FOREST EXPORTS
------------------+----------+---------+----------+-------+---------
Articles. | 1827. | 1828. | 1829. | 1830. | 1831.
------------------+----------+---------+----------+-------+---------
Timber, loads | 10,742 | 1,114 | | 18,983
| | | |
Camwood, tons | 550 | 303 | Not | 592
| | | enumerated |
Palm oil, gallons | 27,011 | 75,676 | |364 tons
| | | |
Gum copal, casks | 81 | — | | 18
------------------+----------+---------+----------+-------+---------
[Continued]
------------------+----------+---------+----------+-------+---------
Articles. | 1832. | 1833. | 1834. | 1835. | Total.
------------------+----------+---------+----------+-------+---------
Timber, loads | 24,048 | 1,771 | 16,951 | 9,302 | 82,911
| | | | |
Camwood, tons | 644 | 975 | 911 | 802 | 4,837
| | | | |
Palm oil, gallons |397 casks |480 casks|592 casks | 928 | —
| | | | |
Gum copal, casks | 96 | 133 | 87 | 197 | 612
------------------+----------+---------+----------+-------+---------
APPENDIX III
COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF TIMBER IMPORTS INTO SIERRA LEONE, 1902-7 AND
1910-15
-----+-----------+------++-----+-----------+-------
Year.|Superficial|Value.||Year.|Superficial| Value.
| feet. | || | feet. |
-----+-----------+------++-----+-----------+-------
| | £ || | | £
| | || | |
1902 | 765,501| 4,765||1910 | 1,273,631| 9,935
| | || | |
1903 | 1,705,805|11,066||1911 | 965,410| 8,842
| | || | |
1904 | 1,642,738|10,097||1912 | 2,337,851| 21,403
| | || | |
1905 | 1,768,611| 8,886||1913 | 2,507,327| 22,425
| | || | |
1906 | 1,188,702| 9,827||1914 | 2,883,564| 26,893
| | || | |
1907 | 2,351,559|18,856||1915 | 2,503,751| 26,279
-----+-----------+------++-----+-----------+-------
TOTAL| 9,422,916|63,497||TOTAL| 12,471,534|115,777
-----+-----------+------++-----+-----------+-------
CHAPTER IV
LIBERIA
I. THE GOLA FOREST.
This comparatively narrow strip of Africa, extending from Cape Palmas on
the east to the Mano River on the west, an area of 40,000 square miles,
is a Negro Republic under the nominal protection of the United States.
It is bounded on the west by the British Colony and Protectorate of
Sierra Leone, and on the north and east by the French possessions of
Senegal and the French Ivory Coast.
Some years ago a large rubber company was formed to exploit the wild-
growing rubber vines and trees, and until recently fairly large amounts
were secured. Apart from rubber, however, there are large forests, one
of the best being the Gola Forest, on the western boundary and
contiguous to the Sierra Leone Protectorate.
This Gola Forest is formed by the confluence of the Morro and Mano
Rivers, being thus triangular in shape and approximately 250 square
miles in extent. No natives actually live in it, though there are a few
villages at the edge, such as Yandahun and Dambarra. The typical forest
is seen in the view of the River Morro near the junction of the Mano.
Here herds of elephants roam and make tracks through the dense growth of
numerous trees; in fact, the only paths there have been made by the
elephant. The Chief of Tunkia always has at least ten youths with him
learning the art of elephant-hunting, for which a large fee for tuition
is paid. In illustrations Nos. 10 and 12 views of the inner parts of the
forest are given.
II. THE MOST VALUABLE TREES.
The chief species of trees suitable for cutting for export are the
following:
1. Mahogany (_Khaya ivoriensis_), probably, a very well textured wood
with some very pretty medullary rays and a thorough sheen on it when
planed. Illustration No. 13 shows a specimen of this tree.
2. Satinwood (_Afrormosia laxiflora_), a large tree with smooth bark,
which varies from light green or yellow to an orange-red shade, thus
making it very conspicuous in the forest. See illustration No. 11, which
shows one of these trees of medium size.
[Illustration: FIG. 10.—=Large Brimstone Tree (Sarcocephalus sp.), Gola
Forest.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 11.—=African Satinwood (Afrormosia laxiflora). Gola
Forest.=]
To face p. 66.
3. The African Oak (_Oldfieldia africana_), Paulai of the Mendis is more
common in the southern than in the northern part of the forest. It
attains a large size, but has not yet been exploited either by a
European or a native firm. This is one of the most durable of African
timbers. As it has already been described in the chapter on the Sierra
Leone trees, further notes on this tree are unnecessary here.
Illustrations Nos. 5 and 6 show this tree to advantage, especially its
straightness of growth.
4. The real Satinwood (_Zanthoxylum macrophyllum_), not an uncommon
tree, of small size. It is most easily recognised by its very long
pinnate leaves. One leaf may attain a length of 6 feet. There is another
species of Zanthoxylum which also has a similar kind of timber.
5. African Walnut (_Lovoa Klaineana_). This tree is not very prevalent,
but is scattered in small groups throughout the forest.
6. Cedar Mahogany, a species of Guarea which attains a large size. It is
none too prevalent, though it is scattered singly throughout the forest.
7. African Pearwood (_Mimusops lacera_) is a very good reddish timber,
often with figure in the grain. Although much harder than mahogany, it
has been sold as such.
8. The Iroko (_Chlorophora excelsa_) is common near the old farms, but
is not so prevalent in the forest proper. It has not yet been exploited
from here, nor is it cut locally.
9. The Red Ironwood Tree (_Lophira procera_) is very prevalent, and
attains much the same size as elsewhere. It has not yet been exploited.
10. The so-called Mahogany, the timber of a tree, a species of
Parinarium, known as Pauwilli of the Mendis. This is one of the most
prevalent trees in the forest. It is also somewhat gregarious, as many
as forty specimens being sometimes found in one group. The timber of
this tree was exported from Southern Nigeria some years ago. It grows to
a height of 150 feet, with a clear bole of 60 feet in height, and
upwards of 18 feet in girth. Illustration No. 2 shows the trunk
especially, and the base of one of these trees. A most typical scene in
the northern part of the Gola Forest is shown in illustration No. 12,
several of the trees in that picture being Pauwilli.
All the above-mentioned trees have been cut and exported in the log from
various parts of Western Africa. There are, however, several other trees
which might be cut and used as export timbers, as, for instance:
11. The White Mahogany (_Canarium Schweinfurthii_), which attains the
same size as elsewhere, but is not so commonly found.
12. Rhodesian Mahogany (_Afzelia bracteata?_), which is fairly common
and attains a medium size.
13. _Brachystegia spicæformis_, which yields a light-brown hardish
timber with very pretty grain. (See illustration No. 104, which shows a
very large specimen of this tree in Nigeria.) It is very prevalent, in
fact one of the commonest trees in the Gola Forest, so that large
quantities of timber could be obtained.
14. Wismah (Sierra Leone name) is also found, and apparently grows up
very quickly in old farms.
15. The Red Oak (_Berlinia auriculata_) is quite prevalent, especially
near the banks of streams. It attains a large size, and the timber has
been sold as oak in the European market. Here it has not yet been cut.
In addition to the trees which can be felled for conversion into export
timbers, there are others which may be cut for sale locally, such as:
16. The Brimstone (_Morinda citrifolia?_), one of the most suitable
trees for the purpose. One of the largest trees was 5 feet in diameter,
and had also a clear bole of 50 feet. On the whole it grows to a larger
size in the Gola Forest than in Sierra Leone. Illustration No. 10 shows
one of these trees from which a timber specimen had been cut.
17. The Hamon, which is apparently a species of Sterculiaceæ, although
not of enormous size, has a straight bole, which divides up into four or
five very large and thin root flanges. It is one of the most prevalent
trees in the forest. Illustration No. 14 shows the peculiar formation of
the roots of this tree.
18. _Piptadenia africana_, a very large tree with small and fine pinnate
leaves. It is frequently met with, in fact one of the commonest of the
trees in the forest. It yields a hard brown wood which is durable.
19. The so-called Mountain Mahogany, probably a species of Leguminoseæ.
It attains a large size, and yields a timber not unlike that of Red
Pine.
Up to the present no local or other sawyers have worked in this forest.
Although only a few trees have been mentioned which could be cut for use
locally, there are many others out of approximately a hundred different
kinds which are found in the forest.
There are other products, such as oil beans, obtained from _Pentaclethra
macrophylla_, a large forest tree; gum copal, obtained from _Daniellia
Ogea_, one of the largest forest trees; palm oil and kernels from the
Oil Palm (_Elæis guineensis_), which is found in all the clearings.
Piassava, obtained from _Raphia vinifera_, is found on the banks of the
two rivers, Morro and Mano. Rubber could be obtained from the African
Rubber Tree (_Funtumia elastica_) and various rubber vines, such as
_Landolphia Owariensis_, and others. Dika nuts could be procured, as the
tree which bears them, _Irvingia Barteri_, is commonly found; also the
Tallow Tree (_Pentadesma butyracea_), which bears a large number of oil-
bearing nuts in its large fruit; the Dita (_Detarium Senegalensis_),
which yields a mango-like fruit, eaten locally. Bitter Kola (_Garcinia
kola_) is found, but not often sold in the local market. The rough-
skinned _Parinarium excelsum_ yields a fruit which is eaten locally; the
African Star-apple (_Chrysophyllum Africanum_) is found in the forest,
and also planted. In other villages the Akee, being obtained from
_Blighia sapida_, is quite common in the forest, though the edible fruit
is not used. The Mackay or Sea Bean (_Entada scandens_) is a huge
creeper which grows to 350 feet in length and 3 feet in girth. Near
Dambarra, from a stout specimen hung a complete pod containing fourteen
beans.
III. CONDITIONS OF WORKING TIMBER.
The Mano or Bewa River forms the natural outlet for the extraction of
timber, as the Morro River forms one boundary of the Gola Forest, and
this river joins the former rather more than half-way through the
forest. The Mano River reaches the sea about 80 miles from the end of
the forest; thus logs of timber could be brought down the Mano straight
into the sea.
Very good timber of various kinds of mahogany has been shipped from
several ports, such as Sassandra and Grand Bassam on the Ivory Coast.
Good prices, such as 1s. to 2s. 3d. per superficial foot, have usually
been paid for this timber. There is therefore no reason why similar
timber from Liberia should not fetch equally good rates, when properly
cut, squared, and sold under similar conditions.
Conditions of working are very similar on the West Coast of Africa, but
may vary somewhat in detail from place to place. However, if at the
outset natives accustomed to working timber in Nigeria or the Ivory
Coast were employed, good results would be obtained. Gradually a local
native staff would be built up, so that the services of those from
another part of the coast could be dispensed with and cheaper working
thus assured; because imported labour, whether skilled or otherwise, is
usually more expensive than that of the locality. Lower shipping rates
should be paid from Liberia than from the Ivory Coast or Gold Coast,
owing to the distance being less to the European markets where the
timber is sold.
The other forests of Liberia should be thoroughly examined to see what
amount of timber is there. It is usual to work several areas in
conjunction, as the cost of management per unit of output (the log) is
thus reduced.
IV. TREES AND RUBBER VINES
=Palmæ.=
_Elæis Guineensis_. Oil Palm.
The well-known Oil Palm. It does not thrive in the forests among
taller trees. It grows best near villages. (Found in Sierra Leone,
too.) Quantities of oil obtained from it. The leaves are used for roof
coverings.
_Raphia vinifera_. Wine Palm.
The leaves used in weaving, brushes, mats, etc. Grows in swampy
ground.
_Borassus flabellifer_ and _B. Æthiopium_. Fan Palm, Piassave.
Both most useful trees. The leaves for roofs, fibre for ropes. The sap
made into a sweet kind of toddy. Wood for house and bridge building.
The _B. Æthiopium_ grows from 60 to 80 feet high, the leaves 5 to 12
feet long.
_Ancistrophyllum_.
Fibre used for weaving.
=Liliaceæ.=
_Dracæna surculosa_. Dragon’s Blood.
A much branched tree, having white flowers and red berries. Found in
Sino Kim, Kakatown and Monrovia.
=Moraceæ.=
_Chlorophora excelsa_. Oroko, Teak, African Oak.
A large, well-known tree, used for many purposes where durability is
required. Frequently found; it grows well near old farms. It is also
found in Sierra Leone. The wood seems to be proof against termites and
fungoid diseases. It is the best wood for railway sleepers.
_Musanga Smithii_. Corkwood.
The first tree to appear after a farm has been abandoned; its thick
leaves, when they fall, form a heavy layer of humus.
_Antiaris_. Fig species.
Fig-like fruit, used in medicine.
_Ficus Vogelii_. Rubber.
Grows from 20 to 40 feet, yields so-called Balata, or an inferior
rubber. Found on St. Paul’s River, Grand Basā.
_Ficus sp._ Rubber.
Yields rubber; branches reddish colour; grows in the Kuru country.
_Ficus Whyteii_. Rubber.
A large forest tree yielding abundant rubber.
_Myrianthus serratus_.
A deciduous tree having mulberry-like fruit of pleasant taste.
=Olacaceæ.=
_Coula edulis_.
Bark and leaves have a resinous sap. The oily seeds of this tree are
very pleasant to the taste; it has no connection, however, with the
Cola Nut.
=Anonaceæ.=
_Xylopia oxypetala_. Yellow wood.
A moderate-sized tree with white, scented flowers, growing in the bush
of the littoral.
_Xylopia Dinklagei_.
A small glabrous tree.
_Xylopia Æthiopica_.
From 30 to 60 feet in height. Fruit aromatic, used as a tonic. Wood
elastic, made into masts and oars.
_Xylopia humilis_.
A small tree with broad top and pendulous branches, growing in the
primary forests of the littoral.
_Uvaria scabrida_.
A moderate-sized tree in the primary forest, found on the banks of the
Cestos River.
_Uvaria Dinklagei_.
Similar to the last; grows in the humid parts of the coast bush.
_Uvaria Afzelii_.
Similar to the above.
_Polyalthia Oliverii_.
A small glabrous tree growing in the coast forests.
_Popowia Whyteii_.
A small tree with glabrous leaves.
_Anona muricata_. Sour Sop.
A small glabrous tree, the Sour Sop of English colonists.
_Anona palustris_. Alligator Apple.
A tree with soft wood, used as cork. Fruit edible, frequently made
into a refreshing drink. It is found in the swamps of Grand Basā.
_Monodora myristica_. Calabash Nutmeg.
A small tree having showy flowers and aromatic seed; the much esteemed
Calabash Nutmeg of West Africa.
_Monodora tenuifolia_.
Found in the primary forests of Grand Basā. Very similar to the last;
narrower leaved.
=Myristicaceæ.=
_Pycnanthus Dinklagei_. Muskat Nut.
Tree reaches the height of 30 feet, with drooping branches. It
supplies good timber and oily seeds.
_Pycnanthus kombo_.
The seeds of this variety contain 73 per cent. of fat and burn like a
candle.
=Rosaceæ.=
_Parinarium macrophyllum_. Rough-skinned Plum.
A very common tree, used locally for building purposes; oak-like
texture. Fruit yellow, the size of a goose-egg; sometimes called
Gingerbread Plum.
_Parinarium excelsum_. Wild Plum.
_Parinarium sp._ Wild Plum.
Also found in Sierra Leone. Used for building locally; grain too open
for export. _P. excelsum_ and _sp._ very similar.
_Chrysobalanus icaco_. Cocoa Plum.
_Chrysobalanus ellipticus_. Cocoa Plum.
A tall shrub or small tree, with greenish-purple edible fruit known as
Cocoa Plums. These two are very similar; both found near Grand Basā.
=Leguminosæ.=
_Lonchocarpus laxiflora_. Mountain Mahogany.
Supplies a good useful wood and dyes. It is also found in Sierra
Leone.
_Lonchocarpus sericeus_.
An ornamental tree with downy twigs, reddish-violet papilionaceous
flowers; wood hard and heavy, not very well known. Found in Grand
Basā.
_Lonchocarpus Barteri_.
Similar to _L. sericeus_, but a loftier tree.
_Lonchocarpus Zenkeri_.
_Entada scandens_. Mackay or Sea Bean.
The well-known liana, the fibre used in rope and net making.
_Dialium Senegalense_. Black Tumbler.
A hard wood, useful in the building trade; also grows in Sierra Leone.
_Dialium Englerii_.
Timber useful for many purposes. A refreshing drink is made from the
edible fruit.
_Dialium Dinklagei_.
A small tree with umbrella-like top.
_Albizzia fastigiata_. Albizzia.
All Albizzias are proof against termites. Wood used where durability
is required, and therefore very valuable. The branches are pendulous,
flowers white and fragrant. Found in Monrovia and Sino Basin.
_Albizzia Brownei_. Albizzia.
A hard, useful wood. A large forest tree with cracked greyish bark.
_Albizzia sp._ Albizzia.
A large tree of good form and hard wood. The tree cylinder-shaped,
heartwood a bright, pretty colour. Not very plentiful. Quite worthy of
export.
_Detarium Senegalense_. Mahogany, Dita.
A beautifully marked hard wood, with a bole of 30 feet and girth of 12
feet.
_Pentaclethra macrophylla_. Oil Bean Tree.
Yields oil-bearing seeds or beans, used as an article of food. The
ashes after burning the dry pods are useful in soap-making.
_Parkia filicoidea_. Forest Locust or Locust Bean.
A very common tree in Liberia, but wood of little value. The bean is
eaten locally.
_Erythrina Senegalense_.
Deeply cleft bark; wood of little value.
_Piptadenia Africana_.
It grows everywhere in great quantities in Liberia. The wood is hard
and valuable.
_Afrormosia laxiflora_. Satinwood.
A beautiful clear brown wood, used for building purposes.
_Baphia nitida_. Camwood.
Very valuable as a red dye-wood.
_Baphia pubescens_. Camwood.
Valuable dye-wood.
_Cassia podocarpa_.
Grows best on very dry ground; common on native farms, 70 miles up the
St. Paul River. Wood extraordinarily hard.
_Mimosa Dinklagei_.
A small tree found in the coast woods of Grand Basā.
_Daniellia Ogea_. Benin Gum Copal.
Wood soft. When the tree has attained a large size, it is attacked by
the boring beetle; the gum then exudes and falls to the ground, and is
so collected. Value, 5d. or 6d. a pound.
_Daniellia sp._ Gum Copal sp.
Very similar to the _C. Ogea_.
_Didelotia Engleri_.
A small tree found in the humid woods of the coast.
_Polystemonanthus Dinklagei_.
A small tree growing on the banks of St. John’s River, Grand Basā.
_Xylia Evansii_.
Beautiful plumed trees; small heads of flowers. A pretty ornamental
tree.
=Rutaceæ.=
_Zanthoxylon sp._ Satinwood.
Fairly hard wood, with rough, knotty bark in the shape of cone-like,
woody protrusions.
_Zanthoxylon macrophyllum_. Spiny Satinwood.
Smaller than the last, but somewhat similar; the wood a very pretty
yellow, with open grain.
_Citrus aurantium_. Common Orange.
A very ornamental tree. Leaves and buds used in perfumery. Fruit
edible, valuable for export. Timber useful in many ways.
=Simarubaceæ.=
_Irvingia Barteri_. Dika Nut or Borbor.
The fruit is edible, seeds oily. Dika butter, dika bread and a kind of
chocolate are made from it. The wood is also used.
=Burseraceæ.=
_Canarium Schweinfurthii_.
Wood useful in commerce. The oily seeds are edible.
=Meliaceæ.=
_Lovoa Klaineana_. African Walnut.
Has a shady crown of branches. A good shade tree.
_Carapa procera_. Crabwood.
A small tree cut and sold as cedar mahogany for building purposes.
_Carapa Gayensis_.
This tree supplies a good timber; the oily seeds are used in medicine.
_Pseudocedrela_. Cedar Mahogany or African Walnut.
The tree is 65 feet in height, wood used for building purposes and for
furniture; not very common. It should be a useful export timber.
_Trichilia Heudelotii_.
A small tree; wood easy to work; not well known.
_Khaya grandis_. Benin Mahogany.
A fine tree, sometimes attaining the height of 130 feet, and 14 feet
in diameter. The trunk has slight root flanges. The wood of a
beautiful surface, a most valuable wood in furniture and carriage
making.
_Guarea Africana_. Satin Mahogany.
Grain similar to mahogany and might be sold for it. Should be a useful
export wood.
_Pynærtia ealænsis_.
Not very well known; flowers in long, showy panicles.
=Euphorbiaceæ.=
_Ricinodendron Heudelotii._? Mahogany.
Sold as mahogany. The wood is used locally for boat-building. The tree
seeds readily, so could easily be planted.
_Hasskarlia didymostemon_.
Attains the height of 40 to 80 feet; leaves yellowish-green and yellow
catkins. Not well known.
_Oldfieldia Africana_. Real African Oak.
A tall, fine tree, with a bole of 50 feet and girth of 16 feet. Most
useful in boat-building, especially for the keels. It seeds very
readily. Many years ago it was exported as teak (1827-35), though this
afterwards ceased.
=Anacardiaceæ.=
_Mangifera_. Mango species, Greenheart.
The Mango Tree, very plentiful. It attains a girth of 12 feet. A
greyish wood used for building purposes.
_Mangifera sp._ Bush Pawpaw.
Used in building.
_Mangifera sp._ Whitewood.
Used in building.
_Odina acida_.
A small deciduous, glabrous tree; the powdered bark, mixed with other
substances, used as a paint for the face.
_Spondias lutea_.
A tall, glabrous tree, with yellow, plum-like fruits, which are
edible. They are often made into a refreshing drink. The wood bright-
coloured and hard; it has the useful quality of growing when put in as
fence posts.
=Sapindaceæ.=
_Blighia sapida_. Akee.
A useful shade tree near dwellings, growing to the height of 97½ feet.
Wood light yellow in colour.
_Allophyllus Africana_.
A small, common tree with hard, blackish fruit, growing along the
coast of Grand Basā; wood useful in many ways.
_Dodonæa viscosa_.
A small tree having viscid branchlets saturated with resin, which
serve as torches. The wood is used for engraving and in turnery.
=Malvaceæ.=
_Gossypium Peruvianum_. Kidney-tree Cotton.
These African cotton-plants are still imperfectly known. Probably used
locally.
=Bombacaceæ.=
_Eriodendron anfractuosum_. Cotton Tree.
Grows to the height of 160 feet. Smooth, bright grey bark, having
cracked appearance. Wood not of much value in commerce. Handsome,
brilliant crimson flowers.
_Bombax Buonopozense_. Red Cotton Tree.
A large deciduous tree, often attaining 162 feet in height, with
tuberculate, prickly bark and scarlet flowers with firm, velvety
petals. Wood of little value in commerce.
=Sterculiaceæ.=
_Sterculia oblonga_. Yellow Wood.
A tree of medium height, the wood soft, and fibre strong and tough.
Exudes gum.
_Sterculia sp._
Fruit edible, the oily seeds used medicinally.
_Triplochiton_.
Fruit winged, flowers panicled, leaves ragged.
_Cola acuminata_. Cola.
Much like the Poplar in appearance. The wood is used in ship-building,
house-building and furniture. The oily, edible Cola Nut is in great
demand.
_Cola digitata_.
The oily seeds much used in medicine.
_Heritiera utilis_.
The timber hard and useful for various purposes, the bark in tanning.
Fruit woody.
=Dilleniaceæ.=
_Tetracera potatoria_. Water Tree.
A small, hairy tree growing on the dry and sunny parts of the coast
savannahs. It yields a profuse amount of water from the stems; hence
its name.
_Tetracera leiocarpa_.
Very similar to the above. Used as a medicine by the natives.
_Tetracera Dinklagei_.
Similar to the other Tetracera species.
_Tetracera sp._ White Cedar.
Reaches a girth of 10 or 12 feet. Wood soft and grain too open for
export.
=Ochnaceæ.=
_Lophira procera_. African Oak or Red Ironwood.
This tree yields oil-bearing seeds. The wood is hard and heavy, of a
reddish brown. Sold as African Oak. The wood is also used in charcoal-
making.
=Guttiferæ.=
_Pentadesma_. Butter or Tallow Tree.
A tall, slender tree growing by the streams. Wood light in colour,
useful in various ways. Also found in Sierra Leone.
_Garcinia kola_. Bitter Cola.
A large but slow-growing tree, with a hard, prettily grained wood,
rather uncommon.
_Garcinia sp._? Mahogany.
The wood sometimes sold as mahogany.
_Garcinia sp._ Chew-stick.
The smaller roots are used as chew-sticks, but taking these in the
drastic method in which it is done generally means death to the tree.
It is found on summits of the mountains.
=Flacourtiaceæ.=
_Smeathmannia lævigata_.
_Smeathmannia sp._
The buds are single, growing in the axils of the leaves. Leaves
toothed. There are fifteen species of this tree; not very common. Wood
of little value.
=Rhizophoraceæ.=
_Rhizophora mangle_.
The Mangrove species. It grows in swamps or on the banks of rivers of
Liberia. The wood is hard and heavy but easily worked; much used for
poles and firewood, the bark in tanning.
_Rhizophora racemosa_.
The Mangrove species. Very similar to the above.
=Myrtaceæ.=
_Psidium guajava_. Guava.
A small tree growing near Monrovia. Fruit edible, the well-known Guava
of commerce.
=Sapotaceæ.=
_Mimusops sp._ The Bobby Water or Benin Mahogany.
A very common kind of Mahogany, attaining a bole of 50 feet and girth
of 12 feet. It will grow at a higher elevation than most forest trees.
Wood very useful in the making of furniture.
_Mimusops lacera_. African Pearwood.
A tall, fine-looking tree, with good bole. It would pay to plant these
unsparingly. It grows well near the coast. The hard, red wood is very
useful and most valuable in furniture-making, inlaying, veneering,
etc.
_Chrysophyllum sp._
A tree of medium height. Fruit edible. The wood not well known in
commerce.
_Sideroxylon longistylum_.
This tree supplies a good timber. The fruit is edible.
_Omphalocarpum_.
A kind of Guttapercha is obtained from this tree. It supplies also a
good, useful timber.
=Apocynaceæ.=
_Rauwolfia vomitoria_. Swizzle-stick.
A good workable timber is obtained from it. Stone fruit.
_Funtumia Africana_. False Rubber Tree.
The rubber is useless, being sticky, like birdlime. Height from 15 to
20 feet.
_Funtumia sp._ Boxwood.
Much the same as above. Found also in Sierra Leone.
_Funtumia elastica_. True Rubber Tree.
One of the most important rubber-trees of Africa (also Sierra Leone);
produces good rubber. Height 100 feet.
_Conopharyngia_. Rubber.
Another rubber-tree, yielding only small quantities, of little use in
commerce.
_Landolphia Owariensis_. Vine Rubber.
Another of the best rubber-trees; grows in the Sino Basin.
_Landolphia jenje_. Vine or White Ball Rubber.
A very good rubber, even better than _L. Owariensis_.
=Bignoniaceæ.=
_Newbouldia lævis_.
A pinnate-leaved tree with dense panicles of pink flowers like the
foxglove; the fruit long and slender. The bright-coloured wood is very
even in texture, much used in fence-making.
=Rubiaceæ.=
_Sarcocephalus esculentus_. Sierra Leone Peach.
Flowers in large heads, white and fragrant. Deep-red fruit, the peach
of the country, the size of a man’s fist. The wood much used for
inlaying.
_Morinda sp._? Brimstone.
A tree with bole of 50 feet in height, girth from 16 to 20 feet. The
wood is bright yellow in colour, not of much value, but the root-wood
is sold in the native markets for yellow dye and the bole wood for
weather-boards. It is very hard and resists attacks of insects.
_Randia maculata_.
A very pretty ornamental tree, with glossy leaves and white flowers.
_Coffea Liberica_. Liberian Coffee.
A tree about 20 feet in height. Coffee-berries the size of a cherry.
APPENDIX
LIBERIA—FOREST EXPORTS
-----------------+---------+-------+---------+------+---------+-------
Products. | 1908. | £ | 1909. | £| 1910. | £
-----------------+---------+-------+---------+------+---------+-------
Palm kernels | 200,489 | 41,916| — | — | — | —
| bush. | | | | |
| | | | | |
Palm oil | 876,000 | 60,223| — | — | 1,149 | 359
| gals. | | | | bush. |
| | | | | |
Rubber | 169,566 | 8,478| — | — | — | —
| lb. | | | | |
| | | | | |
Coffee |1,459,082| 27,966| — | — |6,774 lb.| 353
| lb. | | | | |
| | | | | |
Coffee seed | — | — | — | — |1,690,955|32,978
| | | | | lb. |
| | | | | |
Coffee scions | — | — |2,082,540|35,830| — | —
| | | lb. | | |
| | | | | |
Coffee trees | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | |
Piassava |7,396,863| 38,528| — | — | — | —
| lb. | | | | |
| | | | | |
Kola nuts | — | — | — | — | 384,830 | 2,408
| | | | | lb. |
| | | | | |
Calabar beans |4,318 lb.| 37| — | — | — | —
| | | | | |
Guttapercha | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | |
Camwood | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | |
Ivory | 14,514 | 4,447| — | — | — | —
| lb. | | | | |
-----------------+---------+-------+---------+------+---------+-------
TOTALS |9,044,343|181,599|2,082,540|35,830|2,082,559|36,098
| lb. | | lb. | | lb. |
| | | | | |
| 876,000 | | | | 1,149 |
| gals. | | | | bush. |
| | | | | |
| 200,489 | | | | |
| bush. | | | | |
-----------------+---------+-------+---------+------+---------+-------
[Continued]
-----------------+---------+-------+---------+------
Products. | 1911. | £ | 1912. | £
-----------------+---------+-------+---------+------
Palm kernels | — | — | — | —
| | | |
Palm oil | — | — | — | —
| | | |
Rubber | — | — | — | —
| | | |
Coffee | 103,032 | 5,648| 93,822 | 4,589
| lb. | | lb. |
| | | |
Coffee seed | — | — | — | —
| | | |
Coffee scions |1,851,993| 38,508|1,514,193|47,456
| lb. | | lb. |
| | | |
Coffee trees | — | — | — | —
| | | |
Piassava | — | — | — | —
| | | |
Kola nuts | — | — | — | —
| | | |
Calabar beans | — | — | — | —
| | | |
Guttapercha | — | — | — | —
| | | |
Camwood | — | — | — | —
| | | |
Ivory | — | — | — | —
-----------------+---------+-------+---------+------
TOTALS |1,955,025| 44,156|1,608,015|52,045
| lb. | | lb. |
-----------------+---------+-------+---------+------
[Illustration: FIG. 12.—=Gola Forest, general view, near Morro River.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 13.—=Mahogany (Khaya Ivoriensis), the late Mr. C. W.
Smythe standing beside it, Gola Forest.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 14.—=Young Yawey Cedar (Heritiera?), Gola Forest.=]
To face p. 80.
CHAPTER V
THE IVORY COAST
Thanks to Monsieur Auguste Chevalier’s very varied and extensive travels
on the Ivory Coast, we have obtained very graphic descriptions of the
belt of forest extending nearly 150 miles inland and parallel to the
coast.
In his books _Les Végétaux Utiles de l’Afrique Tropicale Française_,
Fasc. V., _Première Etude sur les Bois de la Côte d’Ivoire_, and _Les
Végétaux utiles de l’Afrique tropicale française_, Fasc. VII (Première
Partie), _Documents sur le Palmier à Huile_, on the vegetation of this
French Colony, not only are there general descriptions of some of the
best and most accessible forests, but also there are full descriptions
of the individual trees, together with most of their botanical and most
valuable vernacular names.
Considering that the area of the Ivory Coast is 130,000 square miles,
and the forest belt about 150 miles wide, the mahogany industry should
be still further developed than it is at the present time.
So far, on the average, the Ivory Coast has been noted for its figured
mahogany, the Ports of Grand Bassam, Assinie (a town and river of Upper
Guinea), and La Hou being the most noted, and having given almost their
name to different classes of Ivory Coast mahogany. For several reasons
this type of mahogany has fetched higher prices than that of the average
from elsewhere. Sassandra, at the mouth of a similar named river, and
also Cavally, on the Cavally, are minor ports for the shipment of
mahogany.
First and foremost the wood obtained from what Monsieur Chevalier terms
_Khaya Ivoriensis_ is of a much more sheeny nature than that of either
_Khaya Senegalensis_, _Khaya grandis_ or _Khaya Punchii_.
In the next place, the method of working is most peculiar. Usually,
individual natives cut a few trees at a time, standing nearest a
waterway or lagoon; in fact, these were picked trees which the natives
thought contained figured wood, and this had the effect of only a one-
sided working of the forest, thus leaving many other valuable trees. On
the average, the distribution of the numbers and of the various species
is about the same as in other parts of West Africa. Apparently many of
the ordinary trees have often been left standing, or at any rate most of
those which are too inaccessible. A tree standing more than about a mile
from water is too far for a native working almost single-handed, and
only collecting a few labourers for hauling his logs to the waterway.
In recent years, however, British as well as French firms, with a larger
amount of capital, have started to work the forests. Regulations have
been drawn up by the local Government in a similar manner and of a
similar nature to those in force generally on the West Coast of Africa.
The Government also has built a railway passing through and near some of
the forests north of Grand Bassam. Since its inception, a further
impetus has been given to the mahogany trade. However, in the matter of
water transport, the rivers of the Ivory Coast, such as the Tano, mostly
flowing in British territory, but emptying itself into the sea at
Assinie (the port for logs in French territory), the Yar or Abi, the
Komoe, the Zini, and Bandana, the Sassandra and Cavally, can none of
them be said to be at all good for the floating out of logs. La Hou is
the port for the Bandana and Zini Rivers, after their junction;
Sassandra is the port for the Sassandra and Cavally for the Cavally. At
the mouth of each of them there is a shallow bar, and this in turn
causes a bad surf, and in other parts the coast lacks harbours, and the
formation of it is unsuitable for the shipment of timber. No doubt, as
time goes on, an effective means will be invented for dealing with the
passage of the logs through the surf, especially at the mouths of
rivers. So far, from all accounts, the rivers themselves have not been
cleared of snags and rocky obstructions for the transport of the timber.
This factor again has reacted on the output, and many of the finest
forests remain unworked. Owing to the fact of this accidental policy of
only cutting the best mahogany trees, the intensive exploitation of the
forests by cutting other species of trees (the timber of which has
already found a market in Europe) has been greatly hindered. Among such
timbers are the following:
_Khaya Ivoriensis_,
_Chlorophora excelsa_,
_Lophira alata_,
_Afzelia microcarpa_,
_Entandrophragma macrophylla_,
_Canarium Schweinfurthii_, or _Occidentalis_.
On the whole, English firms working on the Ivory Coast have been
encouraged and not hindered, but some of the minor regulations appear to
be rather irksome and vexatious in their working, and the firms have
felt that their tenure of the forest rights was not quite so secure as
elsewhere in West Africa.
The export duties placed on mahogany cut on the banks of the Tano in
Gold Coast territory are almost of such a nature as to prohibit the
profitable working of the Tano forests.
LIST OF TREES
(CHEVALIER’S.)
=Pandanaceæ.=
_Pandanus candelabrum_. Sometimes known as Screw Pine.
A well-branched tree, supported by aerial roots; leaves spinous and in
dense spirals.
=Palmæ.=
_Borassus flabellifer_ Ronier (Colons); Dendo (Attie); Makube (Fanti);
Ekube (Agni).
=Liliaceæ.=
_Dracæna Perrotetti_. Nkiebe (Mbonoi); Adjonde (Ebrie).
=Ulmaceæ.=
_Celtis integrifolia_. Mgua (Abe); Tongo (Bondoukou).
=Moraceæ.=
_Antiaris toxiaria_. Ake (Mbonoi).
_Chlorophora excelsa_. Corkwood (English); Akede (Abe); Bakana (Fanti);
Guele (Bondoukou); Elui (Agni); Bonzo (Bambara); Agui (Ebrie); Odum
(Appollonien).
_Ficus Goliath_. Abono (Mbonoi).
_Ficus Guineensis_. Aturn (Mbonoi).
_Ficus sp._ Mekhi (Attie); Diangue (Agni); Karfa (Bambara).
_Pontya excelsa_. Metchi (Attie); Triwa (Agni).
_Morus mesozygia_. Bana (Attie); Cecerui (Agni).
_Musanga Smithii_. Parasolier (Colons); Loho (Abe); Guima Djuna
(Bondoukou); Egui (Agni); Congo-congo (Gabonais).
_Myrianthus arboreus_. Agnon (Abe); Atolaie (Mbonoi); Agniere (Ebrie).
_Myrianthus serratus_. Nianga-magui (English); Diancangue (Attie);
Nianga (Agni); Nianga-magui (Indenie).
_Treculia africana_. Izaquente Portugais (Colons); Yukugo (Bondoukou).
=Olacaceæ.=
_Coula edulis_. Atsan (Attie); Bogüe (Agni); Akion (Ebrie).
_Ongokea Klaineana_. So (Abe).
_Strombosia pustulata_. Myole Polie (Abe); Patabua (Bondoukou); Fognian
(Mbonoi).
=Octoknemataceæ.=
_Octoknema affinis_. Guangua (Attie).
=Anonaceæ.=
_Cleistopholis patens_. Kotopuan (Attie); Bofu (Fanti); Eutie (Agni).
_Enantia chlorantha_. Mbawe (Abe); Esuro (Attie).
_Monodora myristica_. Mbang (Attie); Efuen (Agni); Hane (Ebrie).
_Stenanthera hamata_. T’sainfi (Attie); Surua (Agni).
_Pachypodanthium_.
_Xylopia æthiopica_. Ethiopian pepper (Colons); Fonde (Attie); Efomu
(Agni); Endiar or N’diar (Wolof).
_Xylopia parviflora_.
=Myristicaceæ.=
_Cœlocaryon oxycarpum_. Kinkonawon (Mbonoi).
_Pycnanthus Kombo_. Walehe (Abe); Hetere (Bondoukou); Etama (Agni);
Anaküe (Mbonoi); Edna (Appolonien).
=Capparidaceæ.=
_Buchholzia macrophylla_. Mon (Attie); Akotompo (Fanti); Amizi (Agni);
Do (Trepo).
=Rosaceæ.=
_Chrysobalanus ellipticus_. Hanfuru (Agni).
_Parinarium robustum_. Aroba (Mbonoi).
_Parinarium tenuifolium_. Simua (Attie); Gatesima (Mbonoi).
=Leguminosæ.=
_Albizzia fastigiata_. San (Attie); Piampian (Fanti); Kuanguan (Agni).
_Albizzia ferruginea_.
_Albizzia gigantea_. Turndogo, Bosole (Bondoukou).
_Albizzia rhombifolia_. Küe (Attie); Pranpran (Fanti); Kure (Agni).
_Afzelia microcarpa_. Asemigniri (Mbonoi).
_Aphanocalyx sp._ Redwood (Colons); Taceribe (Mbonoi); Arabmetu
(Adionkron).
_Baphia nitida_. Camwood (English); Tte (Attie); Ekuro (Fanti); Exin
(Agni); Eseme (Mbonoi).
_Berlinia acuminata_. Beguan (Attie); Gueguirotta baka (Agni).
_Cynometra Vogelii_. Tiupe (Attie).
_Cynometra cryptosepalum_. Kiukuesin (Attie); Patapara (Agni).
_Daniellia oblonga_. Trakuan (Attie); Kuangua (Agni).
_Dialium Dinklagei_.
_Dialium Guineense_. Fe (Attie); Warie (Agni).
_Erythrophlœum Ivoriensis_. Amerere (Agni).
_Erythrophlœum Guineense_. Erüi (Agni); Teli (Bambara); Aranhe
(Mbonoi).
_Lonchocarpus sericeus_. Acacia de Gabon (Colons); Akuosi, Amba
(Fanti); Ekopa (Agni).
_Macrolobium Palisoti_.
_Milletia sp._ Vandaküe (Attie); Bakahehessi (Agni); Ekimi (Mbonoi).
_Parkia Agboensis_. Lo (Abe); Dogo (Bondoukou); Asama (Mbonoi).
_Pentaclethra macrophylla_. Owala (Gabonais).
_Piptadenia Africana_. Bon (Attie); Nainvi (Bondoukou); Kuangua iniama
(Agni).
_Piptadenia Chevalieri_. Lo (Attie).
_Pterocarpus esculentus_. Totohote (Attie); Assihaoto (Agni).
_Tetrapleura Thonningii_.
=Pandaceæ.=
_Porphyranthus Zenkeri_. Tebo (Attie); Akwankusuma (Fanti); Akuana
(Agni).
=Linaceæ.=
_Phyllocosmus Africanus_.
=Humiriaceæ.=
_Saccoglottis Gabunensis_. Amuan (Attie).
=Rutaceæ.=
_Fagara macrophylla_. Hanwego (Bondoukou); Kengüe (Mbonoi).
_Zanthoxylum parvifolium_. M’Bon (Attie); Kanton (Fanti); Hendje,
Hengué (Agni).
=Simarubaceæ.=
_Hannoa Klaineana_. Haiefai? (Abe); Neube? (Attie); Hete bake (Mbonoi).
_Irvingia_. Akwabu (Mbonoi); Lubigniati (Adionkron).
_Mannia Africana_. Hate (Attie); Sotibia (Fanti); Bomoku (Agni); Akodo
(Mbonoi).
=Burseraceæ.=
_Canarium Occidentalis_. Okume d’Ivoire (Colons); Segna (Attie);
Krendja Haigue (Agni).
=Meliaceæ.=
_Bingeria Africana_. Hakue (Attie); Hague (Agni).
_Carapa microcarpa_. Dona (Abe); Kuli pia (Bondoukou); Kobi (Bambara).
_Carapa velutina_. Bibiabe (Attie); Akumasse (Fanti); Sorowa (Agni).
_Charia Indeniensis_. Zacoba (Attie); Zacoba (Agni).
_Entandrophragma ferruginea_. Locobo (Attie); Tiamatiama (Agni).
_Entandrophragma macrophylla_. Baka-biringui (Abe); Lokoba (Attie);
Kaiguigo (Bondoukou); Makua (Mbonoi); Tiamatiama (Appolonien).
_Entandrophragma rufa_. Cedrat (Colons); Kaiguigo (Bondoukou).
_Entandrophragma Septentrionalis_. Baka-birin-gui (Abe); Keiwgo
(Bondoukou).
_Khaya Ivoriensis_. Bariba or Biribi (Colons); Ekuie (Abe); Lokobua
(Attie); Dukuma Dugura (Agni); Humpe (Ebrie); Tiamatiama (Appolonien).
_Pynærtia Occidentalis_. Hainde (Agni); Kassekui (Mbonoi); Dubiri
Keguigo (Appolonien).
_Trichilia Candollei_. Tanna (English); Fe (Attie); Tenuba, Tanuba
(Agni).
_Trichilia cedrata_. Ngnanake (Abe); Mbosse (Agni); Anokue (Mbonoi).
_Trichilia acutifoliata_.
=Euphorbiaceæ.=
_Macaranga Heudelotii_. Abo (Attie); Eson (Fanti); Ekna (Agni).
_Mæsobotrya Stapfiana_. Senan (Attie); Emuinguim (Fanti); Asa bogüie
(Agni).
_Oldfieldia Africana_. African Teak (English); Fu (Attie); Etüi (Agni).
_Ricinodendron Africanus_. Hobo Hapi (Abe); Isain (Attie); Sosaü
(Fanti); Haipi (Bondoukou); Haipi (Agni); Poposi (Mbonoi); Poposi
(Ebrie); Nbob (Moyen Cavally).
_Uapaca Benguelensis_. African Oak (English); Chêne d’Afrique (Colons);
Rikio (Abe); Niondobi (Bondoukou); Cosomon (Bambara); Sannaba (Mbonoi).
_Uapaca Bingervillensis_. Rikio (Abe); Na (Attie); Kayo (Bondoukou);
Elekhua (Agni); Orobo (Mbonoi).
_Alchornea sp._ Bonyurome (Mbonoi); Aguaya (Ebrie); Tatairo (Moyen
Cavally).
_Baccaurea Bonneti_. Habizacue (Attie); Kuatiecuale (Agni).
_Bridelia speciosa_. Chicue (Attie).
_Hasskarlia didymostemon_. Nguepe (Attie); Echirua (Agni).
=Anacardiaceæ.=
_Hæmatostaphis Barteri_. Vi (Abe); Esanke, Esangue (Attie).
_Lannea acidissima_. Ngolo ngoloti (Abe); Tchiko (Attie); Kakoro
(Fanti); Durgo, Duroko, Duko (Bondoukou); Borepore (Agni).
_Lannea sp._ Ebruke (Attie); Bembe (Bambara).
_Spondias lutea_. Ngua (Abe); Ningo (Bambara); Haperrie (Mbonoi).
=Icacinaceæ.=
_Leptaulus daphnoides_. Paradedi (Attie); Eborodumuen (Agni).
=Sapindaceæ.=
_Blighia sapida_. Sago (Bondoukou); Finzan (Bambara).
_Deinbollia Indeniensis_. Ngua, Abo (Attie); Ekosuba, Zenna, Kerenya
(Agni); Kaüsa (Indenie).
_Placodiscus pseudostipularis_. Para dakue (Attie).
=Tiliaceæ.=
_Duboscia macrocarpa_. Pianro (Agni).
=Bombacaceæ.=
_Bombax Buonopozense_.
=Sterculiaceæ.=
_Cola cordifolia_. Awa (Attie); Amhio (Bondoukou); Dabudabu (Agni);
Ntaba (Bambara).
_Cola mirabilis_. Gnibi (Attie); Kamou aguire (Agni).
_Cola proteiformis_. Kouanda (Attie); Kokotsi (Fanti); Guiangon (Agni).
_Cola vera_. Awasse (Abe); Lo (Attie); Buesse (Mbonoi); Hapo (Ebrie);
Guere (Neyau); Guresu (Bete); Hure (Plapo); We (Trepo); Halu
(Adionkron).
_Pterygota cordifolia_. Ape (Attie); Sounoum (Fanti); Ware Borf ware
(Agni).
_Sterculia oblonga_. Azodo (Abe).
_Sterculia tragacantha_. Porepore (Abe); Botapia (Attie); Lomburu
(Bondoukou); Kotokie (Indenia).
_Triplochiton scleroxylon_. Hofa (Abe); Samba, Sankamba (Bondoukou);
Batabua (Agni); Wa-wa (Appolonien); Wa-wa (Indenia).
=Scytopetalaceæ.=
_Rhaptopetalum Tieghemi_. Mosangui (Attie); Djo Arbi (Mbonoi).
=Ochnaceæ.=
_Lophira procera_. Nokue (Attie); Esore (Agni).
=Guttiferæ.=
_Allanblackia parviflora_. Wohotelimon (Abe); Bissaboko (Attie);
Akumase (Fanti); Alabenun (Agni); Wotobe Ewotebo (Mbonoi).
_Garcinia polyantha_. Mamie Kini (Agni).
_Ochrocarpus Africanus_. African Apricot (Colons); Quelipe Kelipe
(Bondoukou).
_Pentadesma leucantha_. Piche Aboko (Attie); Allahbanunu (Agni).
_Symphonia globulifera_. Arquane (Mbonoi).
=Flacourtiaceæ.=
_Homalium Africanum_. Akouibia (Fanti); Akoima (Agni).
_Scottellia coriaceæ_. Bakaza (Attie); Aburuhi (Fanti).
_Scottellia Kamerunensis_. Akosica (Abe); Edde (Mbonoi).
=Rhizophoraceæ.=
_Rhizophora racemosa_. Paletuvier rouge (Colons); Ntagne (Attie);
Koghia bera (Fanti); Ende (Agni).
=Combretaceæ.=
_Anogeissus sp._ Kakaleka (Bondoukou); Krekete (Bambara).
_Combretodendron viridiflora_. Kati (Abe); Esive (Mbonoi).
_Terminalia altissima_. Pe (Abe); Fram (Bondoukou); Frake (Agni).
_Terminalia Ivoriensis_. Satinwood (English); Mboti, Buma (Attie);
Tuhidja (Bondoukou); Framine (Agni); Fela (Bambara); Cauri (Mbonoi).
=Myrtaceæ.=
_Eugenia syzygium_. Amerere (Agni).
=Melastomaceæ.=
_Memecylon polyanthemos_. Taisin (Attie); Tai (Agni).
=Ebenaceæ.=
_Diospyros sanza_. Nguobi, Kusibiri (Attie); Sanza, Minika, Asun, Seka
(Agni).
=Oleaceæ.=
_Linociera Mannii_. Akodiombi, Zakuebiembi (Attie); Akokotsua (Fanti);
Aqua egbua (Agni); Akoriie (Indenie).
=Loganiaceæ.=
_Anthocleista nobilis_. Buro-Nuro (Mbonoi).
=Apocynaceæ.=
_Alstonia Congensis_. Kokue (Attie).
_Conopharyngia crassa_. Choka (Attie); Akotompo Atsim (Fanti); Pakie-
pakie, Kuakie-kuakie (Agni); Apukur (Mbonoi).
_Funtumia Africana_. Pesin (Attie); Wala (Bondoukou).
_Funtumia elastica_. Pechi (Attie); Poyndua (Fanti); Efurumundu (Agni);
Ofuntum (Appolonien); Twe (Neyau); Uruba su (Bete); Dorose-Populu
(Plapo); Bebeti (Moyen Cavally).
_Picralima Elliotii_. Hainfain (Attie); Kakana (Agni).
_Rauwolfia vomitoria_. Embi-siembi (Agni); Gonguonkiur (Mbonoi).
=Verbenaceæ.=
_Vitex micrantha_. Kiangu (Mbonoi).
=Bignoniaceæ.=
_Spathodea campanulata_. Tulipier de Gabon (Colons); Kokomazur
(Mbonoi).
=Rubiaceæ.=
_Grumilea vanosa_. Tchiat Kottse (Attie); Aburese baka (Agni).
_Gardenia viscidissima_.
_Mitragyne macrophylla_. Sofo (Attie); Bahia (Agni).
_Morinda citrifolia_. Alongua (Bondoukou); Sangongo (Bambara).
_Pseudocinchona Africana_. Mbrahu (Abe); Kiumba (Bondoukou).
_Sarcocephalus esculentus_. Tetere (Mbonoi).
_Sarcocephalus Pobeguini_. Ndebere (Attie); Ekusamba (Fanti); Boisima
(Agni); Zeronga (Bambara).
APPENDIX
IVORY COAST—FOREST EXPORTS
[Quant.: Quantity.]
------------+--------------+--------------------+---------------------
| 1909. | 1910. | 1911.
Products. +------+-------+------------+-------+------------+--------
|Quant.| £ | Quant. | £ | Quant. | £
------------+------+-------+------------+-------+------------+--------
| Tons.| | Tons. | | Tons. |
| | | | | |
Colas | 1| | — | | 8 | 717
| | | | | |
Palm kernels| 5,191| 45,421| 5,422 | 47,450| 5,251 | 66,223
| | | | | |
Doumane | 2| 26| — | — | 5 | 56
| | | | | |
Ginger | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | |
Palm oil | 6,367|119,398| 5,954 |111,651| 6,625 |169,305
| | | | | |
Coco-oil | — | — | — | | — | —
(touloucoume| | | | | |
de palmiste)| | | | | |
| | | | | |
Gum copal | 1| 77| 0·0882| 4| 0·6106 | 4
| | | | | |
Rubber | 368| 67,604| 391 |121,490| 351 |110,916
| | | | | |
Beurre de | — | — | — | — | 0·15415| 4
karité | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Soumbaras | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | |
Woods |15,994| 33,321| 13,783 | 2,871|23,812 | 9,426
(cabinet- | | | | | |
making | | | | | |
etc.; | | | | | |
mahogany) | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Kapok | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | |
Piassava | 14| 99| — | — | — | —
| | | | | |
Bamboos | — | — | — | — | — | —
------------+------+-------+------------+-------+------------+--------
TOTALS |27,938|265,949| 25,550·882 |283,468|36,054·76475|356,655
------------+------+-------+------------+-------+------------+--------
[Continued]
------------+--------------+--------------------
| 1912. | 1913.
Products. +------+-------+------------+-------
|Quant.| £ | Quant. | £
------------+------+-------+------------+-------
| Tons.| | Tons. |
| | | |
Colas | 9| 770| 24 | 2,007
| | | |
Palm kernels| 6,799| 73,656| 6,949 |104,030
| | | |
Doumane | 8| 89| 0·7742 | 12
| | | |
Ginger | — | — | 0·0098 | 5
| | | |
Palm oil | 6,776|155,294| 6,014 |125,921
| | | |
Coco-oil | — | | 0·5194 | —
(touloucoume| | | |
de palmiste)| | | |
| | | |
Gum copal | 1| 98| 1 | 99
| | | |
Rubber | 1,376|344,020| 394 | 78,239
| | | |
Beurre de | 1| 22| 8 | 128
karité | | | |
| | | |
Soumbaras | — | — | 0·098 | 2
| | | |
Woods |30,489|120,688|42,651 |208,869
(cabinet- | | | |
making | | | |
etc.; | | | |
mahogany) | | | |
| | | |
Kapok | — | — | 2 | 28
| | | |
Piassava | 7| 45| 3 | 23
| | | |
Bamboos | — | — | 0·56804| 1
------------+------+-------+------------+-------
TOTALS |45,466|624,676|56,047·96944|519,364
------------+------+-------+------------+-------
[Illustration: FIG. 15.—=Teak Plantation of 1908, 35¾ feet high, Sokode,
in 1911.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 16.—=Teak Plantation of 1907 and 1908 on Hill-side,
Atakpame.=]
CHAPTER VI
THE GOLD COAST
Area, 80,000 square miles.
During 1909, a most interesting and exhaustive _Report on the Forest of
the Gold Coast_, as well as Ashanti and the Northern Territories, was
written by Mr. H. N. Thompson, the Chief Conservator of Forests of
Nigeria. As a result of this Report, a Forest Department was formed in
1910. This Forest Department now consists of a Conservator, Deputy, and
three Assistant Conservators of Forests. However, legislation for the
proper preservation of the forest and creation of Forest Reserves has
not been passed, so that the scope of the Forest Department’s usefulness
has been much curtailed.
It would be quite superfluous here to try and describe the forests in
such a masterly fashion as has been done by Mr. Thompson, but anyone who
is interested in the Gold Coast Forests should read the Report for
themselves. It will suffice to give an outline of the main features of
the Forest Administration and a general description of the forests.
With the author’s permission I have given a list of the timber-trees,
together with the botanical names, so far as they are known.
The people of this very rich country have in a short-sighted way very
much hindered real progress in Forestry by refusing to assist in the
creation of Forest Reserves. Forest Reserves are, of course, simply
forest permanently set aside for the production of timber or other such
forest products. The people of the Gold Coast have, apparently, judging
by extracts from the local Press, got the idea into their heads that the
making of a Forest Reserve necessarily means the ownership of the land
on which the forest stands passing into the possession of the
Government. This, of course, is quite a contrary view to the true
conception of a Forest Reserve, which is an area set apart by the
Supreme Government as a forest for the permanent production of timber,
etc., and usually managed by the Forest Department of the country. It
may be a State forest, a communal forest, a municipal forest, or even a
private forest which is thus placed under Forest Laws as a Forest
Reserve. The user (that is, the man who has the right of usufruct in it)
is not generally in a position to protect it thoroughly, and to some
extent foregoes present temporary profits for future permanent returns.
The diverse forms of forests named above, under the permanent management
of the State, are seen in Switzerland, Germany, France, Russia, Japan,
and India, not to mention Nigeria, so that it cannot be called an
isolated system.
The cocoa industry has quite overshadowed that of collecting palm fruit,
making palm oil, and cracking of palm nuts to obtain the kernels, with
the result that these exports are small compared with Sierra Leone even,
which is a much smaller colony, with a climate less propitious for palm-
trees.
The following table shows the exports for the last five years:
Tons. £
1909 14,553 113,784
1910 14,252 185,058
1911 13,254 175,890
1912 14,629 205,365
1913 9,744 159,128
In the year 1913 forest produce, in the shape of logs, etc., to the
value of £3,327,743 was exported. It would be disastrous to the country
if a few loud-voiced, narrow-minded people were to prevent proper
measures being adopted for the welfare of the country. Considering their
previous education and small experience in these wide economic matters,
it is only natural that they should take this view, but, on the other
hand, that is no reason why the Supreme Government should not do what is
necessary for the future permanent benefit of the country. A child is
not allowed to play with fire, although it may very much like to see the
flames; in the same way the British people, as locally represented by
the Gold Coast Government, cannot allow the inhabitants of the district
to play fast and loose with their priceless treasures, the African
forests, well knowing that the country will be permanently injured
thereby. Examples are to be found to-day of countries which have allowed
their forests to be destroyed. Spain and Portugal are typical of this,
and even in Africa one has the spectacle of France putting untold
millions into Forestry in Algeria in order to restore the rainfall.
Morocco and Mesopotamia are further examples of countries in a similar
condition, where the forests have been destroyed. Palestine, with its
ancient forests of Lebanon, is the most drastic example of forest
destruction, quite apart from Turkish misrule. A similar process has
taken place in the Soudan, and this locality is only now being
laboriously re-afforested by the Forest Department there. In India,
European countries, Canada, Australia, and in the United States it has
been proved that it is only by a central Government Agency that the
forests will be properly preserved both for this generation and the
next; therefore, before it is too late, it behoves the Gold Coast people
to recognise their responsibility to future generations and allow the
necessary legislation, so that the forests may be preserved and rightly
utilised.
LIST OF INDIGENOUS TREES AND RUBBER VINES
(From Mr. H. N. Thompson’s Report on the Gold Coast Forests.)
=Pandanaceæ.=
_Pandanus sp._ Ntung (Fanti); Ntung (Ashanti); Ndau (Apollonian); Ndau
(Aowin); Ekpa (Krepi).
Screw Pine. Often found near villages on the coast and where drier
conditions prevail, in sheltered spots. Reaches height of 30 feet.
Leaves used in mat-making.
=Gramineæ.=
_Bamboo sp._
Some of these attain a great height. Used for many purposes by the
natives.
=Cyperaceæ.=
_Bulbostylis barbata_.
_Bulbostylis laniceps_.
Quite small trees.
=Palmæ.=
_Ancistrophyllum sp._ Eye (Fanti).
Large kind of rattan. Scandent palm.
_Borassus flabellifer_. Makube (Fanti); Makube (Ashanti); Kube
(Akwapim); Malankwi (Apollonian); Ago (Quitta); Ago (Krepi); Ago
(Accra).
_Borassus æthiopica_.
The wood, exclusive of pith, extremely hard. Pericarp of nut edible.
Savannah forests.
_Raphia vinifera_. Adube and Doka (Fanti); Doka (Ashanti); Tombo
(general West Coast); Doka (Apollonian); Doka (Aowin); Alati (Quitta);
Alati (Krepi).
_Raphia Hookeri_.
Wine (from stem) and bamboo palm. Piassava fibre prepared from the
rachis and the leaves, poles from bamboo in building; pinnæ for
baskets and thatch. Seed beaten to pulp thrown in water to catch fish.
_Elæis Guineensis_. Abe (Fanti); Arere, Abeletia (Apollonian); Beteng
(Aowin); Ede (Quitta); Ede (Krepi).
Oil Palm of commerce. Derived from this tree, also, the chief supply
of palm wine and piassava fibre. The coast natives use the leaf rachis
for building and the leaves for thatch.
_Calamus Barteri_.
Scandent palm.
_Calamus deerratus_. (West) Uwatia and Oyea (Ash.) (Ashanti).
The common rattan; marshes.
_Cocos nucifera_. Kube (Fanti); Kukwi (Ashanti); Ajui (Aowin); Eue
(Quitta); Eavune (Krepi); Hukwi (Axim).
Cocoanut, found in the vicinity of villages on the coast, sometimes
inland.
_Fan Palm_ or _Doum_. Ago (general West Coast).
Wood provides beams for building; fruit edible; leaves for thatching;
and a strong wine is made from the stem.
_Phœnix reclinata_, or Wild Date Palm. Euchresia (Fanti); Mileishia
(Apollonian); Mileishia (Aowin); Aeyedi (Quitta); Iedi (Krepi).
A small date palm; grows on the sea-shore. Fruit edible. The terminal
buds are cooked as a vegetable. A wine is made from the stem.
=Liliaceæ.=
_Sansevieria_.
Small tree, fibre-yielding.
_Dracæna arborea_.
40 feet in height.
_Dracæna Mannii_.
30 feet in height. Yields a light-coloured dye.
_Dracæna surculosa_.
=Ulmaceæ.=
_Trema affinis_.
A small tree.
_Trema Africana_.
Small tree of secondary forest.
=Moraceæ.=
_Ficus sp._ Shedua or Abonsandua (Twi); Mousandua or Okitsiwanfu
(Fanti); Shedua (Ashanti); Adowa (Apollonian); Adowa and Dupain
(Aowin); Kapro (Grunchi); Aiu (Krepi); Kingkanga (Hausa).
Some Ficus are tapped for rubber, others fruited. This species is a
large, smooth-barked tree.
_Ficus platyphylla_.
Fruit edible, cf. _Vogelii_, and in great demand.
_Ficus Vogelii_.
Medium-sized tree. Latex extracted by tapping. A good shade tree.
_Ficus asperifolia_. Yankran (Fanti).
Savannah forests. Called Sandpaper Tree, because the rough leaves are
used to smooth planks. The ashes are used in making dyes.
_Ficus elegans_.
_Ficus eriobotryoides_.
_Ficus Ottoniæfolia_.
_Ficus triangularis_.
_Musanga Smithii_. Juma (Wassaw); Ajama (Fanti); Ajama (West), Ojamba
(Ashanti); Eguni (Apollonian); Egeun (Aowin); Ajama (Krepi).
The Umbrella or Corkwood Tree; used as buoys for fishing-nets in
Apollonia, and roof shingles in Ashanti.
_Myrianthus arboreus_. Niankuma (Fanti); Niankuma (Ashanti); Niankuma
(Apollonian); Niangama (Aowin).
The fruit is eaten by the natives.
_Myrianthus serratus_.
Small tree with edible fruit.
_Antiaris sp._ Chenchen (Twi).
A large tree, the timber of which is liable to attacks by white ants;
when seasoned, used for planks. The latex is one of the chief rubber
adulterants.
_Antiaris toxicaria_. Ofu, Ohonton (Fanti).
_Antiaris Africana_.
_Chlorophora excelsa_. Odoum or Odum (Twi).
Timber very hard and durable; not easy to export, because it will not
float in its green state. A large and valuable timber-tree found in
the fringing forests, the driest parts.
=Urticaceæ.=
_Urera_.
A small tree, very common. Fibre very useful.
=Olacaceæ.=
_Coula edulis_.
Medium-sized tree with edible fruit.
_Olax subscorpoidea_.
=Anonaceæ.=
_Anona Senegalensis_.
The wild Custard Apple. Fruit edible.
_Anona palustris_.
Fruit edible. Both these grow in savannah forests. Roots used in
making floats.
_Monodora brevipes_.
Found in mixed deciduous forests.
_Monodora tenuifolia_. Dubiddi (Ashanti).
_Hexalobus grandiflora_.
A large, handsome tree.
_Xylopia parviflora_.
_Xylopia striata_.
Xylopias all small trees, except _Æthiopica_.
_Xylopia Æthiopica_.
A fairly large tree. Wood resists attacks of white ants. Used for
native house-posts.
=Myristicaceæ.=
_Pycnanthus Kombo_. Ote (Twi). Oti or Etsu (Fanti); Oti (Ashanti); Tika
(Apollonian); Attenli (Aowin); Oti (Accra).
The timber is useful for domestic purposes, roof shingles, etc. A
fatty oil is obtained from the seeds. A medium-sized tree, straight-
stemmed; wood not durable.
=Lauraceæ.=
_Tylostemon Mannii_.
A small tree.
=Rosaceæ.=
_Parinarium sp._ Affram (Twi).
Wood used by natives for building purposes.
_Parinarium curatellæfolium_.
Very common locally. The fruit edible.
_Parinarium robustum_.
Very little known about this tree.
_Parinarium polyandrum_.
In the savannah forests.
_Parinarium mobola_.
Small tree, but good timber. Fruit edible.
_Chrysobalanus ellipticus_. Ababele (Apollonian).
Found near fresh-water lagoon. The fruit of a blue colour, small and
edible.
=Connaraceæ.=
_Cnestis ferruginea_.
_Agelæa obliqua_.
=Leguminoseæ.=
_Piptadenia sp._ Dahumah (Twi); Adadawa (Wassaw).
A large species.
_Piptadenia Africana_. Dahomah (Twi); Odahuma (Wassaw).
Feathery foliage. Fruit a pod 1 foot long, 1 inch broad. A common
forest tree; hard timber, good for railway sleepers.
_Cylicodiscus Gabonensis?_ Denya (Twi); Odenya (Wassaw).
Very large tree of the evergreen forests.
_Daniellia Ogea_. Ahedua (Twi).
Gum Copal.
_Pentaclethra macrophylla_. Atawah or Althawah (Twi); Ekuana (Fanti).
The Oil-bean Tree. Fruit edible; vegetable oils and fats. Timber hard,
suitable for turnery.
_Detarium sp._ Biunwe (Twi).
A gigantic forest tree. Timber good.
_Detarium sp._ Bowiwunua (Twi).
Much like the first. Timber good.
_Detarium Senegalensis_. Bowiwasi (Fanti).
Not so large as other species; doubtful if the timber would be durable
on exposure to the atmosphere.
_Parkia filicoidea_.
Fruit edible. The Locust-bean Tree. Savannah forests.
_Peltophorum sp._ Memchin (Apollonian).
_Bauhinia reticulata_.
The bast fibres are very long and tough; used as ropes by the natives.
_Paradaniella thurifera_.
Balsam Copaiba Tree—wood oil. Timber of little value.
_Tetrapleura Thonningii Prekese_.
Feathery-leaved tree. Four-angled fruit (pod), edible. Used for
medicinal purposes. Wood of medium hardness.
_Xylia Evansii_. Samanta (Twi); Samantawa (Fanti).
_Pithecolobium altissimum_. Augwameatee (Aowin).
A medium-sized tree, growing on river banks. A good shade tree.
_Afrormosia laxiflora_. Duakobin or Duabayi (general West Coast).
A large tree. Timber good, reddish colour; has been sold in Liverpool
as satinwood. Canoes made from it.
_Afzelia Africana_. Opapao (Twi); Papao (Ashanti); Opapao (Akwapim).
A first-class, durable tree. Timber very valuable. The dominant tree
of the savannah forests. Pod 4 to 7 inches long. Used for railway
sleepers, furniture, and building purposes.
_Afzelia fastigiata_.
_Erythrophlœum Guineense_.
A fine, spreading tree of the savannah forests. Wood hard and durable;
used for building. The Sasswood or Ordeal Tree. The bark is poisonous;
infusions of it are used by the natives for the ordeal test,
especially on the Kroo coast. It regenerates freely from seed.
Impervious to attacks of white ants.
_Erythrophlœum micranthum_. Potedon (Wassaw); Potedon (Fanti); Potedon
(Ashanti); Potedon (Apollonian); Etsa (Krepi).
A reddish-brown coloured poison obtained from it.
_Tamarindus Indica_.
Wood very ornamental; fruit edible. The tree is found near the large
rivers Volta and Affram.
_Macrolobium Palisotii_.
_Macrolobium stipulaceum_.
_Macrolobium sp._ Wulfram (Fanti); Ofarm (Ashanti); Ndukwun
(Apollonian); Kotopapa (Krepi).
Common in marshy places.
_Macrolobium limba_.
_Macrolobium reticulatum_.
A medium-sized tree.
_Cynometra Afzelii_.
Cynometra all grow near streams.
_Cynometra Mannii_.
_Cynometra sp._
Fringing forests, close to streams.
_Pterocarpus esculentus_.
Found in the fringing forests. Small tree, of little use.
_Pterocarpus erinaceus_.
The Senegal Rosewood Tree. The savannah forests.
_Albizzia Brownei_.
Fringing forests. Valuable wood, rich brown colour; hard and very
durable. Height of tree about 100 to 120 feet, girth of 10 feet.
_Albizzia Angolensis_.
_Albizzia Abruana_.
_Albizzia fastigiata_.
Found on disused farms. The timber should be useful for local bridge-
making, etc., also furniture. A gum of little value obtained from it.
_Acacia Sieberiana_.
_Acacia catechu_.
A common tree, very gregarious, in open grass country. Catechu
procured from it. Similar to the species in Burma. The heartwood less
well developed than Burmese variety. Sometimes called the Cutch Tree.
Gum arabic.
_Baphia nitida_.
A small tree, frequently found, except in the driest parts. The
Camwood of commerce, though camwood is really the product of
Pterocarpus.
_Dialium Guineense_.
Known as Sierra Leone Tamarind. Very local; fruit edible.
_Berlinia acuminata_.
Medium-sized tree. Gum obtained from it. Ornamental wood; does not
work well.
_Berlinia Auriculata_.
A small tree.
_Berlinia Heudelotii_.
Medium height. Grows on river banks.
_Cassia bicapsularis_.
_Cassia fistula_.
Tree much like a laburnum, of medium size.
_Cassia tora_.
_Cassia alata_.
Flowers more brilliant than _C. fistula_. Found near villages.
_Cassia lophira_.
_Cassia Sieberiana_.
_Cassia Occidentalis_.
_Milletia Thonningii_.
_Milletia Zechiana_.
_Bussea Occidentalis_.
A small tree with bright-yellow flowers.
_Newtonia insignis_.
A tall tree with very smooth bark.
_Calpocalyx_.
A medium-sized tree of the evergreen forests.
_Lonchocarpus sericeus_.
Timber not much good; branches for hoe-handles.
_Lonchocarpus cyanescens_.
The young leaves for making blue dye.
_Entada Soudanica_.
A small, spiky tree; grows in dry, open country.
_Entada Abyssinica_.
Grows in savannah forests. Small tree.
_Dichrostachys nutans_.
_Ormosia laxiflora_.
A tree of about 30 feet in height, much gnarled and twisted.
_Copaifera salikounda_.
_Cylicodiscus Gabunensis_. Ajumkobi (Ashanti).
Sold as greenheart in the Liverpool market; 90 or 100 feet in height.
Very much like _Piptadenia Africana_.
_Distemonanthus Benthamianus_.
_Ecastaphyllum Brownei_.
A small white-flowered tree.
_Erythrina Senegalensis_.
A medium-sized tree, found chiefly in the dry parts. It has very
ornamental scarlet flowers.
=Linaceæ.=
_Hugonia acuminata_.
_Hugonia Planchoni_.
_Hugonia platysepala_.
_Hugonia octhocosum_.
The Hugonia species are all small trees growing on the sea-shore.
=Rutaceæ.=
_Zanthoxylum Senegalense_. Ainyere (Apollonian).
Timber good quality. Bark used medicinally. A tree of the fringing
forests—from a shrub on the sea-shore to a tree of 40 feet in height
inland.
=Simarubaceæ.=
_Hannoa Klaineana_. Feutia (Aowin).
A medium-sized tree. Timber soft.
_Irvingia sp._ Okurii (Ashanti).
Yields a latex copious white when tapped, but turning red on exposure.
Used as a rubber adulterant.
_Irvingia Barterii_.
One of the species that bears the Dika Nut or Wild Mango of commerce.
Edible. Vegetable oils and fats. Tree of medium size.
_Harrisonia Abyssinica_.
A small tree.
=Burseraceæ.=
_Boswellia Klaineana_.
The Ehye or Incense Tree. Timber good.
_Santiriopsis_.
Timber good.
=Meliaceæ.=
_Khaya anthotheca_. Kwabohri (Twi); Akwabohori (Fanti); Kwaboho
(Ashanti).
White Mahogany. Medium-sized tree; timber good.
_Khaya grandis_. Appapayi or Wausauwah (Twi).
A mahogany growing on the shores of the Sacred Lake. Fringing forests.
_Khaya Senegalensis_.
This tree attains the height of from 50 to 60 feet and a girth of 6
feet. Grows best in open dry-zone grass country. Not easy to export,
as it does not grow near waterways. A gum of little value obtained
from it.
_Khaya Punchii_.
Found in fringing forests, rainy districts and swamps. Timber very
useful in furniture-making.
_Khaya Ivoriensis_.
The principal mahogany-yielding tree (Mr. Thompson).
_Khaya caudata_.
_Khaya sp._ (_Dubon_ or _Dubini_). Dubini (Twi); Dubini (Wassaw);
Odupon or Dubini (Fanti); Odubin (Ashanti); Tiame Tiame (Apollonian);
Tiama Tiama (Aowin).
The ordinary mahogany of the moist evergreen forests.
_Khaya sp._ Krubua (Twi); Okunmankra (Fanti).
_Khaya sp._ Afana or Apurro (Twi); Appapyayi (Fanti).
Two small unidentified trees from the mixed forests.
_Lovoa Klaineana_ (_Pebedum_). Akwantanuro (Fanti); Kwantanura
(Ashanti).
Shipped sometimes as African Walnut. A good timber-tree, closely
resembling the teak in colour and structure. Very ornamental wood.
_Pynærtia ealænsis_. Kokotswi (Twi); Anchi (Fanti).
A good timber-tree, much used locally.
_Guarea sp._ Bossè (Twi).
A good timber-tree; appearance of cedar, and exported as such. Moist
evergreen forests.
_Pseudocedrela utilis_. Effnobrodidwa (Twi); Effnokonkonti (Ashanti).
Cedar; the largest of the species. A fine timber-tree.
_Pseudocedrela Kotschyii_.
Savannah forests; attains a great height. Timber hard, of reddish
colour, gnarled and twisted, so difficult to obtain timber of any
size. Used for building by the natives. Roots, bark and leaves used
medicinally (rheumatism).
_Pseudocedrela sp._ Tiama Tiama (Apollonian).
A new species of the cedars.
_Pseudocedrela cylindrica_. Peukwa (Twi); Punkwa (Wassaw); Tiama Tiama
(Apollonian).
This cedar produces excellent timber.
_Carapa Guianensis_. Osuabise (Akwapim); Asokoru (Apollonian); Asoroa
(Aowin).
A large tree of the fringing forests, growing on the banks of the
streams; sometimes shipped as mahogany. Vegetable oils and fats
obtained from it.
_Entandrophragma cylindricum_.
_Entandrophragma ferrugineum_.
_Entandrophragma macrophylla_.
_Entandrophragma Septentrionale_.
_Entandrophragma utilis_.
Found near Mansu and Supom. The timber of the Entandrophragma species
is exported under the name of cedar. The _cylindricum_ attains a
height of 100 feet. Wood gummy, and unsuitable for veneers. Sometimes
called “unscented mahogany.” The _utilis_ under the name of “sapele
scented wood.”
_Trichilia Heudelottii_.
A small tree of little value.
_Trichilia rubescens_.
Attains a height of 30 feet.
_Trichilia Prieuriana_.
Medium-sized tree with flaky bark and much-curled branches. Wood of
red colour, not unlike cedar, but close-grained and hard, and has a
tendency to twist when sawn.
=Malpigheaceæ.=
_Heteropterys Africana_.
Small tree; not very well known.
=Euphorbiaceæ.=
_Ricinodendron Africanus_. Assomah (Twi); Asoma (Fanti); Owama
(Ashanti).
In fringing forests on the banks of streams. Vegetable oils and fats
obtained from this tree. The wood is soft, but burns well; used by
natives as fuel.
_Bridelia micrantha_.
Small tree of the dry zone. A deep reddish-brown dye obtained from
this tree. It is made a fast colour by the admixture of old iron, such
as old kerosene tins, which seems an important part of the fixing.
_Macaranga Barterii_.
_Macaranga heterophylla_.
_Macaranga monandra_.
_Macaranga Rowlandii_.
These four Macaranga species are all small, little-known trees. The
Monandra species is a small cauliflorous tree.
_Mæsobotrya cauliflora_.
A small tree; has conspicuous red fruit.
_Mæsobotrya sparsiflora_.
A small, little-known tree.
_Megabaria Trillesii_. Chuiansa (Apollonian).
Small tree bearing poisonous fruit.
_Microdesmis puberula_. Aforwa (Wassaw); Offenma (Ashanti); Chuiansa
(Apollonian).
A small tree. Wood very useful in the making of agricultural
instruments, also chew-sticks.
_Uapaca Heudelottii_.
A large tree; very common on river banks.
_Hasskarlia didymostemon_.
A small tree; wood of little worth.
_Hymenocardia acida_.
_Hymenocardia Chevalieri_.
The Hymenocardia are both small trees of the savannah forests.
_Excœcaria_.
Small tree of the savannah forests.
_Phyllanthus reticulatus_.
Small tree of the savannah forests.
_Bridelia ferruginea_.
An antidote against poisons.
_Bridelia atroviridis_.
Not well known. About 10 feet in height. A small tree of the savannah
forests.
_Discoglypremna caloneura_.
A small tree of the savannah forests.
_Elæophorbia drupifera_. Kamhan (Fanti); Dudu (Apollonian); Ajurlo
(Krepi).
A small tree growing near the sea.
_Cleidion Gabunicum_.
A small tree. Chew-sticks obtained from it.
_Antidesma venosum_.
_Antidesma laciniatum_.
_Antidesma anbryanthum_.
A white latex obtained from it.
=Anacardiaceæ.=
_Spondias lutea_. Atwaba (Fanti); Atawa (Ashanti); Twani (Apollonian);
Tongoma (Aowin); Akukan (Quitta); Akukan (Krepi).
Found in the fringing forests. A very fine tree. Fruit edible, called
Hog-plum—like yellow plums in appearance; a sharp, acid taste, not
unpleasant.
_Odina sp._
A small, uncommon tree.
_Pseudospondias microcarpa_.
A fair-sized tree, not unlike the _Spondias lutea_.
_Trichoscypha_.
A small tree, little known.
=Celastraceæ.=
_Salacia debilis_.
A tall shrub, 20 feet in height.
=Icacinaceæ.=
_Apodytes Beninensis_.
A small tree, little known.
=Sapindaceæ.=
_Blighia sapida_. Takwadua (Twi); Takwadua (Wassaw).
Often planted near villages. A useful shade tree, and part of the
fruit edible, called Akee. In the forest a good-sized, straight tree.
Timber excellent; hard, good grain, and easily worked.
_Paullinia pinnata_.
A small tree or shrub.
_Phialodiscus unijugata_.
Small tree. Wood of little account.
_Lecaniodiscus_.
Small tree. Wood of little account.
_Eriocœlum_.
A river-side tree.
_Aphania_.
Small tree, little known.
_Deinbollia insignis_.
Small tree, little known.
=Melianthaceæ.=
_Bersama Chippii_.
A small ornamental tree with sweet-scented flowers.
=Rhamnaceæ.=
_Zizyphus Spina-Christi_.
A small tree with edible fruit. Wood very useful in cabinet-work.
_Lasiodiscus_.
A small, little-known tree.
_Zizyphus mucronata_.
A small tree of the savannah forests.
=Vitaceæ.=
_Leea_.
A small tree of the savannah forests. Fruit edible.
=Tiliaceæ.=
_Grewia carpinifolia_.
_Glyphæa Grewioides_.
_Triumfetta sp._
Three small fibre-yielding trees. The Grewia has brilliant yellow
flowers.
=Malvaceæ.=
_Hibiscus tiliaceus_.
A yellow-flowered tree. Wood durable under water.
_Thespesia populnea_. Fref (Fanti); Eijan (Apollonian).
A small tree growing on sea-shore.
=Bombacaceæ.=
_Bombax Buonopozense_. Akata (Twi); Akata (Denkira); Ekuba
(Apollonian); Eku (Aowin); Kafro (Grunchi); Agutesi (Krepi); Akronkron
(Accra).
The Silk Cotton Tree. Red-flowered. A tall tree with horizontal
branches with spiny protuberances. Grows in the mixed forests. It
yields a kapok (fibre) similar to the Eriodendrons.
_Bombax brevicuspe_. Kuntunkun (Twi); Kuntunkuni (Denkira).
A new species of cotton-tree. Timber used for canoes, bark for dye,
and cotton for native pillows.
_Bombax sp._ Eku (Twi); Nyi-nu-kobin (general West Coast); Akata
(Denkira); Ekuba (Apollonian); Ekui (Aowin); Kafro (Grunchi); Agutesi
(Krepi); Akronkron (Accra).
This species is confined to the rain forests of the maritime zone.
_Adansonia digitata_.
The Baobab Tree. The pulp of the fruit is eaten by the natives;
flavour acid. The seeds are washed, pounded and steeped in water for
ten days. The North-west Ashanti natives use it to flavour soup. This
tree is very rich in wood fibre, which realises from £9 to £10 per
ton, and is of great commercial value. A gouty-looking tree, and grows
in open country, rocky soil.
_Eriodendron anfractuosum_. Ongina (Twi); Enyena (Wassaw); Onyina or
Enyena (Fanti); Enyena (Ashanti); Enyenga (Apollonian); Enyo (Aowin);
Gung (Grunchi); Ofwho (Quitta); Ofwho (Krepi).
The white-flowered silk cotton-tree of the fringing forests, one of
the largest trees of West Africa. The wood is very light, and should
be useful in making light wood articles, such as boxes and toys, but
there is no market for it at present. The fibre is good, and the wood
should also make pulp in paper-making; but there is no market, owing
to the expense involved in collecting it.
=Sterculiaceæ.=
_Heritiera utilis_. Awabima (Twi); Pteryyota Wawampe’e (Ashanti);
N’yankon, Yankom or Yankun (general West Coast).
Good timber-tree, medium-sized.
_Sterculia cordifolia_. Wawapupuo (Twi); Duamenyi (Fanti).
Tall tree; height, 60 to 100 feet. The wood of little value, as it is
very soft. Found in the fringing and intermediate forests.
_Sterculia tomentosa_.
Height, 40 to 50 feet. Intermediate and fringing forests. The fruit
grows in clusters, kidney shaped, with a dense, reddish tomentum.
_Sterculia Barterii_.
Flowers when the tree is leafless—appears covered with red flame. The
wood is soft and of little value; it should make a good paper-pulp.
The inner bark used to make rope.
_Sterculia tragacantha_.
A medium-sized tree. Wood of little worth.
_Triplochiton Johnsonii_. Wawa or Wawwaw (Twi); Owawa (Wassaw).
A good timber-tree. Bark used locally for roofing. Strong, works well
and has satiny sheen. When used in exposed places it is subject to
dry-rot. Tall, straight-growing tree. Should be useful for inside
building.
_Cola Afzelia_.
Fringing forests. Monkey Cola. Fruit bright-red in colour, something
like Kola. Tree grows to a height of 40 or 50 feet.
_Cola laurifolia_.
A very small species.
_Cola acuminata_. Bessi (Ashanti); Esseri (Apollonian); Ewasi (Aowin);
Gwe (Grunchi); Evi (Quitta); Guru (Hausa).
The Kola Nut of commerce is obtained from this tree.
_Cola caricifolia_.
_Mansonia altissima_.
Timber-tree; useful for domestic purposes.
_Cola cordifolia_.
Found in the savannah forests.
_Cola sublobata_.
_Cola vera_.
The Hausa, supposed to be the best.
_Cola verticulata_.
Tree little known and of little value.
=Scytopetalaceæ.=
_Scytopetalum Tarquense_.
A small tree of the evergreen forests, bearing white flowers.
=Ochnaceæ.=
_Lophira procera_.
Lophira is also called the Kaku or Red Ironwood Tree; the most durable
timber of the West Coast. Very valuable as fuel; it has highly
calorific properties. It grows solely in the maritime zone, in swampy
land. It is of great weight, and will not float. Very useful for piles
in wharves, etc.
_Lophira alata_.
A very fine, tall tree, growing from 20 to 50 feet. The bark is dark
and rough; timber very hard and durable. The seeds are rich in oils.
The tree is sometimes mistaken for the Shea Butter Tree. Common in
open grass country.
=Guttiferæ.=
_Pentadesma butyraceæ_. Pija (Wassaw); Pija (Fanti); Ehukei
(Apollonian); Asuaindokun (Aowin); Bromabina (Axim).
Butter or Tallow Tree. An edible fat is obtained from the seeds. Also
used in soap-making. A thick yellow juice exudes from the tree when
cut. A fine tree.
_Allanblackia floribunda_. Suein (Apollonian); Anane (Axim).
Small tree, not well known.
_Garcinia Guineensis_. Ablari (Fanti).
A purgative is made from a decoction of the leaves.
_Haronga Madagascariensis_. Ngodua (Fanti); Kursua (Apollonian).
A yellow dye is obtained from the bark. The leaves are used as a
medicine for dysentery. There is a red watery exudation from the bark.
_Psorospermum_.
A large shrub, sometimes may be called a tree, in the savannah
forests.
=Cochlospermaceæ.=
_Cochlospermum tinctorium_.
A large shrub of the savannah forests. The bark is used in rope-
making. A yellow dye is obtained from the roots.
_Lindackeria dentata_.
A medium-sized tree.
=Violaceæ.=
_Alsodeia_. Notonima (Ashanti).
A shrubbery tree of little value.
_Smeathmannia pubescens_.
A shrubby tree with conspicuous white flowers.
=Flacourtiaceæ.=
_Oncoba echinata_.
A small tree with white cauline flowers.
_Oncoba Gilgiana_.
A large shrub.
_Oncoba dentata_.
A small tree.
_Rawsonia spinosa_.
A medium-sized tree.
_Smeathmannia pubescens_.
A shrubby tree with conspicuous white flowers.
=Lecythidaceæ.=
_Napoleona Vogelii_.
A small tree, grows by river banks. The wood is easily worked. Fruit
edible.
=Rhizophoraceæ.=
_Anopyxis ealænsis_. Kokoti (Wassaw); Anchi or Kokoti (Fanti); Abari
(Apollonian).
Good timber-tree, much used for fuel.
=Combretaceæ.=
_Combretum Afzelia_.
Found near rivers.
_Laguncularia racemosa_.
White Mangrove. Grows in swamps.
_Anogeissus leiocarpus_.
A tall tree, from 30 to 50 feet in height. The roots are used as chew-
sticks. The heartwood very durable, brown or blackish-brown. The grey
ash of sap and heart woods used as a mordant. Tannin and gum obtained
from this tree.
_Combretum Zenkerii_.
A large, shrubby tree.
_Combretum sp._ Esseah or Essia (general West Coast).
The “Stinkwood” Tree.
_Terminalia sp._ Emril, or Emil or Emiri (general West Coast).
The wood is used locally for shingles. In intermediate forests.
Branches in tiers or whorls. A huge tree, bark black.
_Terminalia superba_. Offram (Twi); Offram (Fanti).
Found in the fringing forests, of great height and extremely straight.
Branches in whorls, barely noticeable in the full-grown tree. Timber
medium strength and hardness, light coloured, with discoloured
patches. Works up very well, but of no great value for export.
_Terminalia macroptera_.
Found in the savannah forests.
_Terminalia Togoensis_.
A small tree of dry zone, of no particular value.
_Pteleopsis_.
A large tree. Timber little used.
_Strephonema Apoloniensis_.
A small tree, species little known.
=Myrtaceæ.=
_Eugenia Guineensis_.
A large tree. Work used for many purposes. Fruit edible and medicinal.
_Eugenia Owariensis_.
Grows in the dry zone. A spreading tree.
_Psidium Guajava_. Aduaba (Apollonian).
The Guava Tree. Fruit edible.
=Sapotaceæ.=
_Omphalocarpum sp._ Assoro (Twi); Ketibubaka (Aowin).
A workable wood obtained from it, also guttapercha. The seeds worn as
ornaments at their feasts by Apollonians.
_Mimusops multinervis_.
Grows to the height of 60 or 80 feet, with a corresponding girth.
Timber hard and durable, red in colour, with a fine grain. Its weight
and hardness are against its ordinary use, but it is a fine wood for
sleepers.
_Butyrospermum Parkii_. N’ku (Fanti); N’ku (Akwapim); Iakuni (Quitta);
Sakuni (Krepi).
Shea Butter Tree. One of the most valuable trees, found very
frequently. Bark thick, rough, and often gnarled and twisted. Flowers
creamy-white, leaves straplike. The fruit is something like a yellow
plum, ripe in May. It is very similar in appearance to the _Lophira
alata_, but the Shea butter tree exudes a white latex when cut; the
Lophira does not. Timber good, but as the tree is usually only from 20
to 30 feet in height (occasionally 50 feet), it is not large enough
for most purposes. The vegetable oil or butter has an agreeable
sweetish taste, much used in cooking.
_Mimusops sp._ Opapea (Twi); Opepeli (Fanti).
Vegetable oils from all the Mimusops species.
_Mimusops Djave_. Baku (Twi); Baku (Fanti); Baku (Ashanti); Makure
(Apollonian); Makwe (Aowin); Abaku (Accra).
Vegetable oils and fats obtained from _M. Djave_. A very good timber-
tree.
_Vincentella impressa_.
A new species. A large tree, found growing on the river banks.
_Chrysophyllum albidum_.
Edible fruit. Not so well known as _Chrysophyllum Africanum_.
_Chrysophyllum Africanum_.
The Star-apple Tree, often cultivated for its fruit, and also as a
shade tree.
=Ebenaceæ.=
_Diospyros mespiliformis_.
A tree of the fringing forests—the Ebony Tree. Very abundant. Of
medium size, 50 to 60 feet in height, 6 to 8 in girth. The heartwood
is usually streaked with brown. The larger trees are generally hollow.
_Diospyros Mombuttensis_.
_Diospyros xanthochlamys_.
=Oleaceæ.=
_Schrebera Golungensis_.
Found in the fringing forests. Very uncommon. A large tree; timber
very good.
=Loganiaceæ.=
_Strychnos emarginata_ and others.
_Anthocleista sp._
A medium-sized tree, near fresh-water swamps. Large white flowers.
Wood of no special value.
_Anthocleista magnifica_. Honum (Twi).
A small tree with very large leaves.
_Anthocleista nobilis_. Otendui (Fanti); Tendeba (Apollonian); Tendeba
(Aowin).
A small tree, of little value.
=Apocynaceæ.=
_Landolphia bracteata_.
A vine-like tree. Does not yield rubber.
_Landolphia ferruginea_.
Like the above.
_Landolphia Owariensis_. Pau (Twi); Kwantama (Wassaw); Opaina (Fanti);
Jama (Ashanti); Kwantama (general West Coast); Amale (Apollonian); Faia
(Aowin); Danko (Hausa); Jahdanko (Accra).
Two kinds of rubber obtained: “root-rubber,” after crushing the bark
and stems and washing out the rubber, or “white-ball,” by tapping and
scoring, and coagulating the latex as it exudes by lime-juice rubbed
on the bark. It is valued at 1s. 9d. to 2s. a pound, the root-rubber
at 1s. 6d. a pound.
_Landolphia florida_.
A quantity of milky juice which becomes a pasty mass, but has no
market value.
_Landolphia Droogmansiana_.
Good rubber obtained when growing in dry ground, worthless when in
swampy ground.
_Landolphia Senegalensis_.
_Landolphia Thompsonii_.
Widely spread in the fringing forests; does not yield good rubber,
only a pasty mass from the latex.
_Landolphia scandens_.
No yield of rubber.
_Landolphia Klainei_.
Inferior rubber.
_Carpodinus hirsuta_. Alibida (Hausa).
Very robust and hairy (hence its name). Found in mixed forest belts.
It yields a flake or paste rubber, extracted by tapping and coagulated
by boiling.
_Clitandra elastica_. Beckindanko (Hausa).
Yields a good rubber, sold at 1s. 3d. or 1s. 6d. a pound.
_Funtumia elastica_. Fruntum (Ashanti); Efunmundon (Apollonian);
Efunmundon (Aowin); Puni (Krepi).
The yield of this rubber-tree is called the Lagos or Silk rubber.
Found in the evergreen rain forests. Very little inferior to Para
rubber. The amount procured from _F. elastica_ is less than Para
rubber.
_Funtumia Africana_.
Spurious rubber-tree; though in appearance very much like _F.
elastica_, the leaves are coarser and pods longer. The latex, when
coagulated, forms a sticky mass like birdlime, sometimes used for
adulterating other latices.
_Alstonia Congensis_. Niamidua (Twi); Sindra (Ashanti); Nimeribaka
(Apollonian).
Wood rather soft; only fit for inside building or toy-making. It grows
best in the swamp country. A fairly large tree, slightly buttressed
with smooth bark. The natives mix the latex with rubber.
_Rauwolfia Cumminsii_.
_Rauwolfia vomitoria_.
A small tree, not over 20 feet in height.
_Polyadoa umbellata_.
Tree of 30 feet in height, growing in the fringing forests near
rivers.
_Holarrhena Wulfsbergii_.
Grows in the fringing forests. A tree with drooping branches. Flowers
white and fragrant. The wood is very soft, of little value.
_Voacanga Africana_.
A small tree, widely distributed. It has a milky latex, which is used
in adulterating rubber.
=Asclepiadaceæ.=
_Kanahia consimilis_.
A shrubby tree growing near water.
=Convolvulaceæ.=
_Prevostea Africana_.
A small tree, little known.
_Prevostea Heudelotii_.
Small tree; wood of no value.
=Borraginaceæ.=
_Cordia Irvingii_.
Found in the rain forests of the Okwawu hill system. Timber used
locally for shingles. A spreading tree, reaching to about 60 feet in
height.
_Ehretia cymosa_.
A small tree. Wood used for various purposes. Fruit edible and
medicinal.
=Verbenaceæ.=
_Lantana camara_.
Shrubby tree.
_Lippia adoensis_.
Shrubby tree.
_Vitex megaphylla_.
Both Vitex species grow in the savannah forests.
_Vitex cuneata_.
A common tree about 30 feet in height. Of no known value.
_Avicennia Africana_.
One of the tallest trees in the mangrove association, yielding a
workable wood, medicine and tannin.
_Clerodendron splendens_.
A shrubby tree.
=Bignoniaceæ.=
_Spathodea campanulata_. Osisiru (Ashanti).
A medium-sized tree, found in the fringing forests. Provides a useful
timber, medicine, and from the seeds an article of food. Large yellow
trumpet-shaped flowers.
_Dolichandrone lutea_.
A tree of about 30 feet in height.
_Kigelia pinnata_.
The fruit has a thick rind and is edible. Timber and drugs obtained
from it. Sometimes called Sausage Tree, from the sausage-shaped fruits
which hang down a long stalk. A small tree.
_Newbouldia lævis_. Sasanemasa (Ashanti).
An evergreen tree, from 30 to 40 feet in height. Pink trumpet-shaped
flowers. The natives use it as a boundary tree.
=Acanthaceæ.=
_Acantha montana_.
A shrubby tree having medicinal properties.
=Rubiaceæ.=
_Mitragyne macrophylla_. Baya (Twi); Yar-yar, or Ya-ya (general West
Coast); Baya (Aowin).
A large tree growing in the fresh-water swamps. Timber good.
_Sarcocephalus esculentus_. Kusia (Twi); Ekusawa (Fanti); Kishia
(general West Coast); Baya (Aowin).
Good timber, used locally. Wood of a golden yellow colour, very
ornamental, hard and durable, easily worked.
_Sarcocephalus Russegeri_. Osupawa (Fanti).
The Russegeri grows in the savannah forests.
_Gardenia tenuifolia_.
Fruit edible. A bushy, ornamental tree.
_Urophyllum hirtellum_.
A shrubby tree. Dyes obtained from it.
_Randia genipæflora_.
A small tree having fine trumpet-shaped flowers.
_Randia maculata_.
A bushy tree, very ornamental when in flower.
_Oxyanthus tubiflorus_.
A very ornamental shrub or small tree. Timber, dyes and medicine
obtained from it.
=Compositæ.=
_Vernonia conferta_.
A large-leaved, small tree. The timber of one variety fairly good.
_Flintwood_, not identified. Okisibisi (Fanti).
Good timber, used for mine-props.
APPENDIX
GOLD COAST—FOREST EXPORTS
------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------
| 1909. | 1910. | 1911.
Product. +----------+-------+----------+-------+----------+--------
|Quantity. | £ |Quantity. | £ |Quantity. | £
------------+----------+-------+----------+-------+----------+--------
Cola nuts | — | 93,850| — | 77,716| — | 93,099
| | | | | |
Lumber |9,838,959 | 82,937|14,938,749|148,122|13,975,196|138,836
| sup. ft. | | sup. ft. | | sup. ft. |
| | | | | |
Palm kernels| 11,598 |112,425| 14,182 |185,058| 13,254 |175,891
| tons | | tons | | tons |
| | | | | |
Palm oil |2,007,296 |120,978|2,044,868 |161,388|1,610,209 |128,916
| gals. | | gals. | | gals. |
| | | | | |
Rubber (raw)|1,233 tons|263,694|1,438 tons|355,876|1,191 tons|219,447
------------+----------+-------+----------+-------+----------+--------
TOTALS | 12,831 |673,884| 15,620 |928,160| 14,445 |756,189
| tons | | tons | | tons |
| | | | | |
|2,007,296 | |2,044,868 | |1,610,209 |
| gals. | | gals. | | gals. |
| | | | | |
|9,838,959 | |14,938,749| |13,975,196|
| sup. ft. | | sup. ft. | | sup. ft. |
------------+----------+-------+----------+-------+----------+--------
[Continued]
------------+------------------+------------------
| 1912. | 1913.
Product. +----------+-------+----------+-------
|Quantity. | £ |Quantity. | £
------------+----------+-------+----------+-------
Cola nuts | — |134,231| — |144,705
| | | |
Lumber |23,573,891|228,748|37,392,100|366,097
| sup. ft. | | sup. ft. |
| | | |
Palm kernels| 14,628 |205,364|9,744 tons|159,128
| tons | | |
| | | |
Palm oil |1,444,432 |112,885| 860,155 | 65,652
| gals. | | gals. |
| | | |
Rubber (raw)| 888 tons |168,729| 588 tons | 87,915
------------+----------+-------+----------+-------
TOTALS | 15,516 |849,957| 10,332 |823,497
| tons | | tons |
| | | |
|1,444,432 | | 860,155 |
| gals. | | gals. |
| | | |
|23,573,891| |37,392,100|
| sup. ft. | | sup. ft. |
------------+----------+-------+----------+-------
CHAPTER VII
TOGO
INTRODUCTION.
During the latter part of 1911 I had the opportunity of visiting Togo.
Since August 1914 it has been in the occupation of British and French
troops, administered as a co-dominion.
Forest Station work has been the main work of the Forest Department
since the inception, both under the District Officer and subsequently
under the trained officer. There is only 1 per cent. of forests in the
whole country.
Lome, the capital of Togo, formed my starting-point, and there His
Excellency the Governor and the Secretary of the Colony advised me as to
the best route and supplied me with many interesting details as to the
system of taxation, etc.
_Taxation._—In Lome every man above sixteen years of age has the choice
of paying 6s. per year or working twelve days for the Government. On the
coast it is found that the natives prefer to pay the tax, but inland the
twelve days’ work is usually given. This Government work consists of
plantation and road making, bridge-building, erecting rest-houses, and
many other kinds of public work.
The subject may be divided into three sections:
(1) _The Forests between or at the Stations_.
(2) _The Forest Department Plantations_.
(3) _District Plantations_.
I. THE FORESTS BETWEEN OR AT THE STATIONS.
Near Lome the ground is very sparsely covered with thorny shrubs and
occasional Baobabs, _Adansonia digitata_, but on nearing the valley of
the Schio the soil improves and small plantations of sugar-cane appear.
Though no attempt has been made here to develop this industry, the
natives of Tagblekovke and other places sell large quantities of the
cane. Oil palms are seen on both sides of the line, chiefly, however, on
the river banks, owing to the annual grass fires. Scattered silk cotton-
trees also occur along the river banks, otherwise only the normal dry-
zone vegetation is found.
The rainfall, however, is quite sufficient for the growth of a deciduous
forest. The remains of fringing forests on the banks of the Rivers
Schio, Lili and Haho consist of _Pterocarpus erinaceus_, _Erythrophlœum
Guineense_, _Terminalia Togoensis_ and a few specimens of Afzelia or
Cynometra.
[Illustration: I.
FIG. 17.—=One-year-old Oil Palms amongst seven- to ten-year-old Trees,
1911.=]
[Illustration: II.
FIG. 18.—=Two-year-old Oil Palm Plantation, Sokode.=]
[Illustration: III.
FIG. 19.—=Three-year-old Oil Palm Plantation, Sokode.=]
[Illustration: IV.
FIG. 20.—=Four-year-old Oil Palm Plantation, Sokode.=]
To face p. 116.
Passing on to the Haho-Baloë district, plantations occur at the junction
of these rivers in an open plain of scanty dry-zone forest. A fringing
mixed forest of the normal type, varying from 200 to 500 yards in width,
was found on the banks of each river, and as it formed a complete fire
protection, was left untouched. In the open forest the most common trees
are the Pseudocedrelas, _Pterocarpus erinaceus_, _Butyrospermum Parkii_
and Terminalia.
The rainfall varies at this spot from 28 to 39 inches annually. The
higher rainfall is probably the true average, if considered in
conjunction with the natural vegetation. A great change in the
vegetation was noticeable between Nuatjä and Atakpame; the typical dry-
zone trees, such as _Pterocarpus erinaceus_, Shea Butter, Lophira and
others, were soon left behind, and on nearing the hilly country of
Atakpame a more flourishing condition was evident. Oil palms were
growing in profusion both on the banks of the rivers and also on the
sides. Large cotton-trees, _Triplochiton Nigericum_, Iroko, _Chlorophora
excelsa_, _Sterculia cordifolia_ and other trees of this kind were seen.
The rainfall is much higher here, averaging from 58 inches, spread over
the months of April, May, June, July, August and September, and a little
in October. This rises to 58 inches, falls to 52, 105 miles to the north
of Atakpame, in the Sokode District. This is spread over the usual rainy
season of West Africa; more rain, however, falls in September than in
the northern part of Southern Nigeria during the same month. After
leaving the hills of Atakpame behind, we took the road to Sokode, and
between the Rivers Tagbadja and Au the following dry-zone trees were
most prevalent: _Lophira alata_, Shea Butter, _Terminalia Togoensis_ and
_Pterocarpus erinaceus_. As we advanced the Shea Butter Tree ceased, but
more Terminalia were seen; Pterocarpus in groups and _Pseudocedrela
Kotschyi_ became very prevalent. Fringing forests were seen in the level
country which followed along the banks of the Ana River.
On the third day’s march I found a large specimen of _Khaya
Senegalensis_ and several smaller ones at a place just above the eighth
parallel of latitude, below which the _Khaya Senegalensis_ is rarely
found. Beyond this were _Paradaniella thurifera_, _Borassus
flabelliformis_, Fan Palm, _Afzelia Africana_ and Shea Butter, and less
of the species already mentioned.
These were succeeded by small pure forests of _Berlinia Kerstingii_,
Afzelia, _Ormosia laxiflora_, _Bauhinia reticulata_, _Erythrina
Senegalensis_, _Parinarium polyandrum_ and _Parkia Africana_, syn.
_filicoidea_. Nearing Blita rest-house, bamboos appeared, _Agave
rigida_, and also a Ceara-rubber plantation.
It was interesting to find on inquiry that this plantation was the
result of 1,000,000 Ceara seeds distributed to the natives in 1907. The
vegetation on the banks of the rivers and streams consisted mostly of
deciduous forest, with typical dry-zone trees at the edges. In addition,
_Pentadesma Kerstingii_ and _Dalbergia melanoxylon_ were seen.
The last-named species has, according to German botanists, been confused
with _Diospyros mespiliformis_, so far as the timber is concerned. The
last two miles before reaching Sokode were covered with extensive
plantations.
_Dry-zone Trees._—Between Sokode and Bassari, a distance of 37 miles,
are the Malfakassa Mountains, of which the summits are mostly bare,
owing to the annual grass fires, but a dense growth of _Berlinia
Kerstingii_, Terminalia and _Afzelia Africana_ grow in the moister
valleys.
On the more open ground the usual dry-zone trees were seen, and the
_Khaya Senegalensis_ on the banks of each of the four rivers.
The rainfall is the same as that of Sokode, about 52 inches, although
the atmosphere is moister, which is partly due to the higher altitude.
The somewhat cooler temperature of the air causes heavy dews, and these
also, in their turn, increase the moisture of the air. The differences
are thus very marked between Sokode and Bassari as to the atmospheric
moisture, and also as to the variation in the growth of the trees at the
two stations.
After a short visit of two days I left Bassari for Jendi, 70 miles to
the north-west. One range of hills on the way is noticeable for the pure
formation of iron ore which “crops out” and causes the tree-growth to be
small.
The vegetation becomes very sparse towards the valley of the Oti, 30
miles distant from Bassari, and this is owing to a great change in the
climatic conditions as compared with Bassari, as well as the annual
grass fires. The sole representatives of the dry-zone vegetation, which,
near Bassari, had originally consisted of _Khaya Senegalensis_, Afzelia
and Shea Butter trees, are the Baobabs, _Adansonia digitata_.
The rainfall is only 43 inches per year. The poor vegetation found near
Jendi gradually gives way, between that station and Kete-Kratschi, to
more typical dry-zone trees, such as Shea Butter, Lophira, Afzelia and
_Berlinia Kerstingii_.
Oil palms were found on the third day growing near the banks of the
streams, and more Afzelia in the open country. _Mimusops multinervis_
and Diospyros were found near the River Volta, at the edge of a wide
belt of evergreen forest.
The dry season is much prolonged in most years. On the average the
rainfall is 46·8 inches. At the next station on the tour, Pfandu, the
rainfall rises to 55 inches per year. Near the summit of the station
hill the soil is poor, but excellent on the lower slopes.
The climatic conditions of Pfandu, a substation to Misahöhe, are
unfavourable, and labour is less obtainable. The road between these two
stations passes through very poor dry-zone forest, but on entering the
Misahöhe mountainous region we came upon a fine evergreen forest. The
most common trees noticed were _Khaya Klainii_, Mahogany, Iroko and
_Terminalia superba_, the shingle-wood tree, also Triplochiton,
_Sterculia cordifolia_, _Carapa procera_, _Piptadenia Africana_,
_Pentaclethra macrophylla_, _Detarium Guineensis_, _Brachystegia
spicæformis_, _Berlinia acuminata_, _Afrormosia laxiflora_, Satinwood,
_Alstonia Congensis_, _Ricinodendron Africanum_ and _Eriodendron
Nigericum_. The mahoganies of this district were remarkably fine trees,
mostly over 10 feet in girth.
A written permit, costing 3s. per tree, has to be obtained for cutting
trees, and also permission from the Commissioner, before forest land may
be cleared.
The high rainfall of Misahöhe, which is 62 inches per year, produces a
very moist atmosphere.
After a visit of three days to the Misahöhe Station, I left for Palime,
the terminus of the Lome Railway. On the way down the mountain, the
contrast between the eastern and western slopes was very noticeable, a
deciduous forest covering the eastern slope and an evergreen forest the
western. For the first 10 miles from Palime on the way to Lome,
mahoganies, oil palms and other trees abounded, but gradually gave way
to the same drier type of forest as that seen on the Nuatjä railway-
line.
This condition of vegetation continued until Lome was reached, a
distance of 75 miles.
II. THE FOREST DEPARTMENT PLANTATIONS.
During 1907 there was a Forestry Conference in Berlin with regard to the
afforestation of the Colony of Togo (which is wooded only to the extent
of 1 per cent.), with the result that the area of Haho-Baloë was first
chosen, and the plantation started at the junction of the rivers.
A fringing mixed forest on each bank of the river was left untouched, as
they formed a fire protection for the plantation. Pseudocedrelas,
_Pterocarpus erinaceus_, _Butyrospermum Parkii_ and Terminalia were the
most common trees found in the open forest between the rivers.
The altitude of this area above sea-level is about 480 feet. It slopes
slightly from north to south and is triangular in shape.
Seedlings were first tried, but did not survive the first season, and
since that time seeds have been sown, and this proved a great success.
Eight species of trees have been used to form these plantations:
(1) Teak, _Tectona grandis_.
(2) _Afzelia Africana_, also called Rhodesia Mahogany or Apa.
(3) Sasswood, _Erythrophlœum Guineense_.
(4) African Mahogany, _Khaya Senegalensis_.
(5) _Khaya Klainii_, Mahogany.
(6) Iroko, _Chlorophora excelsa_.
(7) Kapok, _Ceiba pentandra_.
(8) _Anogeissus Leiocarpus_, Chew-stick Tree.
One-sixth of the total area, however, has been planted with teak; in
all, 491,300 seedlings. The Erythrophlœum seedlings are most numerous,
the wood of this species being hard, durable and termite resisting. It
has been used with great success for piles and trestles in bridge-
building.
Afzelia and the two mahoganies will be valuable and useful timbers,
especially the mahoganies, as they are indigenous to the country, and
there is not the element of speculation attending introduced trees.
In addition to the eight chief species named above, a few specimens of
_Detarium Guineense_ (the Dita fruit of Sierra Leone) and Cynometra were
planted, but their growth is slow. A mixed crop, consisting of _Parkia
filicoidea_, the Locust Tree, _Prosopis oblonga_, _Anogeissus
leiocarpus_ and _Detarium Guineense (Senegalense)_, has also been
planted.
The mixture is a good one, but the growth has been slow. The general
appearance of the area where teak has been planted, in spite of the fact
that the bush was left standing, is that of a teak plantation, for the
teak has outgrown all the indigenous trees and formed a complete
thicket.
Owing to the lack of drainage in the soil, as well as attacks of the
borer, the _Khaya Senegalensis_ has grown slowly. Slow growth is noticed
also in the Apa, _Afzelia Africana_, but that seems to be typical of the
tree.
During the first year the cost of planting (including building and
labour) worked out at £4 4s. an acre, but by the third year this amount
was reduced to £1 2s. The valuation of the whole plantation is at least
£10,000.
The second Forest Department’s afforestation area is Mo-Kamaa, which is
being planted in a similar manner and with similar planting methods to
the area situated near the Haho-Baloë. Tax labour has been used to a
large extent in these plantations. The situation is particularly
suitable for planting operations, owing to its being protected on two
sides by the rivers from the annually recurring fires of this locality.
The altitude is about 500 feet above sea-level.
As in the case of Haho, nurseries were made for oil palms only, various
species being sown in lines, between which the forest growth was left
standing, so as to form shade for the seedlings. Approximately 600,000
seedlings have survived, about 400,000 Khayas and 200,000 teak.
Dry-zone mahogany, _Khaya Senegalensis_, and teak have been planted in
addition to the oil palm. The Khaya, even up to 12 feet in girth, is
found all over the locality, and near the bank of the Kamaa a few oil
palms.
The teak has grown much faster than the Khaya, the average height of the
former being 6 feet and that of the latter only 2 feet. The teak
seedlings are beginning to outstrip the indigenous trees in the
locality.
The mixture of these two trees, as far as can be judged, has been a
great success. For, by the persistent foliage of the Khaya falling to
the ground at a different period to that of the teak, the necessary
protection to the soil, when the teak-trees are leafless, is thus given,
and the Khaya (Mahogany) benefits by being drawn up by the quickly
growing teak, and in both cases there is less tendency to form strong
side branches.
With the advent of the proposed railway, the timber in this locality
will be of great value; but even without this advantage the present
value is at least £1,000.
The planting scheme contemplated is enormous, and includes an area of
96,000 acres. An actual start has been made with 295 acres.
It is an interesting fact that the mixed plantations in the
afforestation areas have nearly all been made by the Forest Department,
and the pure plantations by the Commissioners at the District Stations.
Approximately 300 acres are composed of mixed plantations and 256 of
pure plantations.
The following mixed plantations are found in the Haho-Baloë
afforestation area:
(1) Sasswood and Teak.
(2) Sasswood, Teak and Mahogany, _Khaya senegalensis_.
(3) Sasswood, Teak and _Khaya Klainii_.
(4) Sasswood, Afzelia and _Cynometra Afzelia_.
(5) Sasswood and _Afzelia Africana_.
(6) Sasswood, _Khaya Senegalensis_ and _Afzelia Africana_.
(7) Sasswood and _Khaya Klainii_.
The most profitable mixture of all these is the teak, _Khaya Klainii_
and Sasswood, though all have something in their favour.
These mixed forests need much attention, as one species frequently
outgrows another, one suppressing the other, and the mixture
consequently no longer existing. More European supervision is required
to remove suppressed or crooked trees.
III. DISTRICT PLANTATIONS.
Avenues of trees suitable for street-planting have been largely made in
Lome. The _Terminalia catappa_ (almond-tree) is one of the most useful
trees for this purpose; at least 12 feet of the stems are quite free
from branches, and thus the trees cannot harbour many insects.
The coconut, though made use of for this purpose, is not so suitable, as
it lacks height-growth; the Dracæna also, which does not improve the
roadside, and a species of Ficus, probably _platyphylla_, which loses
its foliage in the dry season, are neither of them a success. Near the
Government House a large number of _Casuarina equisitifolia_ have been
planted; these have flourished well, as they can stand the ocean wind
blowing almost continuously at Lome.
In the Experimental Gardens, which are situated 80 feet above sea-level,
there are many interesting varieties.
The soil, a mixture of very poor sand with a great deal of iron, is not
favourable to height-growth of the teak (_Tectona grandis_); the seeds,
though in great quantities, are small and ill-developed. The mahogany,
too, showed poor height and girth growth, the locality was evidently not
suitable for it. Other trees that did not seem to thrive were _Cedrela
odorata_, the Cigar-box Cedar Tree, _Pithecolobium dulcis_, _Funtumia
elastica_, Bread-fruit, _Artocarpus incisa_, _Ficus Vogelii_, _Borassus
flabellifer_, _Bixa orellana_, _Acacia catechu_, _Casuarina
equisitifolia_, _Manihot Glaziovii_ and _Manihot dichotoma_; but the oil
palms, _Elæis Guineensis_, and _Ficus elastica_ were doing exceeding
well and were of a healthy green colour. Bamboos and the usual tropical
fruits had also been planted. The Kapok tree (_Ceiba pentandra_
according to German botanists, and _Eriodendron Nigericum_ according to
Kew botanists), which has been planted too far apart, has made very
little growth.
Under the guidance of the Director I visited the Agricultural School at
Nuatja, 50 miles from Lome. Experimental work of all kinds was carried
on here. In the nurseries were to be found Kapok, _Ceiba pentandra_,
cotton and oil palms. In a machinery shed were a cotton gin and press,
and husking machines for other seed. Lectures are given early in the
year, and as the season advances practical work takes their place.
A great drawback to the extension of the Atakpame District plantations
(95 miles from Lome) is the shortness of labour, as the natives pay
their tax instead of working.
The main plantations have been made on the east side of the station, on
a slope facing south. Teak has been very largely planted here, no less
than 25,400 seedlings since 1901, when the work was started. Others are
_Treculia Africana_, African Bread-fruit, Sasswood, _Mimusops
multinervis_, the hard red wood of the Olokomeji Reserve, Kapok, _Ceiba
pentandra_, and Cashew Nuts. A new Piptadenia, named _Kerstingii_ after
Dr. Kersting, was tried, but most of the plants died. An avenue of
_Eucalyptus citrifolia_, with its delicate foliage, has developed well
and fully deserves mention.
The teak has grown well everywhere, except in a small swampy area, where
the trees look unhealthy. The very large crops of seeds during the last
three years have caused the height-growth to fall off in comparison with
earlier years.
Most of the trees are planted too far apart, but nevertheless, seeing
the whole hillside, east of the station, covered with a teak forest
produces a very wonderful effect on the mind.
If the teak alone is taken as a basis of valuation, the total value
cannot be less than £2,500.
The Sokode District plantations have a great advantage over those at
Atakpame, as tax labour has been used almost entirely and the population
is much larger than elsewhere. As soon as an experiment with regard to
agricultural crops, fruit and forest trees proved satisfactory,
plantations were at once made.
The orchards, farms and plantations begin on the south-east slope of the
hillside, round the station to the south, finishing to the west and
north-west of the office building. The plantations occur between the
altitude of 1,000 and 1,260 feet. The variations of soil are very
remarkable, from poor laterite to rich loam, from sand to swamp; but it
is not to be wondered at, when the large area is taken into account.
As at nearly all the other stations, teak has been the most extensively
planted tree, some 81,000 seedlings having been set out on an area of
115·9 acres. Oil palms have also been planted in great numbers. These
are set some distance apart to get the full benefit of the sun and
develop large crowns and stems. Some of the other species planted are:
_Khaya Senegalensis_, Iroko, _Funtumia elastica_, _Ficus elastica_,
Ceara Rubber, _Para_, _Hevea Braziliensis_, _Manihot dichotoma_,
_Manihot heptaphylla_ and _Manihot Pianhyensis_. Three or four species
only of the following trees: _Albizzia Cæsalpinia_, including _Sappan_,
_Cassia florida_, _Cedrela odorata_, _Berlinia Kerstingii_, _Ceiba
pentandra_, _Detarium Senegalense_, _Diospyros mespiliformis_,
_Anogeissus leiocarpus_, Eucalyptus, _Melia azedarach_, _Morinda
citrifolia_, _Ormosia laxiflora_, _Parkia Africana_, _Pentadesma
Kerstingii_, _Poinciana regia_, _Pseudocedrela Kotschyi_, _Pterocarpus
erinaceus_ and _Aspidosperma Quebracho_.
The mixed plantations are not very plentiful, but teak and oil palms
have been planted together, though not systematically, and have proved a
very profitable mixture, which is worthy of notice here. In its early
years the oil palm is a shade-bearing tree, so that the shade of the
teak does not hinder its growth. In the oil-bearing season the teak is
leafless, which is beneficial to the formation of fruit in the oil palm.
The dense foliage of the oil palm kills the adventitious shoots or side
branches of the teak, so rendering pruning unnecessary. In the dry
season the soil is protected most thoroughly by the evergreen foliage of
the oil palm, and its masses of small roots conserve the moisture of the
soil, while the wide-spreading roots of the teak allow the surface water
to run away. For instance, teak and Iroko are not so suitable a mixture,
as they both cast their leaves at the same time, though when planted
together the teak tends to accelerate the height-growth of the Iroko,
and also keeps it freer from the attacks of the gall bug.
If space permitted, many more instances of the advantage and
disadvantage of these mixtures might be given.
Orchards have been largely planted at Sokode too. Oranges, limes,
tangerines and _Cola vera_ have done well, and the _Spondias dulcis_
yields very large fruit. The date palms have not yet fruited. Fibre
plants, including sisal hemp, and the Panama palms seem to be growing
well; fibre for Panama hats is obtained from this palm.
A substation of Sokode, Bassari, was my next stopping place. The station
is situated on the northern side of the mountain, overlooking the valley
of the River Kamaa. The plantations, with the exception of the _Ficus
elastica_, which is 200 feet higher up, are all planted below the
station. The approximate altitude is 1,350 feet above sea-level.
The following species have been most extensively planted: Teak, Oil
Palms, Afzelia, _Khaya Senegalense_, Iroko, Ebony, Kapok, _Funtumia_,
_Ficus elastica_, _Manihot heptaphylla_, _Manihot Pianhyensis_,
_Aspidosperma Quebracho_, _Cæsalpinia Sappan_ and _Cassia florida_.
Large orchards had been made, and these contained tangerines, lemon and
many other kinds of tropical fruits; and very fine specimens of
Eucalyptus trees showed how suitable this locality was for them.
About 200,000 trees have been planted here within ten years.
Funtumia, when planted with teak, grows well in this area, as the shade
of the teak is beneficial to it; but planted alone, the leaves become a
poor colour and drop prematurely. The same thing is noticeable when
planted with mahogany.
In the case of Ebony, one of the knottiest forestry problems of Europe,
viz. that of finding suitable trees for admixture, has been solved. Many
of them died when planted pure, but the gaps being filled with teak, the
ebony seedlings, put into competition with this fast-growing tree, have
been “drawn” up quicker than they would have otherwise grown, and have
done remarkably well.
The most northerly station that I visited was Jendi, approximately on
latitude 9·30, at an altitude of 640 feet above sea-level. The method of
planting was slightly different at Jendi, agricultural crops being grown
for three years between the rows of forest-tree seeds, only the oil
palms and teaks being planted out as one-year seedlings from the
nursery.
Besides these two species, _Khaya Senegalensis_, _Afzelia Africana_,
Date Palms, Ceara Rubber, and Rambong Rubber have also been planted.
Altogether 457,200 seedlings are growing.
As firewood alone is worth 3d. a bundle, timber of all kinds is very
valuable in this locality, the teak plantation alone being worth £200.
Kete-Kratschi, the station adjoining Jendi and overlooking the Volta
Valley, is a specially interesting one, because it was started by Graf
Zech, the late Governor of Togo, who was so desirous of seeing
plantations made everywhere. At this station the plantations were first
made half a mile away, and these have done better than the later ones
planted to the east of the station.
Teak has been largely planted, and considering the poor soil and low
rainfall, has done remarkably well. For the first time a parasite in the
shape of a species of Loranthus was found growing on the upper branches
of two large teak-trees, but no diminution in the growth of the teak was
noticeable. Afzelia, _Khaya Klainii_ and _Khaya Senegalensis_ have been
planted in large numbers, and experiments made with _Albizzia lebbek_,
_Poinciana regia_, _Acacia catechu_ and _Ceiba pentandra_. A few oil
palms and Casuarinas have found a place in the plantations. Eight miles
from the Volta Valley is the station of Pfandu, situated on an open,
isolated hill with a sheer cliff to the east and sloping gradually away
to the north-west and south.
The only variation here in the planting system was that Cassada was
largely used as an agricultural crop between the rows of tree seedlings,
which were put in the year after the Cassada had been planted. Though
the Cassada afforded a shade for the young seedlings, the latter did not
seem to show sufficient growth to warrant a further trial of the system.
The teak especially thrives here, the tree having reached a height of 36
feet and a girth of 14 inches, and these trees have already been felled
for house-building purposes. The plantation is valued at £550.
Ceara rubber is now being tapped on a large scale. Sasswood,
_Erythrophlœum Guineense_, Iroko, Oil Palms, and _Funtumia elastica_
have been planted in large numbers, and a few Afzelias, _Diospyros
mespiliformis_ and Kapok trees.
The hill station of Misahöhe overlooks the valley of the Chedscho and
Agu, with the highest mountain in Togo opposite. The people have means
to pay the tax here, so labour is scarce and prisoners are employed in
keeping the plantations clean. The altitude of the highest plantation is
1,800 feet above sea-level. _Manihot Glaziovii_ has been planted in
greater numbers than any other tree; next comes Teak, then Para Rubber,
of which one had been tapped with satisfactory results, _Funtumia
elastica_, Oil Palms, _Khaya Klainii_, Sasswood and _Cola vera_. Small
plantations of _Ficus elastica_, Cocoa and _Anogeissus leiocarpus_ have
also been made. One curious mixture was seen, Teak and _Cola vera_; the
teak-trees tended to grow much faster, and the Cola benefited by the
shade.
The most northerly and the driest stations are Sansane Mangu and
Kalangasshi, where I was told 1,037 acres had been planted with Teak,
_Khaya Senegalensis_, Ceara Rubber and Afzelia. It is proposed to form
the third afforestation area of 15,000 acres at Kalangasshi.
In smaller quantities are to be found the Locust Bean, _Parkia
filicoidea_, _Manihot Glaziovii_, Shea Butter, Iroko, _Ficus elastica_,
Oil Palms, _Funtumia elastica_, _Afzelia Africana_ and Kapok. Some teak
and a few other trees had been planted at Bismarckburg, an old
substation to Kete-Kratschi, and the same varieties at Ho, a substation
to Misahöhe.
I was unable to obtain figures as to the number of trees planted at the
above three stations, but teak is reported to be doing well at them all.
In addition to the species of indigenous trees planted, and also
introduced, species such as Teak, _Tectona grandis_, and many others
have been planted on a small scale.
[Illustration: FIG. 21.—=Chlorophora excelsa, 1911.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 22.—=Five-year-old Oil Palm Plantation, Sokode.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 23.—=Five-year-old Khaya Senegalensis, 1911.=]
To face p. 126.
IV. NOTES ON INDIGENOUS TREES
=Pandanaceæ.=
_Pandanus Togoensis_. Kpa (Ewe).
6½ feet in height.
_Pandanus Kerstingii_. Abá (Tschaudjo).
32½ feet in height.
=Gramineæ.=
_Oxytenanthera Abyssinica_.
Bamboo. 19½ feet to 26 feet in height.
_Andropogon Sorghum_. Wo (Ewe).
Used in broom-making and roof-covering.
=Palmæ.=
_Raphia vinifera_. Ala (Ewe); Taro (Tschaudjo); Kpakó (Anago); Ollo
(Akposso).
Leaves used for brooms and brushes, mats, baskets, weaving, etc.
_Phœnix spinosa_ or _Phœnix reclinata_.
32½ feet high. Leaves, weaving nets, etc.
_Elæis Guineensis_.
Oil palm. Covering for roofs from leaves.
Weaving of all kinds, coco fibre, carpets, brushes. Nuts.
_Borassus flabelliformis_ or _Hyphæne Togoensis_, _Hyphæne coriaceæ_.
Plaiting for hats, nets, etc.
_Carludovica palmata_.
=Flagellariaceæ.=
_Flagellaria indica_ L.
The tough outer stems used as ropes.
=Bromeliaceæ.=
_Ananas_. Atóto (Ewe).
An attempt has been made to bring the Togo pineapple into the markets,
but without success. Fibre much used in weaving, etc.
=Liliaceæ.=
——: Dzogbeblôbe (Ewe).
_Sansevieria Guineensis_. Baugbaningbamu (Tschaudjo).
Long, flat leaves, 4⅞ feet long. Fibres useful in commerce. Bowstring
hemp.
_Sansevieria cylindrica_.
6½ feet long. Fibres useful in commerce. Bowstring hemp.
_Aloe Barteri_.
_Aloe Buettneri_.
Fibre from leaves of both Aloes.
=Amaryllidaceæ.=
_Agave Sisalana_.
_Mauritius hemp_.
Both have been introduced into Togo. Fibre used in weaving.
=Taccaceæ.=
_Tacca pinnatifida_. Dzogbenyabo (Ewe); Ludjŭ́ (Tschaudjo); Bōti
(Dyakossi).
Used as a vegetable, having tubers like a potato, about the size of
the fist. Leaves much divided. Fibres used in weaving all sorts of
articles.
=Musaceæ.=
_Wild bananas_.
Mohammedan rosaries are made from the seeds.
_Musa textilis_.
Fibre much used.
=Marantaceæ.=
_Aframomum_.
Leaves for roofs.
_Clinogyne flexuosa_. Fita (Haussa); dworom (Asante).
Leaves used in paper-making.
=Ulmaceæ.=
_Celtis Prantlii_.
Dwarf variety. Bark fibre very much used.
_Celtis integrifolia_. Tyentyem (Mangu); Diki (Haussa); Kokojắ (Losso);
Patakli (Atakpame).
130 to 162½ feet high. Wood not very good.
=Moraceæ.=
_Chlorophora excelsa_. Logo asagu (Ewe); Ssäre (Tschaudjo); Ukloba
(Akposso); Odum (Asante); Sserre (Kratschi); Roco (Dahomey).
130 to 195 feet high. From 39 to 65 feet in circumference. One of the
highest trees in the Colony. One of the most useful trees of West
Africa for building purposes and furniture.
_Musanga Smithii_.
65 feet in height. The wood very light, sometimes takes the place of
cork. Wood used for cigar boxes, also sometimes in cellulose
factories.
_Myrianthus arboreus_. Avogolo or awogolu (Ewe).
_Myrianthus serratus_.
Like horse chestnut in appearance; orange flowers. Wood brittle, used
for fences.
_Antiaris Africana_ (syn. _Antiaris toxicaria_). Logo (Ewe); Ssäre
(Tschaudjo).
Fruit fig-like.
_Ficus grandicarpa_. Furu (Tschaudjo).
Milky juice oozes from bark when cut. 65 feet in height. Bark smooth;
regular branching. Figs gathered in March.
_Ficus vallis choudæ_.
_Ficus exasperata_. Fola (Tschaudjo).
_Ficus bembicicarpa_. Kedā (Tschaudjo).
There are about 30 varieties of figs.
_Ficus lutea_.
_Ficus rokko_. Kedā (Tschaudjo).
_Ficus tiliifolia_. Adyokŭkola (Tschaudjo).
_Ficus umbrosa_. Tisemu (Tschaudjo).
_Ficus djurensis_. Tura (Tschaudjo).
_Ficus brachypus_. Ebö (Ewe); Bauri (Haussa).
Reddish bark. Wood heavy.
_Ficus tesselata_.
_Ficus dusenoides_.
_Ficus Togoensis_.
_Ficus sokodensis_.
=Proteaceæ.=
_Faurea speciosa_.
_Protea Bismarckii_. Düdürede (Tschaudjo).
Wood yellowish-red in colour, used for furniture. Height 32½ feet.
=Olacaceæ.=
_Ximenia Americana_.
Yellow heartwood resembles the scented white sandalwood.
=Anonaceæ.=
_Uvaria chamæ_. Agbana (Ewe); Pereng (Kabure); Liasá (Atakpame);
Padiivīn (Difale).
Small tree with edible fruit. Wood greyish-brown, fairly heavy.
_Cleistopholis patens_. Baledia or Welengéle (Tschaudjo); Nuso or Aru
(Atakpame).
Height 32½ feet to 65 feet. Wood light—used for barrels and drums—of a
grey colour.
_Hexalobus monopetalus_. Tschabola buanda (Tschaudjo); Tumbalaka
(Atakpame).
Grows to large tree in Gallery Forests—small in Savannah. No trial of
wood made yet.
_Xylopia æthiopica_. Tso (Ewe); Ssosi (Tschaudjo).
Light yellow wood of flexible nature, used for masts of boats.
_Xylopia parviflora_. Tschabolabunda (Tschaudjo).
Root wood takes place of cork.
_Xylopia Eminii_. Akatapuressosi (Tschaudjo).
Fairly large tree, wood reddish, used for furniture.
_Anona sp._
Root wood of all the species forms a substitute for cork.
=Myristicaceæ.=
_Pycnanthus Kombo_. Óbala (Atakpame).
Soft wood. Used in box-making.
=Capparidaceæ.=
_Cratæva religiosa_. Anamolum (Tschaudjo); Dengma (Mangu); Tschengunga
(Asante). Wood can be turned easily—like boxwood in appearance.
=Rosaceæ.=
_Parinarium curatellifolium_. Molemṓle (Tschaudjo); Insofaniwŏche
(Mangu); Pótepote (Kratschi); Yafo (Kpedyi).
Trees of stunted appearance in Savannah, but growing higher in better
soil. Wood is oak-like and very hard—uniform texture. Used for wooden
pegs or pins, and other purposes in building, when durability is
important.
_Parinarium subcordatum_. Bende noso (Tschaudjo); Insuopangi (Mangu);
Pekĭre (Losso).
Used for rafters in roofs by the natives of Mangu.
_Parinarium polyandrum_. Bende noso (Tschaudjo).
_Parinarium mobola_.
Never attains any great height.
_Parinarium Kerstingii_.
Attains much greater height than the last, a tree worthy of notice.
=Leguminosæ.=
_Albizzia Brownii_. Pangalan (Tschaudjo); Kokpara (Atakpame).
Large, handsome forest tree, with greyish-green cracked bark. Wood
fairly hard. Light sapwood, dark brownish heartwood.
_Albizzia Angolensis_. Atikuzẽ (Ewe). Kŭpaussŭto (Tschaudjo).
Height 97½ feet. Diameter 4⅞ feet.
_Albizzia fastigiata_. Asihuë (Atakpame).
The Albizzias are all proof against the termites on account of their
hardness. Wood of _A. fastigiata_ used for the felloes of wheels.
_Acacia catechu_.
_Acacia Arabica_. Magarua or Bagarua (Hausa).
About 19½ feet in height. Characteristic tree of the Steppe north of
Oti. Numerous.
_Acacia suma_. Gudjápūpŭ or Gudzawuwu (Ewe); Chrinika (Atakpame).
Height 32½ feet. Yellowish-white wood, heavy and very hard; used for
agricultural implements.
_Dichrostachys nutans_. Ssossōsi (Tschaudjo); Beniti (Agome).
Hard wood—dark heartwood, almost black—used for making walking-sticks.
_Prosopis oblonga_. Akä́ka (Ewe); Pato (Tschaudjo); Pangi (Mangu); Kaki
(Atakpame); Kpánenã (Kratschi).
Hard wood—termite-proof. Young branches used for handles of axes and
hatchets.
_Tetrapleura Thoningii_. Prékese (Ewe).
A stately tree, only known in Akposso at present. The wood not yet
much used.
_Piptadenia Kerstingii_. Kapaussuto (Kabure).
Huge tree—stands singly. Blossoms in January, when it is leafless.
Fruit appears in April.
_Piptadenia Africana_. Alagbáta (Atakpame).
Wood doubtless of great value.
_Entada Abyssinica_. Ondutu (Tschaudjo); Kiria (Hausa); Ketschikantscha
(Kratschi).
Tree stunted, leafless in the dry season. Wood spongy, not of much
value.
_Entada scandens_. Klokpakpa (Ewe).
The well-known Liana, with husks 3¼ feet long, growing abundantly in
the coast provinces. The fibre is much used in the making of nets,
ropes, etc.
_Parkia Africana_. Wo (Ewe); Ssuto (Tschaudjo); Dorana (Haussa) Soroño
(Asante); Gotschö́ne (Kratschi).
Height 65 feet. The hard, heavy, pale yellowish wood, locustwood of
Sierra Leone. In commerce known as Caindah wood.
_Parkia filicoidea_. Ena (Atakpame).
Grows plentifully on the coast of Atakpame.
_Parkia biglobosa_.
Height 97½ feet. Bark from a clear grey to dark brown, much furrowed.
_Erythrophlœum Guineense_. Tsa (Ewe); Kekëū (Tschaudjo).
Wood much valued for its heartwood and because of its rarity.
Withstands the attacks of termites, and therefore much used in house
and ship building, wheels for gun-carriages, etc. Takes a foremost
place in export of wood.
_Burkea Africana_. Tschĭ́sili (Tschaudjo); Kiriandutschi (Haussa);
Esseresu opĭrimú (Asante); Atakpla (Atakpame); Kinkiri (Kratschi).
Height 78 feet. Broad crown. Leaves covered with silky hairs; wood
used by the natives for sword handles.
_Cynometra megalophylla_. Agumuắ (Tschaudjo).
Found in the coast forests.
_Cynometra Afzelii_.
_Cynometra sp._
_Detarium microcarpum_. Depapātē (Tschaudjo); Naparli (Mangu); Kökpakpa
(Kratschi); Záklu (Misahöhe).
A very heavy wood of a brown colour. Used in boat-building.
_Detarium Senegalense_.
Has a larger fruit than the _D. microcarpum_. A beautifully marked
hard wood. Grows to a great height. Found exclusively on the coast.
_Detarium Guineense_.
_Tamarindus indica_. Keditia (Tschaudjo); Samia (Haussa); Tamarese
(Asante); Kö́pu (Kratschi).
Grows near farms and in the prairies. A clear-coloured wood—very heavy
to work; will not float in water; used for mill-wheels, powder coal,
etc.
_Afzelia Africana_. Papac (Ewe); Welu (Tschaudjo); Apakka (Anago);
Ukpami (Akposso); Kao (Haussa); Papau (Asante); Kebarre (Kratschi);
Kpakpa (Fõ).
Height 48¾ feet. A very beautifully marked wood. Proof against attacks
of termites; much valued in building and for table-making, also
mortars for crushing yams.
_Daniellia thurifera_. Lipiti or Dsati (Ewe); Tschato (Tschaudjo);
Orokpo (Anago); Auwolo (Akposso); Masche (Haussa); Saingja (Asante);
Kenjang (Kratschi); Sa (Fõ).
Height from 65 to 97½ feet. Common in the prairies. The sapwood is
white, and the heartwood reddish and very hard. Barrels are made from
it.
_Berlinia Heudelotiana_. Ademá or Baba (Ewe); Buda͡u (Tschaudjo);
Kochoá (Kratschi).
Large tree with white showy flowers, growing on banks of rivers. Heavy
wood of light brown colour. Only of secondary importance.
_Berlinia Kerstingii_. Tau (Tschaudjo).
65 to 97½ feet high, grows on open prairie. Wood used for rafters in
house-building.
_Berlinia acuminata_.
_Berlinia tomentosa_.
_Bauhinia reticulata_. Klo (Ewe); Bākū (Tschaudjo); Nyama (Mangu);
Okokotaka (Asante); Tamenasi (Atakpame); Aklō (Anecho).
Fairly heavy wood of dirty brown colour, easily worked. Very plentiful
in the prairies.
_Dialium Guineense_. Zigbli or Toë (Ewe); Madŭ́ (Atakpame).
32½ to 48¾ feet high, valued as a wood for building, known as Black
Tumbler or Velvet Tamarind on the market.
_Distemonanthus Benthamianus_.
One of the hardest woods of Togo, a gigantic tree.
_Cassia Sieberiana_. Gagamagati (Ewe); Tschamanu (Tschaudjo).
Grows best on dry, stony parts of the prairie. Light brown wood,
extraordinarily hard, proof against termites. When burnt it causes
headache.
_Swartzia Madagascariensis_. Subando (Tschaudjo).
A small tree growing by river banks and on the prairies. Heartwood
reddish black.
_Cordyla Africana_. Kessing (Tschaudjo).
Wood used in table-making.
_Ormosia laxiflora_. Kedeleā or Kodoleā (Tschaudjo); Kokoro or Golloklo
(Mangu); Obri (Asante); Kekpili (Kratschi); Akũgre (Kpedyi).
Beautiful clear brown wood, used by the natives for building. It is
termite-proof.
_Baphia nitida_.
A small slender tree. Tons of the wood are sent yearly to England as
red dye-wood.
_Milletia atite_. Atite (Ewe); Sso abalu (Tschaudjo).
Spread through all the colonies. Wood very uniformly marked of clear
yellowish-white.
_Pterocarpus erinaceus_. Doti (Ewe); Tim (Tschaudjo); Segbe (Mangu);
Keleyu (Kratschi).
Used as a red dye. Height 65 feet. Very heavy wood of reddish-brown
colour. Sold as teak—one of the best woods of commerce.
_Pterocarpus esculentus_. Keruwowo (Tschaudjo); Futu (Kirikiri).
Smaller tree than the last, found in prairies. Wood fairly heavy and
yellowish-white.
_Lonchocarpus sericeus_. Lo (Ewe); Bäbäle (Atakpame); Alobla (Kpedyi).
Found in prairies and terrace woods. Flowers reddish-violet. Wood not
well known.
_Derris Stuhlmanii_. Tschaloware (Tschaudjo); Bembu (Mangu).
Height 32½ feet. Hard, yellowish-white wood.
_Andira inermis_.
Fairly large mountain tree. The Cabbage Tree of the W. Indies. Hard,
yellowish-white wood. The partridge wood of commerce.
_Erythrina Senegalensis_. Yrewo (Ewe); Nyimu (Mangu); Baklesu
(Atakpame).
Slender tree 32½ feet in height. Bark deeply cleft, cork-like, and
thorny. Wood very light and useful in many ways.
_Dalbergia melanoxylon_. Atiyi (Ewe).
The heartwood is almost hard as iron, proof against attacks of
insects. Used for pillars and piles, also in the making of musical
instruments.
_Brachystegia spicæformis_.
_Macrolobium stipulaceum_.
_Pentaclethra macrophylla_.
=Zygophyllaceæ.=
_Balanites Ægyptiaca_. Kunjanapcule (Mangu); Gushiocho (Kratschi).
Height 19½ to 26 feet. A beautiful golden brown wood, used in the
making of ploughs, clubs, sticks.
=Rutaceæ.=
_Fagara zanthoxyloides_. Eché or Alãfe (Ewe); Kelengma͡u (Tschaudjo);
Polu-Dyenye (Mangu); Tigu Schirafinsa (Mangu); Ata (Anago); Uche
(Akposso); Che (Fõ); Klongbaŭ (Tim).
A fairly large tree of the prairie. In appearance like an apple-tree.
Bark rough and knotty.
_Limonia Warneckei_. Kugŏ́nu (Tschaudjo); Nguni (Kabure); Tyanka or
Hogogo (Atakpame).
Wood light yellow, uniform, hard, and very heavy.
_Limonia Preussii_.
=Simarubaceæ.=
_Hannoa undulata_. Dikbere (Tschaudjo); Yayabé (Mangu); Kelantori
(Kratschi).
The wood is of a light greyish-white colour, fairly heavy.
=Meliaceæ.=
_Khaya Senegalensis_. Frimu (Tschaudjo).
A large tree sometimes attaining a height of 130 feet and over. 13¼
feet in diameter. Has a beautiful surface; is most useful in commerce
for furniture, carriages, cases for microscopes, etc. The fruit is
about the size of an apple, with four valves and four rows of flat
seeds.
_Khaya Klainii_.
The seed vessel has five valves, and the fruit is larger than the
last. Known as the African or Gambia mahogany of commerce.
_Pseudocedrela Kotschyi_. Alu (Ewe); Dituturi (Tschaudjo); Krŭbete
(Asante); Kedemponasi (Kratschi).
65 feet in height. The wood is of a greyish colour, serviceable in
building and furniture industry. The natives use it for drums and
barrels.
_Carapa procera_.
Not much known, though used in Senegambia as a building mahogany.
_Melia Azedarach_.
A small, much cultivated tree; the purplish blue flowers are like the
Spanish elder. The sapwood whitish, the heartwood reddish. Easy to
work; used in the making of furniture.
_Ekebergia Senegalensis_. Frimŭabalŭ́ (Tschaudjo).
A large tree growing in the mountainous districts. Wood light yellow
and fairly heavy, and uniform texture.
_Trichilia emetica_. Adyanyapesō (Tschaudjo).
_Trichilia Prieuriana_. Dilifū (Tschaudjo).
These two are small trees, fairly easy to work, of a light yellowish-
coloured wood.
=Polygalaceæ.=
_Securidaca longepedunculata_. Foji (Tschaudjo); Dyōro (Dyakossi); Ua
magungŭ́na (Haussa); Atakpati (Atakpame).
Small tree. A strong useful fibre obtained from the small branches.
=Euphorbiaceæ.=
_Phyllanthus discoideus_. Kongkonga (Tschaudjo); Dantivi (Atakpame);
Kamfuắ (Bagu).
A tall primeval forest tree—occasional clumps in the villages. Hard
heavy wood of a beautiful red colour.
_Hymenocardia acida_. Adudze (Ewe); Atidje (Atakpame).
The wood is fairly hard, light brown, with the year-rings clearly
marked. Very brittle, so only fit for firewood.
_Hymenocardia ulmoides_. Taboia (Atakpame); Bälä (Afem).
Height 130 to 162½ feet.
_Uapaca Togoensis_. Egba (Ewe); Kidgeling (Tschaudjo); Nagudi
(Atakpame).
A prairie tree of medium size. Beautiful brown-coloured wood; used for
firewood.
_Uapaca Heudelotii_. Oli (Atakpame).
Grows in the terraced woods. Useful in building.
_Alchornea cordifolia_. Tschufṓu (Tschaudjo); Awowlo (Atakpame).
A small prairie tree. The hollow twigs are used in pipe-making.
_Sapium Guineense_.
_Sapium Kerstingii_.
_Sapium Mannianum_.
These three trees are not of much importance.
_Ricinodendron Africanus_.
Vegetable oils and fats obtained from this tree. The wood is soft and
used for fuel.
=Anacardiaceæ.=
_Mangifera Indica_.
Mango tree. A greyish wood, useful for building purposes.
_Anacardium occidentale_. Atisiā (Ewe).
Reddish, fairly hard wood, used in boat-building, also for charcoal.
_Spondias lutea_. Kinyelu (Tschaudjo); Akiko or Agliko (Atakpame);
Nayile (Konkomba).
Tall, slender tree. The fruit is edible, yellow, and downy. Abundant
in the prairies, now introduced in many localities. Bright-coloured
wood, fairly hard and heavy.
_Pseudospondias microcarpa_. Onyangba (Atakpame).
Stately tree, 65 feet in height. Nothing is known of the wood.
_Lannea acida_. Eknalokpoe (Ewe); Käla (Tschaudjo); Tyĕtĕbu (Mangu);
Asogedaka (Atakpame).
A common tree in the prairies. The greyish hard wood is used by the
natives for arm-rings, chairs, etc.
_Lannea Barteri_. Tingbatau or Patandeu (Tschaudjo); Bēnature (Mangu);
Akú (Atakpame.)
This tree has a characteristic spiral bark. It grows to a height of 65
feet, with reddish edible fruit.
_Hæmatostaphis Barteri_.
Has a beautiful fruit of a delicious flavour, the blood-plum of Sierra
Leone. The wood has not yet been tried.
[Illustration: FIG. 24.—=Teak Plantation made in 1907 at Pfandu, in
1911.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 25.—=Khaya Klaineana, 17 feet in girth, Misahohe
Station.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 26.—=Corner of a 1907 Teak Plantation, Pfandu, in
1911.=]
To face p. 136.
_Heeria insignis_.
The wood is much valued in the making of specially good furniture.
=Sapindaceæ.=
_Blighia sapida_. Adza or Adja (Ewe); Peso (Tschaudjo); Aki (Asante);
Keká (Kratschi).
The wood is light yellow, not of any value. Planted near houses as an
orchard tree, and also for its shade. 97½ feet in height.
_Eriocœlum Kerstingii_. Nimwau Pesō (Tschaudjo); Yevo-Gboma (Atakpame).
97½ feet in height in the coast forests. A good furniture and building
wood.
_Talisiopsis oliviformis_. Waogbŭ́m (Tschaudjo).
Perhaps identical with _Zanha golungensis_. 65 to 97½ feet high, with
reddish bark. Wood used for furniture and building. The fruit is
downy, of an orange colour, and edible.
_Allophyllus Africanus_. Weti (Atakpame); Kōtīa (Yendi).
A small bushy tree. The wood used for cleaning the teeth. Useful for
working in many ways.
=Melianthaceæ.=
_Bersama Doeringii_.
This tree has aerial roots. The blossoms in long bunches of white
flowers.
=Rhamnaceæ.=
_Zizyphus Jujuba_.
A small shrub-like tree with edible berries. The wood is used in
saddle-making and for agricultural implements.
_Zizyphus mucronatus_. Pangbaïngu (Tschaudjo); Sausanyebui (Mangu).
The wood is used in wagon-building.
=Tiliaceæ.=
_Grewia gigantiflora_. Adzadze (Ewe); Tolábŭ (Atakpame).
_Grewia villosa_. Adzadze (Ewe); Yumba (Mangu).
The natives use the wood for handles of spears.
=Malvaceæ.=
_Thespesia populnea_.
The sap-wood is a bright red, and the hard heartwood a dark red; used
for carriage-building and furniture.
=Bombacaceæ.=
_Bombax Buonopozense_. Fulṓ or Folṓ (Tschaudjo); Sanbúgo (Mangu).
Grows on high ground and also by the streams. Height about 162½ feet.
A marvellous sight when covered with its crimson blossoms. The bark is
smooth and bright grey, with rough cracked appearance. Of small
account in commerce.
_Adansonia digitata_. Adido (Ewe); Kuka (Haussa); Dádie (Asante); Kelle
(Kratschi).
Called also bread-fruit tree.
_Ceiba pentandra_. Wu (Ewe); Komu (Tschaudjo); Ogu (Anago); Ju
(Akposso); Huti (Fõ).
Wood little used, though it should be valuable in the cellulose
factories.
_Eriodendron Nigericum_.
=Sterculiaceæ.=
_Sterculia tragacantha_. Akplẽ or Loloẽ (Ewe); Kaderabobo (Tschaudjo).
_Sterculia tomentosa_. Akpoklo or Bofuti (Ewe); Modetu (Tschaudjo);
Bolusila (Mangu); Oduduku (Atakpame); Kelipotu (Kratschi); Apokpo
(Anecho).
_Sterculia oblonga_.
The wood of these three trees is soft and of little value. The fibre
strong and tough. Tree medium height.
_Cola cordifolia_. Uuti (Ewe); Dagbongbore (Tschaudjo); Nutssunutssu
(Anago); Anwolo (Akposso); Eussŭ́ (Misahöhe).
A huge tree of the Gallery Forests, also found singly near villages.
The leaves are a foot long. The wood hard and heavy, used in
Senegambia for strengthening the coast and for rafters.
_Cola acuminata_.
The tree resembles the poplar. Proof against the attacks of insects;
useful for carriage and furniture-making, and ship-building.
_Cola laurifolia_. Jojau (Kabure).
The wood is very pliable and used in the making of bows (for
shooting).
_Cola caricifolia_. Alensuneku (Atakpame).
_Cola astrophora_.
_Cola supfiana_.
_Cola Afzelii_.
_Triplochiton Johnsonii_.
_Triplochiton Nigericum_.
_Pterygota Schumanniana_.
The wood of these five trees is little known.
_Firmiana Barteri_. Tschingbelika (Tschaudjo).
From 130 to 162½ feet high. The regular, pyramidal-shaped trunk ends
in plank-like roots. The natives make cups and bowls and floats from
the wood. The flowers are a beautiful scarlet, appearing before the
leaves.
=Ochnaceæ.=
_Ochna Afzelii_. Tanam (Tschaudjo).
Moderately high tree, with hard, beautifully-marked bright brown wood.
Used in turning and table-making.
_Lophira alata_. Parapára (Tschaudjo); Akpakpla (Anago); Otugba
(Akposso); Kekrefunde (Asante); Belengbe (Kratschi); Kotublassu (Fõ).
A very common tree of the prairies, so much like the Shea butter as to
be frequently mistaken for it. The wood is hard, heavy, and dark,
reddish-brown, and sold as African oak.
=Guttiferæ.=
_Pentadesma Kerstingii_. Budyonū (Tschaudjo).
Grows on the wooded banks of streams. A tall, slender tree with
lightish brown wood, very similar in texture to that of the Ochnaceæ
family. Used by the natives in various ways.
=Dipterocarpaceæ.=
_Monotes Kerstingii_. Kesáng (Tschaudjo).
Height about 48¾ feet. It is found frequently in the prairies. Easily
recognized by the likeness of its leaf to a curved hollow of a hand.
The wood is only useful for burning.
=Flacourtiaceæ.=
_Oncoba spinosa_. Kpoe (Ewe); Krutū (Tschaudjo); Kongowura (Kotokoli).
A tall, thorny shrub, with white rose-like flowers. The wood is
capable of taking a good polish, used in inlaying.
_Caloncoba Gilgiana_. Efiohlĕ (Ewe).
A fair-sized tree. The wood is also used for inlaying.
=Rhizophoraceæ.=
_Rhizophora mangle_. Woto or Atrati (Ewe).
_Rhizophora mucronata_.
Little is yet known of the mangroves of Togo. The _Rhizophora
mucronata_ of East Africa has a reddish brown wood, hard and heavy,
but easily worked; used in building.
=Combretaceæ.=
_Combretum sokodense_. Ssissiku (Tschaudjo).
Flourishes in pasture land and by streams. The bark is cork-like and
deeply corrugated, the wood brownish and very hard. Height, 35 ft.
_Combretum Kerstingii_. Alembole (Tschaudjo).
Hard, greyish-brown wood, used for firewood.
_Terminalia dictyoneura_. Ssua (Tschaudjo).
_Terminalia macroptera_. Ssua dau (Tschaudjo).
These two Terminalia both have a beautiful glossy brown wood, useful
for many purposes. Both are about 48¾ feet in height.
_Terminalia Baumannii_. Opäti (Atakpame).
A beautiful prairie tree, the wood not yet tried.
_Terminalia superba_.
_Terminalia Togoensis_.
_Pteleopsis Kerstingii_. Ssissinā (Tschaudjo).
A fair-sized tree in the Bassari savannah. The natives say it has
neither flowers nor fruit, but this naturally cannot be the case.
_Anogeissus leiocarpus_. Tsetse or Echéché (Ewe); Kodelia (Tschaudjo);
Anyi (Anago); Ogo (Akposso); Kánnâ (Asante); Kakanla (Kratschi); Chlehó
(Fõ).
A tree 97½ feet high, growing on the river banks and on the moist
savannahs, very widespread. The fruit is much like that of our alder.
The wood very hard, proof against attacks of the termites, with a
black heartwood like ebony, and used as such. The most valuable wood
of the Colony.
=Myrtaceæ.=
_Syzygium Guineense_. Tschapēa (Tschaudjo).
A fair-sized tree on the shore slopes. A white, easily-worked wood.
Used by the natives for making tools, images of their gods, chairs,
etc. In some parts for building purposes.
=Araliaceæ.=
_Cussonia Barteri_. Fegblo (Ewe); Kongolu (Tschaudjo); Indoabaka
(Mangu); Digo (Anago); Obbŏ (Akposso); Bōnugŭ́ (Misahöhe); Gotti (Fõ).
A characteristic tree of the Baobab savannahs near Misahöhe. The wood
is spongy and cannot be worked, but the ashes are of use in making a
blue dye.
=Umbelliferæ.=
_Peucedanum araliaceum_, var. _fraxinifolium_. Ländo (Tschaudjo).
A tree under medium height, of the pasture lands. The bark of the
young shoots is used for squirts and syringes. The wood is easy to
cut.
=Sapotaceæ.=
_Butyrospermum Parkii_. Yotsa or Yo (Ewe); Ssomū (Tschaudjo); Káde
(Hausa); Krangkú (Asante); Kedempo (Atakpame); Aiomiti (Kirikiri).
The Shea butter tree. Height 48¾ to 65 feet. The tree is so plentiful
that it is a rare thing not to find one in any district. The fruit is
soft and edible; the wood a beautiful brownish-red of even texture,
and capable of taking a good polish. Much used in furniture-making.
_Pachystela cinerea_.
An immense tree growing along the coast. Wood unknown in the market.
_Chrysophyllum obovatum_. Katumbulia (Tschaudjo).
A tree of medium height with edible fruit. Its wood not known in
commerce. It should be of use, as are most of those belonging to this
family.
_Malacantha Warneckeana_. Akara (Atakpame); Pusum (Lamatessi).
A large tree found among the mountain streams, and also in the plains
of the coast regions. The trunk has on the outside wavy cross-lines
that look like a border, and give it a very curious appearance. The
hard wood is made into shuttles, shovels, scoops, etc., by the
natives.
_Mimusops multinervis_. Ewelisomū (Tschaudjo); Bräkrankū (Asante);
Gjira (Kratschi); Ewäti (Anecho).
_Mimusops Kerstingii_. Ewelisomu (Tschaudjo).
The wood of both these two Mimusops is like that of the Butyrospermum
in colour and structure. Rarely found higher than 32½ feet.
_Mimusops lacera_. Wueti (Ewe).
The tallest and most beautiful tree in the immediate neighbourhood of
the sea. Its hard red wood is made into walking-sticks, also for
inlaying and veneering of furniture and parquets.
=Ebenaceæ.=
_Diospyros mespiliformis_. Dongke or Jeti (Ewe); Tingalō (Tschaudjo).
A semi-cultivated tree growing to the height of 81¼ feet. The trunk is
often from 3¼ to 4¹⁄₁₆ feet in diameter. A widely spreading shady
tree. Its height in the prairies is much less. Found very abundantly
and takes a high place as in copses and park lands. The fruit is
edible, round, and of a bright red colour. The heartwood is hard and
durable, and black as ebony. The tree is of great value commercially
for many purposes as ebony.
_Diospyros mombuttensis_. Liä-nuwasaure (Tschaudjo); Etjannaka
(Akposso).
A tree growing only from small to moderate size on the hill slopes,
with a bright-red fruit—a thorn-bearing tree. The wood is durable and
hard, used for shovels, walking-sticks, rafters, etc., and the
flexible branches in the making of traps.
_Diospyros tricolor_.
One of the most frequent trees on the shore and prairies of the coast
region, growing only to the height of a man. It has a yellowish-red
three-sided fruit; the stem seldom attains more than the thickness of
the finger. It is used for walking-sticks. A hard white wood.
_Maba Warneckii_.
A fair-sized noticeable tree, rarely found, and little known.
=Oleaceæ.=
_Linociera nilotica_.
A small, unimportant tree. The wood is light brown, of even texture,
and great durability.
=Loganiaceæ.=
_Strychnos Buettneri_. Kongofura (Tschaudjo).
_Strychnos laxa_. Wagbebĕ (Ewe); Naprámpŏgo (Dyakossi); Egbo
(Atakpame); Go͠ngóvi (Kpedyi); Yokharaúgu (Dagomba).
Both these trees have a strong stem of bright-coloured wood, with a
fine grain, and should be of value. The fruit of the Buettneri is
edible, something like an orange.
_Strychnos pubescens_. Kongŏ (Tschaudjo).
The natives only use it as firewood.
_Anthocleista Kerstingii_. Kuwondëü (Tschaudjo); Egu (Atakpame).
Height 97½ feet, growing in the terraced or gallery woods, and also in
small groves. The trunk is very straight at first, then widely
branched. The trunk of the young trees is marked with leaf-scars; the
leaves attain the length of feet, and are used by the natives as
quivers for their arrows. The white, easily-worked wood is used for
many purposes.
=Apocynaceæ.=
_Holarrhena Wulfenbergii_.
A tall tree of the Agome Mountains and the coast forests of Sokodé-
Bassari, also found singly near villages and farms. The white wood is
fairly heavy and easily worked, used in carving figures, etc.
_Conopharyngia crassa_.
A tree of varying height, with drooping branches. Found only in
Misahöhe.
_Voacanga Africana_. Kongkong (Tschaudjo).
A fair-sized, widely-spread tree in copses and by the streams. The
wood is like that of the Holarrhena, only of a deeper shade. The round
white-coloured fruit, growing two together, look like spots on the
dark foliage.
_Kickxia Africana_ (syn. _Funtumia elastica_).
Reaches the height of 65 feet. Growing in Misahöhe and Kete-Kratschi.
The wood is little known. All the trees of this family are
distinguished by a rich milky juice in bark, leaves, and fruit.
_Alstonia congensis_.
=Borraginaceæ.=
_Cordia Gharaf_.
A fair-sized tree known only in one locality. A hard, durable wood
used in building. There is no doubt that there are other species in
Togo, and so far as the Cordia has been used, it has proved to be a
most useful tree.
_Ehretia cymosa_. Okoni (Kratschi).
Found in the coast regions, growing to the height of 13 to 16¼ feet.
Seldom met with. It has masses of white blossoms; the fruit is a berry
about the size of a pea. The wood has not yet been proved.
=Verbenaceæ.=
_Vitex Cienkowskii_. Fõ (Ewe); Panyero (Tschaudjo); Orli (Anago); Uoli
(Akposso); Koto (Dyakossi); Gidjiko (Kratschi); Fõjiti (Anecho);
Narenga (Dagomba).
A large barkless tree, with spreading crown. Leaf with five divisions
in the form of a hand, the flowers in large clusters of white
blossoms. Ink is made from the shiny black, edible fruit and the young
leaves. This tree is widely spread over the hill slopes and forest
prairies. The wood is moderately hard and useful for inlaying; the
natives make ribs of boats from it.
_Vitex Camporum_. Panyerōbuda (Tschaudjo); Insuakoto (Mangu); Idjawli
(Akposso).
Leaves with three divisions, the underside hairy. Flowers blue, in
clusters like the last. The fruit is more like an acorn, and the tree
shrub-like. The natives make fishing-tackle from the wood.
_Vitex cuneata_.
_Premna Zenkeri_.
A tall tree growing on the mountain slopes of Bassari. Leaves simple
and broad; the small, white flowers are in panicles a foot long. The
wood is entirely like the _V. Cienkowskii_.
_Avicennia Africana_. Amu-ati (Ewe).
A broad-spreading leafy tree from 39 to 48¾ feet in height, and about
7 inches in diameter; leaves dark green, the underside grey, and
flowers a smudgy white. Its wood is used for boat-building in Gabun,
but little known elsewhere. It is closely allied to the _Avicennia
officinalis_ of East Africa, which has a beautiful, violet-coloured
wood; is very hard and heavy.
=Bignoniaceæ.=
_Spathodea campanulata_. Adadasé (Ewe); Gbetschigbetschi (Atakpame).
A wonderful leafy tree, 97½ feet in height, with wide-spreading crown
of foliage, and greyish-green warty trunk. In the flowering time the
tree is a mass of crimson flowers—a beautiful sight in the coast woods
and on the hill slopes. In Europe it goes by the name of tulip-tree.
The buds are filled with a sweet, watery fluid, which the children use
as squirts. The wood should be of great service, but does not seem to
be used.
_Newbouldia lævis_. Lifui (Ewe); Akinale (Tschaudjo); Aboboë
(Atakpame).
A medium-sized prairie tree, found plentifully also near the villages,
where the small branches are used as material for fences. When the
tree is young, it stands very erect, but later the remarkably long
branches bend to the ground. The flowers are either rose-coloured,
violet, or bright blue. The bright-coloured wood is fairly heavy,
uniform in texture, very similar to the _V. Cienkowskii_.
_Markhamia tomentosa_. Tschitschíñe (Atakpame).
Appears to grow only among the mountains. The flowers are yellow, with
red stripes; the leaves and husks both yellowish brown. Children use
the flower buds as playthings. The wood is like that of the
_Newbouldia lævis_.
_Markhamia lutea_.
Usually found as a shrub, but occasionally to the height of 19½ to 26
feet high, with rough or warty, blackish bark, and yellow flowers in
great quantities.
_Stereospermum Kunthianum_. Essobelīa (Tschaudjo); Eké-deká (Atakpame).
A small tree seldom found taller than 32½ feet, a greenish-grey bark,
divested of leaves. When in bloom it has much the appearance of a
peach-tree. The flowers, which appear before the leaves, are pink,
edged with white and reddish-brown, with striped and spotted lip.
Found frequently in the forest savannahs, and occasionally on the
highlands. The brownish dye from the bark is used by the girls for
their lips, and chewed as Kola. The wood is much the same as the last
three species.
_Kigelia Africana_. Nyakpekpe (Ewe); Abilū (Tschaudjo); Njãkpokpo
(Anecho); Njãkpẽ (Anlo).
Found in damp places in the prairies and on the banks of rivers. The
well-known liver-sausage tree. The wood is suitable for small
buildings.
_Kigelia pinnata_.
Rubiaceæ.
_Hymenodictyon Kurria_.
All belonging to this family have simple leaves in pairs. Found as a
shrub and a small tree in the terraced woods and mountains. The solid
wood, of a clear mahogany colour, is much used in India for
agricultural implements, but little known here in Togo.
_Crossopteryx Africana_. Tyenyeṓlo or Pasau (Tschaudjo).
_Crossopteryx Kotschyana_.
Found to the height of 32½ feet in the prairies of the coast zone and
a few scattered inland. According to the opinion of an importer, this
wood is one of the best of Togo. It is clear brown, very hard and
heavy, and of fine texture. The natives make shuttles and tablets for
the Koran from it.
_Adina microcephala_. Barā (Tschaudjo).
A tree of 97½ feet in height, growing on the river banks of Sokodé-
Bassaris. The wood takes a very high place as to value, but it has a
peculiar odour and an oily feeling to the touch. The fibres from the
twigs are made into tooth-brushes.
_Mitragyne macrophylla_. Yŏwi or Togba (Atakpame).
A gigantic tree growing on the swampy banks of streams, with an
excellent wood used by the natives for making doors, drums and
barrels.
_Mitragyne inermis_. Intyú (Dyakossi); Shero (Dagomba).
Smaller than the last, found on ground which is occasionally under
water. Its yellowish-white wood is used for beams and rafters. It
forms also a beautiful, easily-worked furniture wood.
_Mitragyne Africana_. Séssëu (Atakpame).
A small tree which flourishes in swampy places and parts overflowed by
the streams. Its blossoms are used as hay. The particularly valuable
wood is proof against attacks of the termite, very hard, and much used
in building. The wood of all the Mitragyne species are valued in
Tropical Africa on account of their durability and being proof against
weather and easily worked.
_Sarcocephalus sambucinus_. Akukobasa (Ewe); Kedjetjelo (Tschaudjo);
Nyimo (Atakpame).
A small shrubby tree, with long, tendril-like branches, white fragrant
flowers, and strawberry-coloured fruit. The wood is used considerably
for mosaic work and inlaying.
_Gardenia Thunbergia_. Fifei (Ewe); Kau kutoku (Tschaudjo); Lángan͠a
(Kratschi); Fifäti (Anecho).
A small tree or shrub with rigid branches, fragrant white flowers, and
yellow, spindle-shaped fruit, tasting like a crab-apple, scattered in
small clumps over the prairie. Spoons and similar articles are made
from the white, fairly hard wood.
_Gardenia ternifolia_. Kau këure (Tschaudjo); Nassarlĭ or Nabuli
(Dyakossi).
Similar to the preceding tree in appearance, etc., but the fruit is
cylindrical in form, like a small cucumber.
_Gardenia medicinalis_. Kau belia or abalia (Tschaudjo).
The same characteristics as the last; the fruit is much smaller,
round, and furrowed.
_Gardenia assimilis_.
_Gardenia Abeokutā_.
These trees are all found in the higher forests as undergrowth, and
are very similar in every respect.
_Plectronia vanguerioides_. Dädäfunde (Atakpame).
Medium-sized tree. Occasionally found as a shrub in the coast and
mountain forests. The wood is only useful as firewood.
_Pavetta Baconiana_. Genferrebiesó (Mangu).
_Pavetta crassipes_.
Used as firewood.
_Morinda citrifolia_. Amakḗ (Ewe); Ketyĕlenga (Tschaudjo); Aké
(Atakpame); Maticki (Ho).
A tree 32½ feet in height, with a broad, shady crown, seems to be
bearing blossoms or fruit all the year round. The flowers are in the
form of little round bunches; the fruit is greenish-yellow, spongy,
and growing together in large masses—each fruit about the size of a
pear. The white wood is not of much value, but the rootwood is sold in
the native markets for making yellow dye. Two species of this tree
seem to be known in Togo, one found frequently on the coasts, the best
known, and another variety in North Togo, less common and with a much
smaller fruit.
=Compositæ.=
_Vernonia Senegalensis_. Avenya (Ewe); Tusima or Tingma (Tschaudjo).
The only one of the family which attains a height of 19½ feet, and
stem of 6 or 7 inches in diameter. The leaves are a greyish-green; the
flowers, a yellowish-white, appear in great masses. The wood is fairly
heavy, light brown in colour, and very easy to work. Of the many
varieties from which the twigs and roots are used for brushes, this
one is the most valuable.
APPENDIX I
LIST OF INTRODUCED SPECIES PLANTED
1. Terminalia catappa.
2. Casuarina equisetifolia.
3. Tectona grandis.
4. Swietenia bijuga.
5. Cedrela odorata.
6. Pithecolobium dulcis.
7. Artocarpus incisa.
8. Cassia florida.
9. Bauhinia Krughii.
10. Eucalyptus marginata.
11. Eucalyptus citriodora.
12. Eucalyptus robusta.
13. Cæsalpina arborea.
14. Cæsalpina sappan.
15. Cæsalpina rostrata.
16. Cæsalpina coriaria.
17. Cæsalpina regia.
18. Poinciana regia.
19. Poinciana drepanophylla.
20. Melia azedarach.
21. Manihot glaziovii.
22. Manihot dichotoma.
23. Manihot pyanhyensis.
24. Manihot heterophylla.
25. Aspidosperma quebracho.
26. Phœnix dactylifera.
27. Cola vera.
28. Ficus elastica.
29. Ficus Schlechteri.
30. Albizzia amara.
31. Albizzia stipulata.
32. Acacia Arabica.
33. Cynometra megalophylla.
34. Detarium Senegalense.
35. Parinarium intermedia.
APPENDIX II
CENSUS OF PLANTATIONS IN TOGO
----------------------------------+----------+------------+------------
Tree. | At all | District | Forest
| Stations.|Plantations.|Plantations.
----------------------------------+----------+------------+------------
| No. |No. Planted.|No. Planted.
| Planted.| |
| | |
Teak (_Tectona grandis_) | 1,022,014| 330,714| 691,300
| | |
Sasswood (_Erythrophlœum | 2,072,877| 15,877| 2,057,000
Guineense_) | | |
| | |
African Mahogany (_Khaya | 9,089,184| 8,169,584| 919,600
Senegalensis_) | | |
| | |
Mahogany (_Khaya Klainii_) | 236,830| 1,830| 235,000
| | |
Rhodesian Mahogany (_Afzelia | 603,054| 157,454| 445,600
Africana_) | | |
| | |
Iroko (_Chlorophora excelsa_) | 127,951| 105,951| 22,000
| | |
Ebony (_Diospyros mespiliformis_) | 4,735| 4,735| —
| | |
Oil Palm (_Elæis Guineensis_) | 57,545| 47,545| 10,000
| | |
Kapok Tree (_Ceiba pentandra_) | 77,401| 32,401| 45,000
| | |
Ireh Rubber (_Funtumia elastica_) | 26,611| 26,611| —
| | |
Rambong Rubber (_Ficus elastica_) | 18,666| 18,666| —
| | |
Ceara Rubber (_Manihot glaziovii_)| 146,634| 145,634| 1,000
----------------------------------+----------+------------+------------
TOTALS |13,483,502| 9,057,002| 4,426,500
----------------------------------+----------+------------+------------
[Continued]
----------------------------------+----------+------------+------------
Tree. | At all | District | Forest
| Stations.|Plantations.|Plantations.
----------------------------------+----------+------------+------------
| Acreage. | Acreage. | Acreage.
| | |
Teak (_Tectona grandis_) | 878·27| 471·77| 406·5
| | |
Sasswood (_Erythrophlœum | 586·94| 30·19| 556·75
Guineense_) | | |
| | |
African Mahogany (_Khaya | 2,017·65| 1,713·65| 304·00
Senegalensis_) | | |
| | |
Mahogany (_Khaya Klainii_) | 84·39| 3·73| 80·66
| | |
Rhodesian Mahogany (_Afzelia | 189·29| 104·48| 104·48
Africana_) | | |
| | |
Iroko (_Chlorophora excelsa_) | 123·03| 93·39| 29·64
| | |
Ebony (_Diospyros mespiliformis_) | 18·32| 18·32| —
| | |
Oil Palm (_Elæis Guineensis_) | 251·12| 250·12| 1·00
| | |
Kapok Tree (_Ceiba pentandra_) | 113·00| 68·54| 44·46
| | |
Ireh Rubber (_Funtumia elastica_) | 47·84| 47·84| —
| | |
Rambong Rubber (_Ficus elastica_) | 43·78| 43·78| —
| | |
Ceara Rubber (_Manihot glaziovii_)| 103·70| 101·87| 1·83
----------------------------------+----------+------------+------------
TOTALS | 4,456·83| 2,947·68| 1,529·32
----------------------------------+----------+------------+------------
APPENDIX III
TOGO—FOREST EXPORTS
-------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------
| 1909. | 1910. | 1911.
Product. +------+-------+------+-------+------+-------
| Tons.| £ | Tons.| £ | Tons.| £
-------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------
Kola nuts | — | — | — | — | 3| 166
| | | | | |
Palm kernels | 8,013| 81,750| 8,216|101,700|13,073|178,932
| | | | | |
Palm oil | 2,779| 45,600| 3,096| 61,650| 3,949| 84,410
| | | | | |
Shea nuts | — | — | — | — | 34| 1,192
| | | | | |
Piassava and tisal | — | — | — | — | 10| 14
| | | | | |
Kapok | — | — | — | — | 5| 311
| | | | | |
Woods (all kinds) | — | — | — | — | 170| 350
| | | | | |
Rubber | 146| 48,450| 134| 57,350| 143| 41,615
| | | | | |
Ivory | — | — | — | — | 2| 1,797
| | | | | |
Hides and skins | — | — | — | — | 8| 607
-------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------
TOTALS |10,939|175,800|11,448|220,700|17,397|309,344
-------------------+------+-------+------+-------+------+-------
[Continued]
-------------------+--------------+--------------
| 1912. | 1913.
Product. +------+-------+------+-------
| Tons.| £ | Tons.| £
-------------------+------+-------+------+-------
Kola nuts | 12| 767| — | —
| | | |
Palm kernels |11,452|168,978| 7,025|127,905
| | | |
Palm oil | 3,284| 70,643| 1,115| 25,900
| | | |
Shea nuts | 39| 1,263| — | —
| | | |
Piassava and tisal | 17| 357| — | —
| | | |
Kapok | 7| 357| 9| 472
| | | |
Woods (all kinds) | 137| 126| — | —
| | | |
Rubber | 163| 48,787| 89| 18,029
| | | |
Ivory | 2| 2,085| 3| 2,806
| | | |
Hides and skins | 10| 609| — | —
-------------------+------+-------+------+-------
TOTALS |15,123|293,972| 8,241|175,112
-------------------+------+-------+------+-------
[Illustration: FIG. 27.—=Large Teak Tree, Tectona grandis, Ebuttemetta
Gardens, sixteen years old.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 28.—=Large Para (Hevea Braziliensis), Ebuttemetta
Gardens, age about sixteen years.=]
To face p. 150.
CHAPTER VIII
NIGERIA
I. THE RIVERS, PORTS AND FORESTS OF NIGERIA.
Starting from Lagos, the first port of call, the coast is flat, sandy,
and low-lying as compared with the typical seaboard of Europe with its
cliffs. Long sandy beaches with scattered coconut palms in the
background are more prevalent in this part of Nigeria than the water-
covered mangrove swamps, showing rather a stunted growth. Westwards from
Lagos there are the scattered mangrove formations in the estuary of the
Yewa River, near which is the trading station of Badagri. Following the
line of the coast, somewhat better mangrove areas are found towards the
mouth of the Benin, Escravos and Forcados Rivers. The estuary of the
Niger, extending from the last-named river as far as the Sombreiro,
shows varied development of the mangrove type of vegetation, as well as
the first admixture of other hardwood trees at the edge of the mangrove
zone. On the way one passes the Ramos, the Brass, Nun, St. Bartholomew
and St. Barbara, each forming outlets for the forests further north.
Beyond the Sombreiro the estuaries of the New Calabar, Cawthorne and
Bonny Rivers contain further mangrove areas, usually in the form of
large islands. Eastwards of the Bonny River the mangrove to some extent
gives way to comparatively large areas known as rain forests, owing to
the comparatively heavy rainfall in those localities. The Andoni, Opobo,
Kwaiebo form the outlets for these forests.
The Cross, Calabar, Kwa and Akwayefe are the most easterly rivers in
Nigeria. In the estuary of each, more especially of the Cross River, the
finest mangrove forests are to be seen. Next to these in point of height
and straightness of bole are the forests on the banks of the St. Barbara
and Forcados Rivers.
The Lagos River, with its present bar-draught of 19 feet, is followed
eastwards by the port of Forcados, showing 19 feet. As subsidiaries, and
northwards from Forcados, are the inland ports of Warri and Koko, both,
and especially the latter, being timber-shipping centres. Sapeli,
another 40 miles up the Benin River beyond Koko, was and still remains a
timber port of some importance, and from it the trade name of one kind
of mahogany, namely Sapeli wood, is derived. Brass, considerably further
eastward, is practically a seaside port, to which some produce of the
Niger Delta is brought. Degema, Bugama, Bakana, Okrika and Port Harcourt
are inland ports all reached from Bonny, situated at the mouth of the
river of the same name. Opobo, on the Imo, is yet another inland port
with a 14-foot bar at the river mouth. Eket is the small port for the
Kwaiebo River, whence small steamers run to Calabar. Oron, on the
western side of the estuary, is also a port worthy of mention. Though
Calabar is some 15 miles above the junction of the Akwayefe, Kwa and
Cross Rivers, it is the chief port of Eastern Nigeria. It is situated on
the side of a hill some 200 feet high on the bank of the Calabar River,
which is half a mile wide at this point.
Turning now to the next type of forest met with after leaving the
mangrove zone, the thick, heavy, evergreen rain forest is seen. On the
western side in the province of Abeokuta it has very largely been
destroyed, only comparatively small isolated areas remaining. In the
Ondo province, however, some of the most extensive and heaviest timber
areas of this type are found. A good network of rivers, such as the
Ogun, Ona, Oshun, Oni, Shasha and Owenna, when flooded, form the outlets
for timber worked in these localities. In the northern part of the Warri
province and the southern part of the Benin province large
representative areas of the evergreen type are found, though there they
tend to mingle with the tall, mixed deciduous forests. To a small extent
in the Owerri, but to the largest extent in the Calabar province, the
rain forests find their finest development, culminating in the Oban
Hills on the eastern side of the latter provinces. The rainfall there is
175 inches per annum.
The Sasswood is one of the first trees to appear when the mangrove swamp
gives way to the evergreen forest. Other large trees are the mahoganies,
found chiefly on the old banks; red ironwood, with its brilliant red
fresh leaves in the late autumn. In fact, these leaves are often taken
for flowers, owing to their very bright colour. They gradually, however,
assume a dark green colour as the season advances. An unidentified
species of gum-copal which grows to colossal dimensions is found
scattered rather diffusely and curiously in these areas. Different kinds
of ebony, with wood varying from brown to green black, are seen
throughout the zone, though, as with other trees, a different species is
found in the different provinces; on the whole, the blackest wood is
found where the rainfall is heaviest.
The mixed deciduous zone, which consists both of deciduous and evergreen
trees, mingles and gradually develops at the northern edge of the
evergreen rain forest; in many cases the one goes over into the other
almost imperceptibly, and it is only perhaps after half a day’s march
that one realizes that one has left the evergreen type behind and
reached the forests where half the trees lose their leaves every year. A
very large development of these forests is found in the Abeokuta, Oyo,
Jebu-ode and Ondo provinces. Very heavy inroads have been made in these
forests, and it remains to be seen whether sufficient will be preserved
to ensure the future fertility of the soil and the requisite rainfall.
One of the most prominent species is the cotton-tree, with its great
root buttresses and muscle-like protuberances from the stem. The Obechi,
or Arere, is another magnificent timber tree, with soft white wood and
maple-like leaves, which grows to huge dimensions. The African
greenheart, which may grow 12 feet in diameter, is hard enough to break
the blade of an axe. The Iroko, taking the place of oak in African
economy, is another tree frequently met with, and it extends its area of
distribution as the forests are opened up with clearings. East of the
Niger this formation is only found to a small extent in the Onitsha
province; a little larger in the northern part of the Owerri province,
and still largest in the northern part of the Calabar and the southern
part of the Ogoja province. In fact, the finest development of the mixed
deciduous forests is found in the last-named province, just north of the
Cross River, where it is really at the edge of the true deciduous
forest. In this zone some three kinds of mahogany are found, in some
places very diffusely scattered, in others up to a thousand mature trees
in eight square miles, or in a third nearly every tree a mahogany on
both sides of the road for over half a mile. The four species in this
zone vary less from province to province than they do in the case of the
evergreen forest zone, though the total number may be greater.
Beginning again on the western side, the open deciduous forest or dry-
zone formation shows itself over a very wide extent in Oyo, Northern
Jebu-ode, and in the Northern Benin provinces. East of the Niger it is
of wide extent in the Northern Onitsha and Northern Ogoja provinces, but
it also occurs in the northern part of the Owerri province as an
artificial product of man’s destruction of the original forest. In some
places this formation, owing to the trees being close together, more
nearly approaches the deciduous forest. In others, owing to the poor and
stunted nature of the arboreal growth, it more nearly approaches the
open grass savannah formation. Only north of the Oyo province near
Shaki, or north of Ogoja in that province, could it be said that this
kind of formation is seen.
One of the most prominent kinds of trees found is the Shea Butter, the
nut of which is used in the making of chocolate cream and margarine.
This tree, varying in size from a large oak to a short, stunted, gnarled
and burnt relic of better forest conditions, is found over very wide
areas in the Oyo and northern part of the Abeokuta province. Strangely
enough, this tree does not appear in the northern part of the Benin or
Onitsha province, and only occurs again in the north-eastern corner of
the Ogoja province. The locust-trees, with their open crown and feathery
leaves and long pods similar to French beans, are conspicuous all
through the zone, and near the villages are specially preserved.
Mahogany is represented in this zone as another species which does not
attain a greater girth than 10 feet and which is often gnarled and
crooked owing to the annual grass fires. A medium sized Cedrela, or hard
cigar-box wood, is found in isolated patches in the northern part of the
Abeokuta and southern part of the Oyo province. The balsam-copaiba-tree
is also very common in this zone in the North Benin, Onitsha and Ogoja
provinces.
The forests of this zone are perhaps the least valuable from the
financial point of view, chiefly owing to their geographical position
and defective means of transport, but economically they are of great
value to the agricultural community, both for their forest produce as
well as their soil-preserving and rainfall-conserving properties. The
chief timber areas are situated in the heavy rain forest and mixed
deciduous forest areas, though a few have recently been taken up in the
mangrove swamps.
As a minor, though important, development to the main forests are the
evergreen hill forests, which find wide development in the northern part
of the Jebu-ode, Ondo, Benin, Ogoja and Calabar provinces. On the whole,
the species do not vary so much as might be expected, and in many cases
it simply means a further distribution of certain evergreen trees beyond
their zone of natural development, owing to suitable climatic conditions
in these hills. For instance, the red ironwood appears next the mangrove
swamp on the bank of the St. Barbara River, again in the evergreen
forests near Calabar, and reappears in the hill forests of Oban, much
further north. Probably the most typical trees of the hill forests are
an unidentified species of gum-copal, as well as several species of
Guttiferæ.
The fringing forests are found chiefly on the banks of the rivers in an
area which is otherwise covered with the open deciduous or dry-zone
formation. Two leguminous trees are most typical of this zone. Stray
deciduous or evergreen trees from the other zones are also seen. Such
forest is thick with a fair amount of undergrowth, and the trees form a
close canopy. The fringes vary from a few yards to half a mile in width.
A further subsidiary form is found on the summits of the highest
mountains, such as the Boji Hills, with their stunted satinwood trees,
shrubs and grass. In some places there is yet another minor formation,
that of the freshwater swamps. Some typical examples of these are found
on the banks of the Calabar, Osse and Owenna Rivers. In most cases only
one, or any how only a few species of trees are found, whereas in the
major formations several hundred different species appear. The growth in
these swamp formations, both mangrove and freshwater, is on the whole
not so large as that of the evergreen forest. Again, the evergreen
forest does not show such fine development or such height of tree as the
mixed deciduous forests, though occasionally the greatest girth of bole
is found in the evergreen forests.
II. THE MAHOGANY AND TIMBER INDUSTRIES.
According to Nigerian law, timber includes planks sawn for logs and
trees hollowed out or shaped for any purpose whatever. The timber-
working industry, then, is a wide one, covering really three distinct
fields of activity, though one or more may be combined. First, there is
the felling of mahogany chiefly, and other furniture-wood trees for
export. In the second place, the native, and to a slight extent the
European firms, cut timber for local use, mainly in the forest, such as
planks, canoes and posts. Thirdly, there is the Government, which under
the auspices of the Forestry Department chiefly, and to some extent
under the Public Works Department, cuts timber of various kinds, chiefly
Iroko, for railway buildings and road bridges.
Turning now first of all to the export industry, which is most important
at the present time, though the local demand for timber will soon dwarf
that of the former, there is a definite sequence of action necessary in
embarking on this form of economic development.
As soon as a firm decides on timber-getting, an application (made out in
triplicate) has to be sent in with good maps or plans of the area, which
is applied for, to the Conservator of Forests of that circle. It is
understood that the area in question has been thoroughly examined by the
firm before the application is made. A fee of £3 in stamps as well as a
banker’s guarantee of £400 for each area of 100 square miles is also
necessary before the application can be considered. The species of tree
to be cut should also be stated, as well as the names of the villages
and chiefs occupying or living in or adjacent to the area. Owing to the
time taken in making the fullest inquiries into the occupancy and other
rights, as well as ascertaining the financial standing of the firm in
question, it is usually several months before the applicant hears that
the area has been granted.
Before this the applicant should also forward a confidential statement,
stating exactly what capital there is available to develop the timber
areas. An additional banker’s reference to the Crown Agents will save
unnecessary delay in the granting of the area.
Before the notification of the grant of the area, the licence is made
out in the Conservator’s office, for which a £5 stamp as well as three
good maps are necessary. Roughly, an additional £2 10s. is required to
satisfy the legal fees upon registration, which follows immediately
after the execution of the licence by the licensee of the grantees. It
should be especially noted that anyone acting on behalf of a firm should
be in the possession of a registered power of attorney, enabling him to
act in the fullest possible way for the applicant or company acquiring
land rights. This power of attorney should be registered beforehand,
otherwise another delay will ensue whilst this is being done.
As soon as the area is granted, the applicant should mark all boundaries
with the necessary marks, which also appear in the licence. Within six
months after the granting of the area, work has to be begun. The first
proceeding is to send in a list of trees, numbered serially from one
upwards, stating the species, size (girth at 10 feet above ground),
where situated, name of nearest village and chief occupying land in the
vicinity, together with the amount of fees and royalties payable on the
trees. The trees have been marked and numbered previous to the duplicate
lists being sent in. It is usual to pay a cheque or bill for the fees
and cash for the royalties, then one of the two lists sent in is
returned to the sender marked “Permission granted.” Felling can now
begin. On the whole, the general practice is to cut the trees down in
the earlier months of the year and have nearly all completed by March or
April. Logging, with a cross-cut saw or axe, and squaring with an axe
and adze, follows as soon as the trees are felled, and, as it takes
longer, continues afterwards right into May or June. Hauling begins as
soon as sufficient logs are ready to be drawn and the hauling roads have
been cleared. Usually different gangs haul to those employed on the
tree-felling and squaring. Eighty or a hundred boys are lined up and
haul on two ropes attached to the end of the log. The log, having been
shaped at the end to allow easy hauling over the rollers or ground, is
“snaked” along to the nearest waterside, river bank or creek. Here two
timber-dogs are driven in the end for attaching the cane or rope to hold
several together. In the smaller streams or creeks, single logs, or two
joined together, float down to another station, where a bigger raft of
40 to 100 logs is made up. In a good many rivers the rise of the water
takes place in July, and it is then that the largest number of logs
float out. Another lesser rise for the most part, except in the largest,
such as the Cross or Niger Rivers, occurs in October, when all logs
possible are got out for that season.
Logs left by this last flood usually have to stay until the following
year, when the river will rise again. Sometimes as many as three seasons
elapse before it is possible to get out some logs. The higher reaches of
the Owenna have an unenviable reputation in this respect. Several short
rainy seasons following each other successively cause the same result.
The Ijors are the chief “waterboys,” who contract to take logs down the
creeks at 5s., 10s. or 15s. a log, according to distance and nature of
the creek. The Ossiomo has also a bad name, owing to its swift current
and the liability of losing the logs.
Most labour is engaged direct, though handed over to a contractor who is
paid 1½d. to 1¾d. per foot of timber squared or logged brought to the
nearest waterside. The labour, however, is paid by the European firm,
which is entirely responsible for the payment.
The shipment of the logs is made at Koko, Warri or Forcados from Lagos
and at Lagos itself, the first-named port taking the majority. Many
firms have a branch store and office at this port, or another firm ships
logs for others not represented at a fixed charge per log. Export
entries showing numbers of logs, size and value are presented to the
Customs Department before shipment. Koko, which used to be quite free
from the Teredo borer, is now unsafe for logs after a fortnight’s
floating in the water there.
The shipping companies do not particularly desire logs as freight, owing
to their weight and unwieldiness in handling. Space is left between them
to some extent in the hold. The hatches have to be especially long to
take the biggest logs. From Lagos, Forcados, Calabar, etc., a freight
rate varying from 35s., 40s., to 45s.[2] per ton for 2¾, 3 and over
5-ton logs. Koko, on the other hand, is only 25s., with 10s. extra for
primage. This is the same with the other freight rates.
During the voyage the logs gradually dry, and often by the time they are
put into the timber yard of the brokers they are split or cracked. Only
the best logs, 30 feet long and quite sound at the start, stand all the
rough handling they get. Auction sales take place about once a fortnight
in the busy season, though sales by private treaty take place
occasionally. Logs can sometimes be sold ex quay too, though by far the
most of the wood is sold by public auction. The inclusive charge of
landing, stacking and selling at the dock is roughly 10 per cent. of the
value of the log. In fact, it is quite a considerable item of expense,
and often makes the difference between profit and loss on the smaller
and lower-grade logs. All logs are sold by the superficial foot, i.e.
one foot square, one inch thick “sale measure.” Sale measure obtains
only in the mahogany trade for square logs, and is roughly 20 per cent.
less than the actual cubical contents of the log. Round logs are
measured and sold by extreme (full) measure. A wane of six inches or
less is left on the squared logs, because it makes them less liable to
crack and split at the corners, and also it saves a good deal of timber
which would otherwise be wasted.
Liverpool is the best mahogany market, though fair prices are obtainable
for good logs in London. Hamburg used to be the market for Gaboon wood,
and on the whole new woods were better received than in the English
market. As a rule, figured mahogany always commands a good price,
whereas plain wood, with the exception of roey or counter-top timber,
only fetches a moderate or low price, unless the market is understocked
at the time. The best wood is obtained from the Ivory Coast, and the
next best is Benin or Lagos wood. Sapeli wood is very heavy, and found a
market chiefly in Germany. Cross River wood has yet to be shipped and
proved, though samples there looked very good and even showed some
figure. So far, only the leased areas have been spoken of. Now we return
to the Reserves, where, however, permits to cut trees can only be
obtained. Here leases are usually not granted. The rules with regard to
replanting do not apply in the same way, as all planting is in the hands
of the Department. On the whole, stricter supervision may be exercised
in the Reserves than on leased areas. Although a firm has no lease, the
security of tenure for cutting the trees would be at least as good as
under a lease. No other firm would be in the same position to fell and
extract timber as the first one to whom permission was granted. The
Government would not allow any other amounts of trees to be felled that
would injure the working of the forest by the first applicant.
Local felling is conducted by one or two firms in their areas, which
were in the first instance obtained for export timber. For the most
part, however, the natives or native foreigners fell various kinds of
trees such as Iroko, _Chlorophora excelsa_, Owussu, _Sarcocephalus
esculentus_, Ume, _Pterocarpus soyauxii_ and _Pterocarpus Osun_, Edat,
_Saccoglottis Gabunensis_. Nearly half the permits issued are for Iroko,
the main building timber of the Yoruba and Benin and Ibo countries. The
Camwoods or Barwoods are felled next to obtain the brilliant red
heartwood, chiefly from the roots, but also from the stem. A dyewood
which produces a fast colour is obtained by rubbing a small pointed
section on a flattish piece of the same wood. A yellow dyewood is
obtained from Anyeran _Afrormosia laxiflora_.
The canoe-making industry absorbs a large number of trees. The native,
chiefly Ijor, chooses the tree with great care as to straightness of
stem and length of bole. It is felled near a river bank or otherwise
reasonably accessible place. First of all two sides are flattened
parallel to each other; at the same time the length of the canoe is
chosen and the tree bole cut off at the required length. A narrow groove
about half the depth of the diameter of the log is now made with small
axes and an adzelike instrument. The log is then shaped externally like
a canoe, especially both bow and stern. Next, more wood is cut away on
the inside and some pieces of wood stuck across to keep the canoe open.
A shelter is put over it during a hot day. As soon as the requisite
amount has been cut out, dry palm branches are placed all round the
canoe outside on the ground; longer cross pieces are fixed over the
canoe of the required length for thwarts when the canoe is finished.
Long stakes are driven into the ground opposite each of these on each
side of the canoe, so that the natives can obtain a strong leverage over
the canoe. Fire is now put to the palms, beginning with the bow of the
canoe. The heat makes the wood expand and thus opens the canoe; at the
same time the natives pull down the stakes at the side of the canoe and
press the cross pieces into their places. This extends gradually the
whole length of the canoe in the course of the day, which is the most
strenuous of all, as upon the energy and care exercised on this day in
making the canoe open out evenly in its entire length and the same
amount each side depends its future success in the water. It may turn
out lopsided, or, as is often the case, a hole may appear in the middle
of the stern end, owing to the centre of the tree having been rather old
and rotten. This can be covered over, and is often above the waterline.
Canoes vary in size from the Oguta canoe, in which the paddler has to
keep one foot in the water to balance the canoe, to the twelve-puncheon
canoe of the big traders. This last will have a great hollow dug out
fully 6 feet deep at the stern end and over 60 feet long.
The sawyers cut the tree all round, fell it, and then cut it into
12-feet length logs, as far as the bole allows. The huge branches are
left untouched. A large pit is dug quite close to the logs, and one by
one they are placed over and sawn, first two sides and then into three
large planks; finally these are cut into 12-inch planks one inch thick.
Most of the work is done within four miles of the railway line or within
twenty miles of a large town, such as Jebu-ode, Ife, Ibadan, Abeokuta.
Truck loads of this timber may be seen at Ilugun or Ogunshileh, on the
Nigerian Railway.
Permits are also issued for the making of smaller articles, such as
verandah posts, culled out of a guttiferous tree; sleepers, sawn from
Iroko (_Chlorophora excelsa_); sword-sheaths, made from Ogohen (_Musanga
Smithii_); mortars, cut from Apa (_Afzelia Africana_); pestles,
fashioned out of Eba (_Lophira procera_).
The dyewood industry in itself is chiefly developed on the banks of the
Cross River. The trees are felled in the Oban forests, allowed to lie a
year or two, then cut up into long 3- to 4-inch irregular-shaped
scantling or poles. These are sold chiefly in the Oban market, after
which they are cut into small sections. Women take these up and make
lozenge-shaped bricks about a foot long in the greatest length. These
are sold at 6d. each.
Under Government auspices, one of the first enterprises was the sawmill
at Etehetem. A very hard redwood, termed Apassa by the Efiks (_Mimusops
lacera_), and also mahogany (_Ochrocarpus Africanus_) were cut. Owing to
the difficulty of expansion and the increasing cost of the logs, the
plant is to be moved elsewhere. The railway had a small plant at Han,
where timber and sleepers were cut for the Baro Kano line. At
Ebuttemetta the railway also have a small mill for cutting chiefly
Iroko, Apa, and a little redwood.
Of the various firms, Messrs. McIver had a small mill in Lagos, chiefly
for sawing up mahogany logs not worth shipping to England. Later, in
1909, Messrs. Miller Brothers built a mill at Koko town; Agba
(_Copaifera sp.?_) as well as mahogany logs have been cut; Ebbe and
Obiache, and Obechi (_Triplochiton Nigericum_), the last-named being a
good whitewood.
The Anglo-French Company have started a plant near Oron Eastern Circle
to cut sleepers out of mangrove wood, Lagenaria and Rhizophora.
Lastly, the Government have started a new mill at Apapa, near Lagos, for
cutting logs obtained near Akilla, on the Oni River, in the Abeokuta
province, and the planing, grooving and recutting is done in connection
with the Public Works yards and furniture-making establishment in Lagos.
The Akilla work is run entirely by the Forestry Department. Trees are
felled, cut into logs and brought to the waterside; then, rafted with
others, floated in kerosine tins on lighter wood to Apapa. A regular
rate is charged per cubic foot. Work was started in August 1914, and
already several thousand logs have been delivered at Apapa.
III. THE PERMANENT FORESTS OR FOREST RESERVES.
In the main, all Forest Reserves become the permanent forests of a
country. So far as Nigeria, for instance, is concerned, certain definite
and well-defined portions of the original forests have been set aside,
by agreement with the natives, as Forest Reserves. If these areas had
not been set aside, they would have been liable to destruction under the
form of shifting cultivation which the local people practise. For
instance, at Olokemeji there are several thousand acres in the middle of
the Reserve which were cleared some years ago and have not yet grown up.
This would have been the fate of the rest of the forest if it had not
definitely been placed under the care and protection of the Forest
Department. The same applies to other areas scattered over the country.
It is somewhat hard to define the meaning of a Reserve. Essentially it
is an area permanently set aside for the production of timber or other
forest produce. In many cases, however, the trees or the forests have to
be preserved in the interests of the climatic conditions of the
locality. If it is found that by cutting down a forest the rainfall
decreases every year, the springs dry up, and the land becomes covered
with grass, where actual grass fires kill all young vegetation and even
hinder farming operations, then the forest must be reserved. To take
some examples: In the colony of Sierra Leone there is a Peninsular
Mountain Forest, a large and valuable Reserve, 80 per cent. of which is
covered with red ironwood, _Lophira procera_. Then in the Protectorate
there are the Kambui Hills, Kennema, then Nimmini, and the Loma Mountain
Reserve. In the colony and Protectorate of the Gold Coast there is the
Dunkwah Reserve. Some of the most improved reserves in the southern
province of Nigeria are in the Western Circle. There are Olokemeji,
Mamu, Ilaro, Oshun, Owenna and Ondo Reserves. Again, in the Central
Circle there are the Okumu, Obagie, Gilli-gilli, the Uhi, and the Ogba
Forests.
In the Eastern Circle there are the Oban, Ikrigon and Ajasso Reserves,
in all aggregating about 2,000 square miles.
Contrary to the usual idea, we have seen that a Forest Reserve is in
reality only a permanent forest, which is primarily maintained for the
definite production of some forest or other product. It cannot be too
much emphasized that it is definitely set aside to be used wisely; and
for all the trees taken, suitable replanting operations are undertaken
by the Forest Department. The name “Reserve” is in fact rather a
misnomer. In the early stages of a forest administration it is
convenient to talk about Forest Reserves as distinct from the rest of
the country, which is usually covered with forest and termed
“unreserved” forest. It may, later on, become agricultural land; it may
also be reserved, in which case it becomes a Forest Reserve or one of
the permanent forests of the country. The main point to be observed with
a Reserve is that it is primarily for use, and not that the timber is to
be reserved and not to be utilized by the general public. Even in those
cases where the local demands of the people are great and have to be
satisfied first, before any outside timber exporter is allowed to work
the forest, it is utilized to the greatest extent compatible with its
maintaining a yearly permanent output of timber or other forest product.
Permanency of output is the watchword, and strict utilization of the
increment-bearing capacity of the forest each year. The increment is of
course the amount which each tree grows each year. This amount, added
together over the whole area, makes up the quantity which may be felled,
on the proportional area during the rotation, in any one year. Thus, to
give a concrete example: If an area is 100 square miles in extent, and
the rotation is 100 years, then one-hundredth of that area, or one
square mile, may be cut over in one year; also, if the sum of the growth
amounts to 40 cubic feet per acre per year, this means to say that an
annual cut of 25,600 cubic feet can be made each year over one square
mile of the area, in the case of a clear felling of all the trees, or
spread over an area of 10 square miles in the form of a slight thinning
of the trees. In the Temperate Zone, on moderate soil, 40 cubic feet of
timber per annum is a good yield, so that in the Tropics we may expect a
yield of quite double this amount; therefore it will be seen how readily
the forest can grow and how much timber can be obtained permanently from
the Permanent Forests or Reserves.
Another great advantage of the Permanent Forest or Forest Reserve,
compared with the ordinary leased areas, is the fact that the planting
is done by the Forest Department and not by the leaseholder. In an
ordinary leased area this planting is a considerable source of
expenditure and worry to the leaseholder, and even then satisfactory
results are hard to be obtained. He is continually being reminded of his
planting duties by the Forest Department, and he is continually striving
to keep up the proportionate amount of planting, i.e. 24 trees for every
tree felled, and this is by no means easy to attain. Although the annual
leaseholder working in a Forest Reserve may be under greater supervision
and more stringent forest regulations than in the ordinary leased areas,
on the whole his prospects of getting out greater quantities of timber
more expeditiously and cheaply are much greater than in the ordinary
areas.
Particularizing some of the great concrete objects for which reserve is
made:
Firstly, the permanent supplies of timber of all kinds, with a view to
turning out approximately the same quantity year after year in
perpetuity—in fact, if anything, gradually increasing the output year
after year. This means to say that, although the forest is cut down, it
is replaced at the same rate at which it is cut down. Putting it in
another way, there must be as many blocks, or portions or actual
“stands” in the forest as represent the number of years which elapse
between the time a tree is planted and the time it is cut down. This
period is known to foresters as “the rotation,” and in northern
temperate countries, for Coniferous trees the time is usually reckoned
at about 80 years. In the tropics, with mahogany, Iroko and other
timbers, it may be only necessary to allow 60 years, or perhaps on very
poor ground 100 years. In the case of teak in Burma, a rotation between
80 and 100 years is perhaps about sufficient to enable merchantable
timber to be produced. Putting it in another way, in the forest, in
order to have the permanent yield, there must be sufficient trees of
each girth class, so that when the largest, say those over 12 feet in
girth, are cut down, there must be sufficient of those between 10 and 12
feet, which will grow during a 10-year period (in which they are cut)
from 10 feet to 12 feet in girth. At the present time it has been found
convenient to classify each class as “under 2 feet, 2 to 4 feet, 4 to 6
feet, 6 to 8 feet, 8 to 10 feet, 10 to 12 feet, and over 12 feet.” The
object of this is to clear away, or have cut, all those trees over 12
feet in girth. This makes room for younger, quicker-growing timber.
Although, under the Nigerian Forest Law, the girth of mahogany has been
reduced to 11 feet, and in some districts to 10 feet, eventually, as the
older and more unremunerative slower-growing trees are cut down, it will
be possible to reduce the girth still further. To put this question of
the permanent yield in yet another way: All the trees from one year old,
or from the smallest size to those over 12 feet in girth, represent what
we may call the forest capital. Now, the object of the rotation is only
to take the interest on this capital; that is to say, the amount which
grows on all the trees over the whole area for one year. It would,
however, not do to clip off little pieces from each tree over the whole
area, as they would be quite useless as timber. Therefore this amount is
calculated out as so many cubic feet per annum, or so many trees above a
girth of 12 feet or 11 feet, or whatever the girth limit may be, and
this amount, either in cubic feet or in the number of trees, is allowed
to be cut down each year. Then we know that year after year this amount
can be cut down again, and as the soil and other conditions improve and
the rate of reproduction is hastened by proper cultural methods in
improving the soil, by draining and other methods of amelioration, still
larger results may be obtained.
[Illustration: FIG. 29.—=The Chief Conservator of Forests’ House, with
five-year-old Albizzia Lebbek standing beside it.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 30.—=Three Capsules of Mahogany (Khaya grandis
Ivoriensis and Punchii), from banks of Owena River.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 31.—=Capsules of three Species of Entandrophragma:
E. Macrophyllum, the largest; E. utilis, the next in size; and E.
cylindricum, the smallest.=]
To face p. 162.
Secondly, the object of these Reserves is to produce firewood, more
especially in the neighbourhood of large towns; in fact, already in
several cases, firewood plantations or Reserves have been made, such as
those at Ibadan and on the sandy flats near Lagos. In these cases, trees
five, seven or ten years old are large enough for that purpose, more
especially of the following species, _Cassia Siamia_, or _Albizzia
Brownii_.
Thirdly, to provide grazing land, more especially in the more northern
part of Nigeria, where the object is to divide up the area, so that so
many cattle may graze on each area in different years, or for different
periods of the year, so as to give the pasture and small trees which may
be growing a chance to revive and grow again. By this means the pasture
is improved and made of permanent value. It is also possible under this
system to undertake permanent improvements in these large pastures by a
certain amount of drainage in the lower parts, and fire protection in
the upper and higher parts. In this way the cattle obtain a better
pasturage and reach maturity all the quicker. In times of bad season,
too, some of the closed areas may be opened for pasturage, thus ensuring
that the head of cattle may not be allowed to go down owing to death due
to drought or lack of pasture. In this way the grazing reserve acts as a
kind of insurance against loss of stock in bad seasons of no rainfall.
Fourthly, the production of oil seeds and nuts, such as the Oil Bean,
_Pentaclethra macrophylla_, or the African Wood Oil-nut, _Ricinodendron
Africanus_. It may also be the production of Cola nuts, which thrive in
the forests in the shade, or in the partial shade, of other forest
trees, and the Cacao Bean, which also, in certain localities, should
stand in the partial shade of forest trees, more especially in the dry
season.
Fifthly, the production of fibres, such as that from the tree known as
Eso, _Firmiana Barteri_, the bark of which is used for making rope. Then
there are the various creepers, such as Kakoba, _Entada scandens_, which
is also used for making rope by the Hausa and Yoruba, more especially
fly-switches by the Benin natives. Then there are the canes, such as
Egbe, used for roofing amongst the Yorubas and Okakan, _Eremospatha sp._
(large Benin rattan), and Ikan, _Eremospatha macrocarpa_ (small Benin
rattan), also used for making rope, and a kind of string which both the
Benin and Jekii natives use for tying lath pieces together in house-
building and in making coverings for their canoes.
Sixthly, the production of domestic articles, such as sponges, _Luffa
Soudanica_, or wrapping-leaves for food, termed Ewayon by the Yorubas,
or thatching laths, Ebe by the Benin natives, and the roofing canes
termed Itebe by the Yorubas.
Seventhly, the production of medicinal plants, such as those for native
Ju-ju; and some, such as _Cassia occidentalis_, _Cassia fistula_, also
useful to Europeans.
The main difference between the beautiful, untouched existing forests
and a Forest Reserve is chiefly in the matter of management. In the
unreserved forests a lease may be granted for five or seven years, and
the leaseholder may fell a great number of trees, such as mahogany,
Iroko, etc. At the same time there is nothing to hinder the natives or
original occupier or user of the land from clearing the greater part of
the forest, except the protected trees, and making farms throughout the
area; thus, in fact, gradually hindering, or at least reducing, the
possible output of timber from that area. No new seedlings come up in
these areas which are farmed, and, in fact, the fires which are made in
the course of clearing the land for farming operations kill the young
growth of all kinds. In reality, in a Forest Reserve there is more
permanency with regard to the output of timber than in the original
forest; there is, in fact, absolute permanency. Although no actual lease
may be granted for a period of several years in a Forest Reserve, yet,
as a matter of fact and usual experience, after a year’s working it
would be quite unlikely for a Forest Department to stop the timber
merchant from working the forest again, or rather from allowing him much
the same number of trees as he had in the former year, because not only
would the revenue from the forest suffer, but timber experience would
have to be gained with another firm, which means a loss of time as well
as revenue. Thus, in the ordinary way it is more satisfactory to have
the same firm working in that locality year after year, provided they
pay an adequate price for all the timber trees which they have. They can
then invest the proper amount of capital in plant and hauling
appliances, and thus make a greater profit and exploit the forest to
better advantage than if a fresh firm came in year after year.
To give a more concrete idea of what these areas mean, we will take it
that on the average there are only 50 trees per acre which are of some
value or another, either for timber for local use or for export, and
taking the average rate of fee at only 4s. per tree (it should be noted
that mahogany and so on are rated at £2 16s. per tree), it will be seen
that the value of these forests is in all £12,800,000. This sounds a
great deal, but when it is considered what a very large number of trees
can now be utilized, either locally, in the form of planks and
scantlings, and joists for posts, not to speak of all the various kinds
of mahogany, Iroko, walnut, ebony and other substitutes which can be
used for export, it will be seen that this value is none too great; in
fact, to the timber leaseholder they would be worth at least ten times
as much. Of course, in this calculation all sizes of trees above a girth
of 4 feet are considered, for the sake of making the valuation as
complete as possible. Naturally, the smaller girth trees would not
immediately be utilized, but when we are totalling up the amount of
forest or wood capital involved in the valuation, it is necessary to
include them and put a value on them. If the necessity arose, even they
could also be utilized and would at least bring in the amount of the
lowest valuation per tree.
The Forest Reserves stand also in a special position to the local
people, for, after all, these Reserves formed originally part of the
forest from which were supplied all the major wants of the native, such
as timber, firewood, oil nuts and seeds, fibres, domestic articles and
medicinal plants; therefore, whatever the main lines of protection of a
good forest, the needs of the people of that locality must have the
first consideration. After these wants have been fully supplied, then
any surplus in the way of timber or other commercial products can be
sold or exported elsewhere. This leads us to consider the fact that a
Permanent Forest or Forest Reserve leads to a permanent source of
revenue from that particular forest. Owing to the fact that there is the
permanent yield of timber established in that area, it means that
permanent money is being obtained from those trees and being brought
into the Treasury as part of the permanent revenue of the country. If
there is any increase, owing to the increased value of the timber trees
thus gained—and the more stability there is, the better for the
country—better arrangements can be made with regard to the reproduction
of the forests. If there is a greater revenue being obtained from the
forests, even more money can be justly expended by the Forest Department
for the buying of better implements for planting and the Forest Station
generally, for the making of permanent improvements in the forests, such
as draining, road-making and fire protection. If these forests are not
protected and unreserved, then in the course of time they must
completely disappear, owing to the fact that man is so constituted that
if he sees land, which may or may not be suitable for agriculture,
covered with trees, he naturally thinks it would be better to cut these
down and see what agricultural crop will grow there, regardless of the
fact that there may already exist, or he may have cleared, fifteen times
as much land as he requires for farming operations each year.
In addition to all the above, there are the indirect effects of forests,
which have been considered in the section dealing with the relation
between Agriculture and Forestry. On the whole, it is better for the
Central Government or Federal Government to manage the Forest Reserves,
as by that means there is greater impartiality in their management and
more stability and continuity in the Forest policy adopted towards them.
In each case, however, it is essential to have either co-opted or
elected representatives of the locality, either by the chiefs or by
representatives of the people, so that the wishes and needs of the
locality may be thoroughly considered.
Lastly, and by no means the least important feature of the Forest
Reserve, is the æsthetic view. In the regions of Permanent Forests,
healthier localities are afforded for the people, and they are also
prettier and more pleasant. This applies not only to temperate-zone
forests, but also to tropical forests. It is a well-known fact also that
where there are permanent forests the value of the other land in that
locality is always rated higher, and is worth more for leasing if
adequately covered with a sufficient proportion of forest.
IV. AFFORESTATION IN NIGERIA.
The Forest Department, not being content with obtaining a revenue out of
the forests from the trees cut down for export or for local use, have
spent and are spending several thousands of pounds each year in planting
valuable forest trees. Going back historically before the time when the
Forest Department had a sub-head in the estimates for “Labour for
Plantations” or “Teak Plantations” or “Upkeep and Improvement of Forest
Reserves,” we had the annual planting of many tens of thousands of
mahogany-trees by the timber leaseholder. The whole of this was chiefly
done in the Benin district of the Benin province. Although this
transplanting of self-sown mahogany-trees into better situations near
timber camps, or at the side of falling roads and into the spaces left
by the fallen mahogany-trees, was by no means carried out very
systematically or under very expert planters, the results are all the
more creditable to those who so early started to reproduce the forests.
It is most interesting to see in different parts on the banks of the
Osse River young thrifty plantations now nearly twenty years old and
nearly 30 feet high. In a similar way in the forest there are to be seen
large numbers of somewhat smaller sized mahoganies growing singly or in
groups, only needing a certain amount of clearing and tending to prevent
their being overgrown by other forest trees. Scattered though they are
throughout the forest, it is not too much to say that the prospective
younger aged forest will be more valuable than that which originally
stood in its place.
Easier to find, though in some way less attractive to look at, are the
regularly made mahogany plantations of the Forest Department. In
addition to isolated specimen trees which are found in the forest
Arboretums at Calabar, Degema, Benin City and Olokemeji, several
thriving plantations are found near Benin City in the Ogba and Obagie
Reserves, in the Ilaro, Mamu and Olokemeji Reserves. In the last-named
are the most extensive areas of all, and also, despite many failures
owing to experiments on bad soil and seasons of extreme drought, the
growth of the trees gives the greatest promise of mature trees, or at
any rate merchantable trees, being grown in a comparatively short
period. Plantations have also been made at Awka, Udi, Okwoga and Ida.
Already on the old town site of Ijaiye, mahoganies have been seen over 6
feet in girth which have grown up from self-sown seedlings within a
period of about sixty years. The soil in this locality is none too good,
and the rainfall on the average certainly does not exceed 50 inches per
annum. Near 47 Benin villages small communal plantations of mahogany
have been made.
All the mahoganies apparently, especially when grown in “pure”
plantations, are attacked by a leading-shoot borer, which so weakens the
leading shoot as to make it fall off, and the tree subsequently grows
with two leaders. Later on this forms a large fork in the tree, which,
when the time comes for felling, is by no means to be despised, forming
as it does usually a very good “curl.” In other respects it is
disadvantageous in reducing the length of the single straight bole. In
this manner it has the effect of reducing the number of logs of long
length and even shape and large size that can be obtained in one tree.
In many cases, a log can be cut above from each limb forming the fork;
but of course these are both much smaller than those from the bole, and
are usually not nearly so straight, and one or other of the limbs is
liable to be broken when the tree is felled. In the original forest only
isolated trees are attacked by this leading-shoot borer, whereas in a
plantation nearly all the trees suffer by its depredations.
Various species are being tried for admixture with the mahogany in order
to hinder the spread of the attacks. At Olokemeji there is a mahogany
plantation largely interplanted with two species of _Mimusops
multinervis_ and _Mimusops Elengi_. So far this appears most suitable,
as the soil is kept thoroughly covered by the dense shade cast by the
Mimusops, and there is a very considerable space between each mahogany-
tree. However, the mahogany grows faster than the Mimusops, so that
after the first few years it does not have so much effect. Even so, it
tends to keep the bole of the mahogany clean and the state of the soil
in mechanical and physical condition such as to be most conducive to the
growth of mahogany.
A mixture occasionally seen in nature has yet to be copied—that of
mahogany and Chewstick (_Anogeissus leiocarpus_). To some extent it is
seen at Olokemeji, where the self-sown seedlings have come up in a
mahogany plantation, but of course they were rather too late to effect
the result, i.e. protecting the mahogany from the leading-shoot borer.
At Ilaro a most typical Mahogany Reserve, an isolated plantation made
amongst secondary growth, has more than held its own with little or no
tending after the first two years, and yet the trees overtop all the
surrounding growth. In some cases, both at Olokemeji and Mamu, either
self-sown or planted Iroko (_Chlorophora excelsa_) is found growing
amongst the mahogany. Owing to the attacks of the coccus on the Iroko
hindering its height growth, it has not had as beneficial an effect as
might have been expected. Transplanting self-sown trees from an
overshaded locality in the forest, where they usually first appear in a
more open locality, has proved on the whole most successful. Again,
transplanting self-sown seedlings scarcely one year old from an
overshaded locality into one with more light has accelerated the growth
of the seedlings, preventing them being killed by the excessive shade,
and at much less cost has thus established a small plantation in the
Benin forests.
With the collection and planting of the seeds from the teak-trees
originally planted about 1889 in the Ebuttemetta garden, a new area
opened in the afforestation of Nigeria. Seedlings developed rapidly, and
were found to grow at least 10 if not 18 feet in the first year.
Although not always keeping up this promise of exceedingly rapid growth,
more especially in height, the teak bids fair to become, as in Burma so
in Nigeria, the most valuable of all trees. On the whole it has been by
far the most extensively planted tree of any in Nigeria, excepting that
in the case of mahogany many more have been planted in the Central
Circle. Teak plantations are now found as widely apart as on the banks
of the Cross River near Ikom, Inkum, Ndeh and Ikrigon amongst the
historic stones, and in the Arboretum at Calabar. Near Ndeh, for over a
quarter of a mile the river bank is quite enlivened by the large and
showy leaves as well as the tall, thin stem of the teak. To a lesser
extent, though appearing more picturesque, is the riverside plantation
on the opposite bank just below Abragba. In a district with a rainfall
of about 60 inches and a deep sand alluvial soil, the teak so far has
proved quite at home in the Cross River districts of the Eastern Circle.
Even amongst the thickly growing grass at Ikrigon they have survived
after coming up from seeds sown at stake, and bid fair to become an
established tree of that locality.
Teak has also found a place in the plantation near Mpot and the Oban
Reserve. Going over now to the Central Circle, we have Oria, situated
near the right bank of the Niger in the Benin province, with its rapidly
growing teak plantations. Again choosing a local climate similar to that
where teak is found has so far proved it to be a most suitable tree for
this locality. Many other trees do not thrive or attain much size near
here, so that the teak is all the more valuable for that reason. Near
Benin itself, with its heavier rainfall and comparatively approximate to
the sea (about 45 miles), it is doubtful if teak will do so well. Even
so, growing more slowly, it would prove an additional most valuable tree
to those already found growing in the district from which timber has
already been obtained.
Again, in the Western Circle the very largest teak plantations are
found: even from the railway carriage window you get an impression of
the extent of these just before reaching the Eruwa Road station, and
again just after leaving Olokemeji station, between 85 and 90 miles from
Lagos respectively. Despite one or two fires, trees at Eruwa Road show
quite average growth for the Southern Provinces of Nigeria. In seven
years the trees had reached a girth of over 12 inches and a height of
over 25 feet. Happily, they were not fruiting so profusely as at
Olokemeji. This plantation is all the more interesting in that it was
made primarily for the use of the Railway Administration to supply teak
timber for sleepers and constructional work.
On closer inspection it will be seen that the Olokemeji plantations
nearest the railway comprise six “falls,” “stands,” or “compartments” of
25 acres each, adjoining each other. Although the trees everywhere have
not grown as well as on the better soil, these are far and away the
largest plantations of any in Nigeria. Each “stand” is separated from
the next by a broad ride and top and bottom by a broad road. Near by
these are another two compartments of 25 acres each, though neither of
these is entirely filled with teak, as also the first one in the other
series. Nearer the bungalows there are the first made plantations of
1908, thriving, yet growing on the poor laterite soil. These stretch
away nearly half a mile into the open deciduous forests at the back.
What a strange contrast is presented in the dense, close growth of the
teak plantation, with its soil covering of decaying and large brown
leaves of the teak, compared to the stunted growth of Red Ironwood,
small Bauhinia, some Paradaniellas and a few gnarled oak-like Shea
Butter Trees! Such teak plantations open up a long vista of future
developments in the conversion of the poor dry-zone vegetation into
forests of valuable trees, both with and without extensive permanent
improvements of the soil and subsoil. Even the large raceme-like
clusters of the flowers, almost covering the whole of the teak trees in
April and May, are not to be despised for improving the looks of a
grassy lawn near a bungalow. A glimpse through the tall Terminalias on
both sides of the Ogun, just before the curve is reached at Olokemeji
village, reveals yet another teak plantation on the lower slopes of the
easternmost of the two hills. Olokemeji means the “man of, or owner of,
two hills” (_oke_ means a hill, and _meji_ means two, in Yoruba). Again,
still further along in the valley of the stream, near the station, are
some other older teak plantations from the years 1910, 1911. Here there
is yet a different contrast. The broad, wide masses of the teak
plantation are still on one side rather overshadowed towards the
hillside by the giants of the mixed deciduous forests, such as the
cotton-tree (_Eriodendron Orientale_) and _Sterculia cordifolia_ and
ebony (_Diospyros mespiliformis_). However, later on the teak, growing
on better soil than is found in many parts of the Olokemeji Reserve,
will no doubt equal it, if not surpass it.
Further to the south, in the Ilaro Reserve, teak has not proved to be so
much at home; although growing well the first year or so, the rate of
growth since then has been distinctly disappointing. The soil may have
been too damp, and the rainfall of the locality may be a little high,
and perhaps later on it may be proved that it can be grown on the higher
land at a profit.
Further eastward and further northward, in the Mamu Reserve, the teak
has grown as well, if not better than up the Cross River. Trees five
years old have reached a girth of 24 inches and a height of 35 feet;
with its good soil and comparatively high rainfall, probably rather more
than 60 inches, Mamu bids fair to be one of the homes of teak in Africa.
The older plantations on the river bank, some three miles away from
those on the side of the Ibadan-Jebu-ode Road, have done nearly as well
as those standing on inferior soil. So far the only damage done to any
of the trees anywhere is that caused by a mistletoe-like parasite termed
Afoma by the Yorubas, and known botanically as _Polystachys odorata_.
However, only isolated trees having been attacked both at Olokemeji and
Mamu, it is not difficult to combat its presence by cutting the trees
down and burning the parasite. Still further north, on the bank of the
Ogun just above the bridge on the Oyo-Iseyin Road, is yet another teak
plantation. This was mainly formed by many of the seedlings in the
nursery not being transplanted in time and being allowed to grow up
altogether unthinned. Teak, however, forms such very persistent side
branches, and has such a tendency to flower and fruit early in its
existence, that only helps it to form a clean straight bole and retards
the period of flowering by being planted close together. Also, nearly 5
per cent. of all the stems have a tendency to bend over and form
stronger side branches than a leader, and have, in fact, rather a more
shrub-like habit than that of a tree. Again, quite 1 per cent. grow very
slowly right from the beginning and thus sooner or later get suppressed.
For these reasons, then, more are required right from the beginning in
order to form a full crop of clean-boled timber.
In the Ondo Circle there are some teak at Awshun, where, owing to rather
a high rainfall and somewhat low-lying ground, the trees have not grown
so very fast after the first year.
In addition to isolated specimens over twelve years old in the Olokemeji
Arboretum region, the oldest trees of all are found in the Ebuttemetta
gardens near Lagos. These trees are nearly thirty years of age, and show
a girth of about 6 feet. By no means growing on good soil, or in a
suitable locality either with regard to elevation or the close proximity
to the lagoon and the sea, useful for the best growth of teak, they do
not at all show the possible limits of growth of this tree. Already
sample sections have been cut from one or two of these trees and
reported on most favourably by the Railway Administration. Similar
samples have been sent to the Imperial Institute for exhibition
purposes. In a short time the first thinnings of the plantations will
take place, and it will be possible to see for what purpose they are
most suitable. At any rate, it is a termite-proof wood, and despite the
fact that the white ants often attack the growing tree, they usually eat
only the outer bark, leaving the tree quite intact and alive.
In all, about 300 acres have been planted with teak, and even at the low
valuation of the cost of making them they are worth at least £45,000. In
this case a nominal value of only 3s. per cubic foot is assumed. As has
proved the case in Burma, probably on the best soils only a period of
eighty years will have to elapse before the final filling of the trees
is made on the better classes of soil, and one of a hundred on the
poorer soils. At approximately regular intervals of every ten years
after the first ten or fifteen have elapsed from the date of the making
of the plantation, thinnings are made. With each succeeding period the
trees cut out are of larger size, and thus of increasing value with each
decade. These returns soon more than cover the cost of planting, and
assume greater and greater proportion towards the end of the rotation.
Another tree with which a considerable amount of work has been done is
the Iroko (_Chlorophora excelsa_). Here, despite many disappointing
results, care and attention show that this tree is capable of
reproducing itself in a comparatively short period. Beyond many
specimens in the Arboretum at Olokemeji, a whole plantation was made by
the Railway between that place and Eruwa Road. Seedlings come up in
large numbers from fresh seed sown in a nursery. In fact, sometimes, as
at Olokemeji, they have appeared thicker than grass. Subsequently, when
transplanted, many thousands died, the roots being apparently unable to
quickly adjust themselves to new surroundings and grow again before the
leaves have transpired nearly all the moisture from the plant, and thus
quite withered and dried it up. However, those which have survived show
fair growth, even on poor laterite soil. This soil, of course, is quite
unsuited, and certainly one of the poorest mediums in which to plant
Iroko.
Natural regeneration or the sowing of seeds at stake seems to be the
best method, as we have in nearly all the Reserves large numbers of
young Iroko seedlings of all ages and sizes coming up. In that
connection one of the most instructive Forest Reserves is that of
Ikrigon, where the Iroko (_Chlorophora excelsa_) is the most prevalent
tree. Here, where most of the land has been farmed at one time or
another and where the rainfall on the whole is sufficient to induce a
good forest growth, the Iroko has tended to increase in numbers all
through this part of the country. It may also be said, of course, that
the natives have directly helped in this process, by leaving some of the
less straight and more branched Iroko-trees standing. They have used the
best for canoe-making. In this manner seed-bearing trees have been
available, and with part of the ground having been cleared for farms,
the conditions have been most suitable for the reproduction of the tree.
Subsequently the farms have been abandoned and the young trees have
grown up amongst the weeds, creepers, and other inferior tree species,
such as Albizzia, just according sufficient shade and protection for the
young Irokos, and yet not too dense or thick to prevent them from sooner
or later emerging and overgrowing the rest of the trees. Although, of
course, many trees growing up under these conditions branch somewhat low
down, they do not suffer nearly to the same extent, and sometimes not at
all, from the attacks of the leaf coccus. This has two effects: not only
does it not hinder and retard the sapling’s growth, but also all the
sooner it reaches the higher zone or greater distance from the ground
(as far as its upper foliage is concerned), so that these attacks do not
occur. Again, the competition of the various weeds, Albizzias, creepers,
etc., has the effect of so stimulating the growth of the young Iroko
that in such positions it reaches a much greater height in a quicker
time than when planted in pure plantations. From numerous observations
it appears that after the first year the height growth may exceed 6 feet
in one season. Even later this is kept up, and if the rest of the forest
growth remains comparatively thick, no side branches can be formed on
the bole of the Iroko, so that clean-stemmed trees are the result. As it
gets older the Iroko stands less shade, and thus any small branches
which do form are soon killed by the surrounding trees. Thus it is seen
how we find these very straight, long-boled Irokos in the forests.
Again, too, it is not very expensive, and at least much cheaper, to
undertake partial cleaning and pruning amongst the self-sown Iroko-
trees, especially to eliminate forks low down in the stem. Various
experiments undertaken in the Ikrigon, Olokemeji and Mamu Reserves
showed how quickly the sapling Irokos respond to this treatment. In some
cases, trees only 2 inches in diameter and forked have reached nearly 4
inches in diameter and nearly doubled in height in one year. Another
advantageous feature of the Iroko is the rapid, satisfactory, and smooth
way in which the occlusion of the wounds made by pruning takes place.
Even in the case of a very crooked tree covered with several branches,
in fact almost forming a crown, these may be marked but not all cut
until the following year. Surfaces of less than 2 inches will be nearly
occluded over, and a tendency of the tree towards a crown will be almost
obliterated at that point and be forming much higher up the tree.
Apparently, the more northward the tree is found the less liable it is
to attack by the leaf coccus. Whilst it is found in the Olokemeji, Ilaro
and Mamu Reserve, it is less frequent in the Ikrigon Reserve. In the
Sokode it was quite unknown. This last-named place is in Togo, and the
plantation is situated in a latitude of over 9° North.
In the Ilaro and to a lesser extent in the Mamu Reserve it has been
remarkable how rapidly the Iroko increases in girth when given plenty of
space after being freed from the surrounding forest trees. In these
trees, when showing a girth of from 4 to 8 feet, the diameter increment
is most rapid. In most cases it averages over 6 inches in girth, and in
one case at Ilaro it was as much as 11 inches in one year. This rapid
growth in girth is all the more valuable as the trees of this size
growing in the high forest have usually nearly completed their height
growth. Thus the bole is comparatively long and clean, and the extra
growth is put on evenly all the way up, tending to make it more
cylindrical than before.
With the protection of the forests alone as Forest Reserve both in the
evergreen and mixed deciduous forest zone, not only are many Iroko-trees
preserved and allowed to grow to their full size, but also large numbers
of self-sown seedlings come up in the abandoned ground and augment the
value of the forests. This is an additional reason why the farming in a
Reserve cannot be continued for any length of time. The old farms become
more and more filled up with valuable young Iroko-trees, which would be
at any rate damaged, if not killed, by the farming operations.
Even without taking into consideration the number of planted trees, the
Forest Department has practically guaranteed certain future quantities
of Iroko timber in the number of small trees which have been preserved
and the potential value of the little ones grown up since the Reserves
were made. Only in one part of the country is this anything like the
case, and that is in the Ahoada district, where the natives use the
Iroko-tree as a boundary mark between the different village lands and
also between many farms. To a minor extent this can be seen in the
Onitsha district, where the Iroko-trees have been preserved inside the
villages, thus giving them the appearance of being the woods of the
country while the rest of the land is bare. It is, however, just the
reverse. They form the towns and villages amongst the trees, which are
thus preserved from the axe and fire of the local farmer. Despite the
fact that a fair number of large oversized Irokos have been cut each
year in the Olokemeji Reserve, there are many more of the smaller size
now coming on than were in existence when the first fellings took place.
Another tree which has received a considerable amount of attention is
the Cigar-box Cedar (_Cedrela odorata_), and to a lesser extent the Toon
(_Cedrela Toona_). Although both are exotic trees, the former especially
shows very quick growth. Despite the unevenness with which it is liable
to come up from seed, the rapid growth of the tree soon compensates for
this disadvantage. In three or four years it may be from 18 to 24 feet
high and 8 to 16 inches in girth. Both the largest individual specimens
as well as plantations are found in the Olokemeji forest as well.
More in place in the firewood plantations near Lagos and Ibadan is the
Casuarina (_Casuarina equisetifolia_). At Olokemeji this tree has only
done comparatively well. Also an exotic, it is most useful for planting
near the sea-side on sandy soil, and in places with a smaller rainfall.
It will also stand a comparatively dry atmosphere. The wood of this tree
is very hard, almost like Ironwood. It is sometimes known as the
Australian Beef Tree. Its numerous small branches on the stem make the
wood rather knotty and of less value for general construction work.
However, its heating power as a firewood is very great. Amongst all the
forest trees it is one which yields the greatest amount of acetic acid,
which forms the basis of an explosive.
Another Australian tree which has been used to a lesser extent for
Afforestation purposes is the Blue Gum of various kinds. _Eucalyptus
citriodora_ and _E. amygdalina_ have proved to grow the quickest of any
planted in Nigeria. Many others have been tried, but most have not
survived. Specimen trees and small groups are seen as far apart as
Onitsha, on the banks of the Niger, Ikassa, near the mouth of the Nun
branch of the Niger, the Botanical Gardens, Calabar, the Olokemeji
Arboretum and Forest Plantations, not to forget the streets of Lagos. In
a similar way Casuarinas are seen near Government House at Calabar and
in Lagos, besides the forest Arboretums and plantations.
Another exotic from India, Lagerstrœmia (_Lagerstrœmia flos Reginæ_),
has grown well both on the banks of the Ogun and on poor laterite soil
of the Olokemeji Forest Reserve. For the sake of the flowers alone it is
worth planting to ornament a garden or the edge of a plantation. The
masses of mauve flowers last a considerable time and blend most
beautifully with the foliage and any green grass near by. Although of
branching habit when planted 10 feet apart, if planted closer it will
grow straighter and with cleaner bole. The timber is hard and very
durable. So far this tree has proved a valuable introduction, especially
for planting poor soils and river banks liable to inundation.
A later, though an exceedingly good introduction is that of the
Satinwood (_Swietenia chloroxylon_), which gives promise in the
Olokemeji Forest Reserve of making a valuable addition to the number of
timber trees of indigenous and exotic origin. This tree yields the
Ceylon satinwood, which is usually worth at least £12 per ton. The
almost silvery-white tufted formation of the leaves is reminiscent
almost of the Eucalyptus, though the leaf is rather smoother and not
quite so narrow in proportion to its length as most of the Eucalyptus
family.
[Illustration: FIG. 32.—=Cedrela odorata, seven years old, with Forest
Office in background, Olokomeji.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 33.—=Cedrela odorata, Cigar-box Cedar, girth 5 feet,
twelve years old, Olokomeji Arboretum.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 34.—=Teak (Tectona grandis), ten years old,
Olokomeji Arboretum.=]
To face p. 174.
Some years ago the seeds of _Pinus Mercusii_ were planted in several
places, including those of higher elevation. Although it many cases the
seed germinated, the seedlings subsequently died.
Another exotic, the Swamp Cypress or Bald Cypress, or, as it is known in
England, the Deciduous Cypress (_Taxodium distichum_), was tried near
Benin City some years ago for swamp planting. Here, as in the other
case, the seeds germinated and the small trees reached the height of
about a foot and then subsequently died. The swampy ground where they
were planted may, however, have been rather too acid or sour for them.
The climate, of course, was no doubt considerably hotter than that of
the Southern States of the United States, in which country this tree is
indigenous.
The original Spanish Mahogany, or _Swietenia mahagoni_, was intended for
Afforestation purposes with a view to its yielding on the average a more
highly valued wood than that of the African Mahogany. However, in Africa
generally, and in the Olokemeji Arboretum, it has proved a very slow
growth and more liable to attack by the leading-shoot borer than even
the indigenous mahogany-tree.
For the comparatively dry laterite soil of the Olokemeji Forest Reserve,
Indian Rosewood or Blackwood (_Dalbergia latifolia_) has proved a
valuable introduction. Growing comparatively fast and of somewhat
branching habit, it soon covers the ground. It is, of course, better in
mixture with others in order to produce clean stems. Latterly the larger
trees have been attacked by a borer and considerable damage has been
done. Still, in spite of it the trees have gone on growing, and
apparently are capable of outgrowing the damage without an enormous loss
of increment. In all, several acres have been planted with this tree.
Indian Walnut (_Albizzia Lebbek_) has found a foremost place in the
firewood plantation at Ibadan and Ede, as well as in the forest
plantations at Olokemeji. Its rapid growth and comparative indifference
to soil make it a comparatively valuable tree for Afforestation
purposes. Although it is usually only considered suitable for firewood,
there is no doubt that its wood can be used as a substitute for walnut,
as it is in India. Already, in fact, it is largely a forest escape in
Africa, and is found in many of the old farms and cultivated places. Its
greyer, almost silvery-grey, foliage easily distinguishes it from that
of _Albizzia Brownii_, which has larger leaves.
A South American exotic, the Lignum Vitæ (_Guaiacum officinale_), is
found in isolated specimens in the Olokemeji Arboretum and forest
plantations. With such a very slow-growing tree, which may show half an
inch growth in a year, it is difficult to be patient and wait for the
many years before it will attain even a size large enough from which to
cut the smallest bowl for a game of skittles or bowls. Its very yellow
small foliage is most distinctive and not unlike box (_Buxus
sempervirens_), but the leaf is flatter and does not curl like box.
One of the most valuable introductions in the forest plantations at
Olokemeji and in the firewood plantations at Ibadan is the Siamese
Cassia or Bombay Blackwood (_Cassia Siamea_). Almost indifferent as to
soil and not requiring a heavy rainfall, and casting a heavy shade, it
soon grows on the laterite, covers the ground, killing weeds, and
rapidly attaining the size of a tree. In the plantations at Olokemeji,
the trees reached a height of over 20 feet and a girth of about a foot
in five years. It is one of the few trees that will thoroughly kill the
Econ grass. The masses of yellow flowers which appear in the crown of
the tree and also in the leader rather interrupt the height growth, but
make a magnificent show at the end of the dry season. It continues to
flower and fruit for the larger part of the year. Either as a firewood
tree or as a timber tree, it should always be worthy of a place in all
Afforestation areas where the rainfall is none too heavy. The hard,
almost black wood is of value in India, so that it should prove of value
in Nigeria when the trees are large enough for cutting into planks or
boards. Amongst the exotic trees which have not yet found a place is the
Trinkomali Wood (_Berrya Ammomilla_) and Indian Rose Chestnut or
Ironwood (_Mesua ferrua_), seedlings which were obtained from seeds of
the large trees in the Botanical Gardens at Victoria. If they grow well
in Nigeria, the somewhat heavy and flexible Trinkomali Wood or Petwun
and the Ironwood should both prove of value for local industrial work.
Although found as specimen trees in the Olokemeji Arboretum, _Copaifera
officinalis_ has not been formed in plantations, though small groups of
the West African Gum Copal (_Copaifera salikounda_) are seen in the Ogba
plantation of the Central Circle. Both these trees are doing very well,
more especially the latter, which have reached a height of over 12 feet
in six years. The former had produced some tears of gum three-quarters
of an inch in diameter in the tenth year of its growth. In addition to
these two, there is the Cameroon Gum Copal (_Copaifera Demeusii_),
seedlings of which were obtained from the Botanical Gardens at Victoria.
Considering that the last-named tree is indigenous in a territory so
much closer to Nigeria than either of the first-named Gum Copals, it is
highly probable that this one will grow better than either of the
others. Up to the present it is not known, however, how the yield of the
Gum Copal compares with either of the former. As far as West Africa is
concerned, the Sierra Leone Gum Copal has proved to be the most prolific
in this respect.
The Indian Almond (_Terminalia catappa_) is seen more as an avenue tree,
mostly in towns such as Lagos, but also in the Mamu Forest Reserve. It
is certainly one of the best shade trees for planting at the side of
roads. Its rather formal habit, with the almost even whorls of branches,
fits in with the straightness and even width of a road. By many it is
not realized that the nuts can be comparatively easily cracked and the
kernel inside is good to eat.
_Michelia champaca_ is another most suitable tree for avenues. The
chestnut-like leaf and the large, almost magnolia-like flowers are of a
white colour, giving it a “distinguished” appearance such as is
necessary for a roadside tree. The flowers, too, are used for making
scent.
Both as a shade tree and for its gum the Balsam of Peru (_Toluifera
Pereiræ_) is also worthy of a place both in avenues and in plantations.
Some seedlings were obtained from the Botanical Gardens at Pretoria,
where the tree has grown comparatively well. Not so suitable for
plantations apparently at Olokemeji is the Sugar Palm (_Arenga
saccharifera_). However, in isolated places small plantations have been
made with the Sago Palm (_Corypha elata_), such as in the swamp opposite
Calabar and the small grove of the Betel Nut Palm (_Areca catechu_) near
Lagos. Both these give promise of being useful acquisitions to the palms
of economic use in Africa.
Before leaving the exotic trees, mention must be made of the Thuya
(_Thuya occidentalis_), which were obtained from the Canary Islands by
Major Cockburn and planted on the hill at Obubra. Although somewhat slow
growing, they have thrived in that climate and do not suffer from
disease. This is the only example of a Conifer which has been
successfully introduced into Nigeria.
Amongst the other indigenous trees of which plantations have been made
there is the Cedar Mahogany (_Pseudocedrela Kotschyi_), Emi gbegiri,
Yoruba, which apparently grows but slowly in Olokemeji. It is much the
same with the self-sown seedlings and with root suckers, both of which
have proved disappointingly slow in that locality.
Then also at Olokemeji we have the dry-zone Mahogany, _Khaya
Senegalensis_, Oganwo of the Yorubas and Ogwangu of the Benis, growing
in a small plantation and raised from seed brought by H. N. Thompson,
Esq., from the Shaki district in 1910. So far the growth has been
comparatively rapid, though the tree is occasionally attacked by the
leading-shoot borer, which makes it fork comparatively low down.
Of the African Walnut and the Long-capsuled Mahogany, _Lovoa Klaineana_
and _Entandrophragma Candollei_, most isolated specimens and groups
appear to have been planted in the leased areas of Benin. In addition to
these, some other specimens and small plantations are found in the
Calabar, Degama, Benin and Olokemeji Arboretums, as well as in the
plantations of the Ogba and Olokemeji. Thus far only the Long-capsuled
Mahogany has been planted in these; the difficulty of obtaining seed of
the African Walnut has precluded its wider distribution in the various
plantations. Long-capsuled Mahogany grows very fast, usually with an
undivided stem and a big tuft of long pinnate leaves near the top of the
tree. Stump shoots form very readily and soon attain a large size, as is
noticeable in the specimen in the Benin Arboretum.
The plantations of Ebony (_Diospyros mespiliformis_), Kanran of the
Yorubas, have been made in the Olokemeji Forest Reserve. Although, of
course, very slow growing, it demands further attention, as it yields a
good black ebony.
Amongst the soft woods there are plantations of _Triplochiton
Nigericum_, Arere of the Yorubas and Obechi of the Benis, in the
Olokemeji Forest Reserve. At first growing rather slowly, they bid fair
to prove one of the most rapid growing trees. A mixture where teak was
introduced to fill up the blanks will be interesting to watch in its
future development, as to whether the teak will eventually outgrow the
forest maple.
Although the firewood plantations at Ibadan and certain parts of the
plantations of Olokemeji have been filled up with West African Walnut
(_Albizzia Brownii_), Ayinre Bonabona of the Yorubas, they will prove
probably of greater value for the production of timber than for
firewood. However, as a firewood tree it has yielded several cords of
wood from one tree after only seven years of growth. So far it has
certainly proved to be the tree which produces the greatest amount of
firewood in the shortest period of time. It sprouts well from the stump,
so that for a time its reproduction is very easy and assured.
The Oil Bean (_Pentaclethra macrophylla_), Apara of the Yorubas and
Opaga of the Benis, is found chiefly reproduced artificially, either by
being sown at stake or planted along the sides of the roads in the
Owerri and Benin provinces. Considering the hardness of the wood, the
tree grows not excessively slowly, though, of course, compared to a
softwood it is slow.
Camwood (_Pterocarpus Osun_), Osun by the Yorubas, Ume by the Benis, has
found a place in the Mamu Forest Reserve, its congener _Pterocarpus
Indicus_ having been planted in the Olokemeji Forest Reserve. However,
as far as the size and habit of growth is concerned, the African Redwood
or Barwood appears to be much superior to the Indian Paduak. The latter
usually soon develops a triple stem with many small side-branches,
whereas the African species always shows an undivided stem. In rate of
growth “Osun” seems to be rather slow compared to many other trees.
Self-sown seedlings come up readily in suitable localities, such as the
Ikrigon Reserve, and on the whole develop more quickly. Anyhow, the
continual demand in increasing amounts of this red dye-wood necessitates
the careful preservation of the tree in the forest, as well as its
continual reproduction by natural regeneration or plantations in the
Forest Reserve.
Amongst the Mamu Forest Plantations there is that of African Oak
(_Afzelia Africana_), Apa (Yoruba), Aligna (Benin), one of the few
survivals of the efforts made to reproduce this tree artificially. The
many insect and rodent enemies give isolated plantation seedlings very
little chance to develop.
Although Shea Butter (_Butyrospermum Parkii_), Emi Ori or Emigidi
(Yoruba), has been tried as a plantation tree, the germination of the
nuts is very poor, and the rodents attack them unmercifully. Apparently
root-suckers form the chief means of reproduction for this tree. They
are very prevalent and very persistent once they have sprouted. The
forest fires destroy a great deal of the flower in the early part of the
year, preventing formation of the fruit, and thus the means of
reproduction by seed is very much reduced. The improvement in trees
protected from fire at Olokemeji is most marked.
At Degema there is a plantation of _Mimusops Djave (?)_, or Aganokwi of
the Benis, which shows comparatively fast growth; in eleven years the
trees had reached a height of about 25 feet and a girth of 2 feet 6
inches. Although it sprouts well from the stump, it is easier to raise
from seed, but the seedlings require great care in transplanting.
At Olokemeji, Shinglewood (_Terminalia Superba_), Afara, by the Yorubas
and Egoyn Nufwa by the Benis, is being tried in a mixed plantation. The
growth has been rapid, and would probably surpass that of teak after the
first five years.
Over considerable areas of the Olokemeji and the Ibadan plantations the
Yoruba Chewstick, or Ayin of the Yorubas (_Anogeissus leiocarpus_), has
been planted. Its growth has been moderately rapid, reaching a height of
about 8 feet in four years. In addition to the value of its wood both as
a chewstick and from the fact that a mordant for dyes can be made from
its ashes, the young plant kills all the Econ grass growing round it
with its leaf fall. This makes the tree one of the most advantageous for
Afforestation purposes. Its light-green foliage and delicate, graceful
build, and slender bole and branches, make it also valuable as an avenue
tree in the dryer parts of the country. In its similarity to the
European birch it might almost be called the birch of Africa.
With the Dika Nut (_Irvingia Barteri_), Oro by the Yorubas and Okherli
by the Benis, small sample plots have been made in the Mamu Reserve and
isolated specimens planted near the Calabar Arboretum.
Although not for Afforestation purposes but for the production of Palm
Wine, _Raffia vinifera_, Ako by the Yoruba, Augor by the Benis, has been
planted and seeds distributed amongst the villagers of the upper parts
of the Cross River districts. When these are grown there will not be
such a demand for cutting down the oil-palm-tree for making palm wine as
there is at the present time.
Allowing only a value of 3d. per tree on all the trees planted during
the last fifteen years, all the mahoganies and plantations are worth
£240,000.
In two circles and parts of a third a great deal of work of an
Afforestation nature was undertaken years before any actual forest
plantation could be made. These are the communal rubber plantations of
the Ireh Rubber (_Funtumia elastica_). In the Central Circle, near over
700 villages and towns, plantations varying from a hundred plants to
ones covering several acres and containing many thousands, were made,
aggregating in all the setting out of over a million trees in a period
of about five years. In the Eastern Circle, in over a hundred villages,
and in the Ondo and Western Circles over two hundred village plantations
were made. Subsequently Para Rubber (_Hevea Braziliensis_) was added and
substituted for the Funtumia wherever the climate was suitable for it.
Now the communities concerned have a very valuable asset, which they can
tap from year to year and augment at their leisure. Whatever happens to
the forest or the immediate neighbourhood of the village, there will at
any rate remain the rubber plantation, giving grateful shade to the
roadsides and the ground near the villages. In one case a village
planted over 1,200 Para rubber-trees, which even as a commercial asset
are by no means to be despised.
In addition to these efforts on the part of the natives, acting under
the advice and guidance of the Forest Department, there are the numerous
rubber plantations in all the Forest Reserves. In the earlier days these
were planted with Funtumia, where, for instance, in the Mamu Forest
Reserve nearly one square mile of land is planted with this tree.
Then, again, there are the district plantations, more especially in the
Eastern Circle, where in many cases Para Rubber was planted instead of
Funtumia. These areas are for the most part smaller than those of the
Forest Reserve or Communal Plantations. They served more as
demonstration areas to show how rubber would grow in that locality.
Furthermore, near almost each native court in the Eastern Circle rubber
plantations, in many cases of Para and in others of Funtumia, were made.
The general cost of the Communal District and Native Court Plantation
was practically limited to the amount involved in payment of the native
Forest staff. These men, however, had other duties to perform, and on
the average certainly not more than one-third of their time was occupied
in the making of these plantations. For the making of the other
plantations of the Forest Reserve about £2,500, or sometimes £3,000, has
been spent annually in making them and in the cost of their upkeep once
they have been made. Owing to the long dry season in Nigeria the number
of plants failing to survive it is somewhat high, and this very
considerably increases the cost of the final establishment of the
plantation. For some years the cost in many cases amounted to £10 per
acre for the first year and £1 or £2 for subsequent years, for the cost
of “beating up” and keeping the plantations clean. With the greater
experience gained both in regard to the habits of the different trees
and in the methods of reproduction most suitable to various parts of
Nigeria, the cost has been somewhat lessened. However, even so, the cost
compared to European or English plantations is not abnormally high. In
Africa there is no land to buy, and no wire-netting is needed for the
plantations, and the land usually planted has not a “letting” or
“sporting” value, as it has in England. The buying out or compensating
of the native rights of the usufruct of the soil is not so very
expensive, especially when it is spread over comparatively large areas,
as it usually is in West Africa. Then, again, even with the cost of £10
per acre, the total value of a crop after fifty or sixty years would
certainly not be less than 3s. per cubic foot of the timber, which thus
allows ample margin for 5 per cent. compound interest on the original
outlay, and a profit besides. In many cases the timber would be worth a
great deal more, and also the value of the intermediate thinnings is not
inconsiderable. Both these factors have been left out of the account, in
order not to in any way exaggerate or make too optimistic estimates of
the value of a forest plantation. But beyond the financial side of the
value of forest plantations, more especially in a tropical country like
Nigeria, is the very valuable indirect effect they have on the whole
welfare of the country.
First of all, plantations in forest groves improve and beautify a
locality, whether on the level or amongst hills.
In the second place, the forest induces a greater rainfall in itself and
its immediate vicinity.
Then the rainfall which actually falls in the forest is partly re-
evaporated to fall again, thus making extra rainfall, and also the rain
which actually reaches the ground in the forest is only gradually
absorbed, thus making the flow of springs and rivers regular.
Both on the level and especially on slopes, a covering of trees, such as
a forest, hinders the washing away of the surface soil or tilth of the
land.
Forest trees only require one-twelth of the mineral matter out of the
soil that an agricultural crop does, covering the same area.
In a forest plantation there is always greater humidity in the air, and
thus many plants of economic value, such as cocoa, can grow in its
vicinity, which would otherwise not be possible to be grown in that
locality.
A forest acts as a moderating influence on the temperature of the air,
being lower inside the forest than outside, when the sun is very hot.
Conversely, when it is cold outside in the “harmattan” season it is
warmer in the forest.
Nearer the interior of the forest certain better grasses and pasture are
found, which are of incalculable value, in a drought, to the cattle in
that locality.
During the long period of the rotation, usually at least 60 or 80 years,
in most forests there are large accumulations of leaf mould or litter,
which on occasion can be used in reasonable quantities for manuring
neighbouring agricultural lands. This is of incalculable benefit where
the ground outside the forest is comparatively poor and dry.
It has been proved also that in these long forest rotations the mineral
rock and subsoil have time to weather, and add further mineral matter to
the enrichment of the soil.
The forest, too, provides grateful shelter and sanctuary for game
animals and birds of all kinds, thus providing, especially in Africa,
the largest source of meat which the native has.
When all these indirect advantages and good effects of the forest are
added together and a definite value put on them, and then considered in
addition to all the timber and firewood the forest produces, it will be
seen how wonderfully and providentially beneficial the forests really
are, and also how absolutely essential they are in a country like
Africa.
Just as effective, and cheaper, except perhaps as regards time, than the
artificially made forest plantation, are the protected forests; even in
the worst case, starting with a poor country growth and small dry-zone
shrubs and trees, after ten years there is a compact, close-growth,
medium-sized tree with straightened stem and less branching habit, and
the ground comparatively free from grass. During a further period this
forest can be thinned out by removing the poorer shrubs and trees and
allowing seedlings of more valuable species to come up. They will often
do this in the shade of poorer and more hardy trees. Still later, as the
soil-moisture conditions improve, the humidity increases as well as the
rainfall; still other species come in or can be introduced artificially.
Eventually, by the end of the first rotation there is probably quite a
different forest to that in existence at the time of the annual grass-
fires, and one which is more akin to the original forests before the
advent of Man with his firestick.
Quite apart from any money which has been spent on direct forest
plantations, the indirect effect of the protection afforded to the trees
in the various forest reserves is of almost incalculable value. If the
figure should be calculated out even at a low rate of only £1 per acre,
then the total value is £768,000 for the Reserves already made. Again,
considering this result has only been attained after about fifteen
years’ work, it will only go to show the vast potentialities and
resources that may be eventually created, or preserved from destruction,
in Nigeria.
MEASUREMENTS OF PLANTED TREES IN THE OLOKEMEJI RESERVE
[Orig. Age 1911: Original Age in 1911.
Av. Growth: Mean Average Growth in One Year.
H.ft.: Height in feet.
G.in.: Girth in inches.]
----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----------
|Orig.|1911.|1912.|1913.|1911.|1912.|1913.|Av. Growth
Species. | Age +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----
|1911 |H.ft.|H.ft.|H.ft.|G.in.|G.in.|G.in.|H.ft.|G.in.
----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----
1. Tectona | 3½ |27 |30·5 |34 |15·25|18·25|21 | — | —
grandis | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
2. „ „ | 5½ |32·5 |37·25|38 |24·25|28 |32·5 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
3. „ „ | 3½ |26·5 |32·75|34·5 |14·75|19·5 |23·5 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
4. „ „ | 3½ |25·5 |28·75| — |12·25|16·0 |18·5 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
5. „ „ | 3½ |25·5 |29 | — |13 |15·5 |18·5 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
6. „ „ | 3½ |27 |32·35| — |15·25|18·5 |21·5 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
7. „ „ | 3½ |11 |17 | — |8 |10 |12 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
8. „ „ | 3½ |24 |24·75| — |10·5 |13 |15·5 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
9. „ „ | 3½ |21 |21·5 | — |12·25|15 |19 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
10. „ „ | 3½ |24·5 |26·25| — |13 |16 |18 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
11. „ „ | 3½ |21 |26·5 | — |14·75|19 |22 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
12. „ „ | 3½ |22 |28·25| — |12·75|15·5 |27 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
13. „ „ | 3½ |23 |29·25| — |13·5 |15·5 |18 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
14. „ „ | 3½ |32 |37·25| — |15 |19 |22·5 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
15. „ „ | 3½ |21 | — | — |10 | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
16. „ „ | 3½ |12 | — | — | 4·5 | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
17. „ „ | 3½ |32·5 | — | — |12·25| — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
18. „ „ | 3½ |22 |56 | — |10·5 |45 | — | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
19. „ „ | 8½ |51 | — | — |42·75| — |48 | — | —
| | | | | | | | |
20. „ „ | 8½ |47·5 |51·5 | — |37 |39 |42 |7·62*|4·83*
| | | | | | | | |
21. Cedrela | 6½ |40 |43·75|49 |36·5 |41 |45 |6·8 |6·28
odorata | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
22. „ „ | 6½ |35·5 |40·50|44 |27·25|30·50|34·5 |6·15 |4·74
| | | | | | | | |
23. Chlorophora | 4½ |13 |19·75|23·5 |15 |21 |27·75|4·16 |4·72
excelsa | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
24. Triplochiton| 2½ |25 |31·75|35·5 |12 |16 |19·5 |12·3 |19·0
Nigericum | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
25. Terminalia | 8½ |65 |73·0 |74 |48 |51 |53 |8·31 |6·0
superba | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
26. Eucalyptus | 8½ |95·5 |90·75|94 |34·75|37 |37 |10·98|4·26
sp. | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
27. Khaya sp. | 3½ |22 |33·5 |39 |10 |15·5 |19 |9·0 |4·23
| | | | | | | | |
28. „ „ | 3½ |15 |23·5 |28 |9·75 |13 |15 |6·34 |3·59
| | | | | | | | |
29. Casuarina | — | — |22·5 |30 | — | — |11 | — | —
sp. | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
30. „ „ | — | — |22·5 |30 | — | — |10·5 | — | —
----------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----
* Average for twenty teak-trees.
V. THE FOREST DEPARTMENT.[3]
European Forest Officers are of two ranks, the _scientifically_ trained
Conservators of Forests and the _executively_ trained Foresters.
The scope of this paper will only cover the former, as very few of the
latter are Europeans, and most of them Nigerians.
From Oxford, Cambridge and Edinburgh, graduates in Forestry can usually
be procured. The training at these centres covers roughly a year or a
year and a half’s work on the elementary subjects, such as Botany,
Mathematics, Geology, Mensuration, Surveying, and Political Economy. In
addition, a year or two years’ work on the professional subjects,
Silviculture or the growing of Forests, Forest Protection, Forest
Utilization, Forest Botany, Forest Entomology, Forest History and Forest
Policy is required. At the end of the course, six months’ practical work
in Scottish or English forests follows, during which period working
plans and market conditions are especially studied.
After being accepted for appointment in Nigeria, a further three months’
course is taken at the Royal Gardens, Kew; and six months’ practical
work on the Continent was (before the war) usually required. At Kew, the
object is to acquire a working knowledge of the most important Botanical
Orders which contain the African trees. The continental course shows the
student forests which have been under a definite scheme of management
for over a hundred years. It takes one, in fact, right through the life-
history of a tree from a seedling in the nursery-bed to the well-grown
financially mature tree, marked ready for the axe, a period of about
eighty years.
The initial appointment is for three years on probation, after which it
may be confirmed. The initial salary of an Assistant Conservator of
Forests is £300 per annum, rising by increments of £15 to £400 per
annum. The first appointment dates from the day of sailing, the passage
being paid by the Nigerian Government, and salary on half-pay begins
from the date of departure until the arrival in Nigeria, when full
salary begins to accrue. Intending candidates should bear in mind that
an early selection for appointment entitles them to seniority over other
candidates who, owing to their being fully qualified, are appointed
immediately, and thus reach the Colony before them. Locally, a commuted
travelling allowance of £42 per annum is drawn to compensate for the
extra cost entailed in inspecting the forests. A limited number of
carriers, or other means of transport, are provided by the Government.
For the purpose of more rapidly getting about, a bicycle, motor, or
horse may be kept, and an allowance is given for maintenance. The cost
of living is high, even when furnished quarters or a bungalow are
provided.
[Illustration: FIG. 35.—=Teak, six years old, Olokomeji Arboretum.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 36.—=Khaya Senegalensis, five years old, from seed
obtained by H. N. Thompson, Esq., in Shaki District.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 37.—=Mature Iroko Tree (Chlorophora excelsa), over
12 feet in girth in 1911, since cut down and used for building the Chief
Conservator of Forests’ House.=]
To face p. 184.
Lagos is the first port of call in Nigeria, and there is a railway
journey of 123 miles before reaching Ibadan, the temporary headquarters
of the Forest Department. Olokomeji, 90 miles from Lagos, is the old
headquarters, and from here the forestry work of the Southern Provinces
is directed. Zaria, situated some 450 miles from Lagos, is the
headquarters of the Forestry Department in the Northern Provinces.
A newly appointed officer would be liable to be sent to either of these
last-named places; but owing to the larger number of men being stationed
in the Southern Provinces, the majority are sent to that centre.
Olokomeji is in the middle of a Forest Reserve 26 square miles in
extent, and is also the headquarters both of the Western Circle and of
its northern division. In each circle there is a Conservator of Forests
in charge, and he has an assistant to manage each division. In the event
of a shortage of staff it may happen that a new man is put in charge of
a division and thus has an opportunity of learning all about the work
much more quickly than would otherwise be the case. In the ordinary way
he only corresponds with his Conservator and the timber interests of his
division on purely local matters.
Since 1901, a moderately large Arboretum has been planted at Olokomeji,
containing quite a number of indigenous trees growing under natural
conditions, according to the type of climate found in that locality, and
also some exotic trees which grow in similar climates in Asia or South
America. In a comparatively short time the new Forest Officer can get a
very fair idea of the most important timber trees found locally, as well
as elsewhere. In connection with the work of renewing the labels on
specimen trees, ocular demonstration of all these trees is obtainable.
The local Ranger can usually supply the vernacular names, and here is a
wide field for linguistic qualifications. Yoruba is the local language,
Benin is spoken by a large number of people in the Central Circle, and
Hausa by nearly all itinerant traders throughout the country. Ibo,
another language, is spoken by nearly 3,000,000 inhabitants, while many
of the Cross River people (Eastern Circle) speak Efik; some, however,
speak New Calabar or Ibibio, while again, in a large part of the Niger
Delta, Brass or Ijor is spoken. Sooner or later the language of the
locality should be acquired, and in fact this is prescribed by
Government order as a necessary preliminary to the granting of the first
increment.
The routine office work includes simple book-keeping, analysis of
records, appointments of staff, the engagement of native labour and all
payments. The executive work outside is carried out by the Forest
Guards, Foresters, and Rangers, who require constant supervision. Owing
to the distance, only some of them can report at Forest Headquarters
each month, and the rest must be seen when the Forest Executive Officer
makes his tour of inspection. If possible, travelling should take the
place of indoor work for at least ten days a month.
At first sight, on examining the tropical forest, it appears like a very
mixed collection of different kinds of trees; on closer inspection,
however, similarities and contrasts are apparent, such as Ebony,
_Diospyros mespiliformis_, with its thin, black scaly bark, and that of
the somewhat regularly, deeply fissured bullet-wood tree, _Mimusops
multinervis_, and its white latex, which the former does not exude.
In walking through a forest, it is normally best to make the carriers
precede. Owing to their tendency to lag, and their desire to sit down at
inconvenient times, it is an advantage to have them in front. Frequently
one may have to stop and examine a flower or leaf, and it only adds to
the carriers’ labour if the whole column has to stop whilst seeds and
specimens are being collected. A march of about 15 miles is sufficient,
and takes up the better part of the day, if an examination of the
forests is being made on the way. In most parts villages are eight to
ten miles apart, sometimes nearer; so the carriers can stop and purchase
food. In the larger forests, however, a distance of over 20 miles is
sometimes covered without sight of a house; in that case the people of
the last village are asked to bring food for the carriers, and the
carriers themselves are given a day’s food as well, which has to be
cooked on reaching camp. In some places the chiefs provide food (yams,
etc.), which is distributed to the carriers, or in some places 3d. a day
per head is allowed them for purchasing food. So long as the carrier
gets food and his load is not excessively heavy, he is quite cheerful
and walks well. He will pick his way in mud, over roots, and up the
steepest rocks in the hill forests.
Current wages vary from 9d. to 1s. a day, the head-man getting from 1s.
to 2s. a day. Local felling-permits being issued both by the District
and Forest Officers to natives for felling timber for local use, at
District Stations a call is paid the District Officer to discuss current
forest questions and examine the permit books. At the same time there is
an opportunity of seeing what further development of forest work is
possible in the district. The local Forest Guards, Foresters, or Forest
Rangers report themselves, usually giving a very good account of the
local forest conditions. Since the demand for local timber has been
growing, a stop may have to be made to supervise the marking or girdling
of suitable trees for bridge-building under the auspices of the Public
Works Department. On a journey through the mahogany forest, the
different camps of the timber firms have to be visited. These firms have
hundreds of square miles for the purpose of exploiting mahogany and
furniture woods. At the same time the checking and inspecting of the
stumps of all the trees felled has to be gone through. The young
mahogany seedlings are also seen, and from the number of these it is
known whether sufficient have been planted to take the place of those
cut down. The very rapid growth of these trees can here be studied to
advantage; trees now 40 feet high have only been planted a few years.
The relative value of the direct planting of seedling trees as compared
with the natural regeneration of the forest by self-sown seedlings can
be observed with ocular clearness. In one part of the forest one sees
natives standing on a platform hacking away with an axe into a huge
50-feet mahogany; in another place a similar tree, fallen, its 90-feet
bole already sawn into three round logs: while in a third locality may
be seen a native, axe or adze in hand, squaring mahogany logs with a
4-feet side. Later in the season eighty or more natives are engaged in
dragging one of these logs on round billets of wood (for rollers) along
a track, roughly cleared to the height of a man, to the nearest natural
water-way; still later (that is, in July or August), when the rivers
rise, the logs may be seen floating singly down to the rafting-place on
the main creek, where rafts are made with logs four or eight abreast,
each fastened to the next, from a timber-dog at either end, with cane.
From here, riverine natives such as the Ijors take the logs to the
nearest river or ocean-going steamer port.
The administrative work of the Department is in the hands of the Senior
Conservators of Forests, under whom the Conservators manage their
circles. The Chief Conservator of Forests, the head of the Department,
initiates and controls the whole policy of the Department, being
relieved of all details of administration. In order to ensure continuity
of policy and action, a Working-plans Division has been formed. A
working plan for the forests is a scheme of management laid down for a
number of years; no change can be made in such a plan without special
reference both to the head of that division and to the head of the
Department. With only one year’s service, followed by leave of absence,
continuity of action would be broken if it were not for a definitely
approved plan.
The Forest Department has supplied the Railway, Marine, and Public Works
Department with timber of various kinds. In some cases the timber is
obtained by departmental working, and in others is cut by native
contractors under the supervision of the Department. In the first
instance, the conditions under which timber is to be supplied to other
departments are put before the Secretariat, and when once the work has
been begun, the local Forest Officer deals direct with the department
concerned.
Forestry progress in Nigeria has been less tardy than in several other
Colonies, though many forests have been destroyed owing to lapse of time
before the formation of a department. In 1904 there were eight, and
there are now twenty-four administrative appointments. The amalgamation
of Northern and Southern Nigeria into one administration should
accelerate the development of Forestry. It is as yet only in its initial
stages, and scarcely more than a thousand square miles of forests, out
of nearly a hundred thousand which exist in some form or another, have
been permanently set aside for further timber production. The revenue-
earning capacity of the Forest Department has been somewhat diminished
by the war; but with recent legislation more local revenue should be
obtained, which should more than off-set any loss already sustained.
Provided the financial position of Nigeria remains strong, the prospects
of the Forest Department are quite bright.
Although Nigeria has by far the largest Forest Department, very similar
conditions of service obtain in the other West African Colonies of the
Gold Coast and Sierra Leone; but there are no Forest Officers in the
Gambia.
VI. A REVIEW OF THE BOTANICAL FEATURES OF NORTHERN NIGERIA.
BY DR. J. M. DALZIEL.
The Northern Provinces of Nigeria exhibit in an interesting manner the
transition, now familiar in West Africa, of physical characteristics
from the tropical forest to the border region “that just divides the
desert from the sown.”
So far as the progressive stages may be stated in terms of geographical
latitude, we may place the northern limit of the forest belt at about 8°
North latitude. A convenient natural boundary in a portion of the area
under consideration may be accepted in the lower course of the Benué
River from its tributary, the Katsina River, or even as far up as Ibi,
to the Niger at Lokoja. On the other hand, the southern limit of the
desert is taken at about 17° North latitude, or higher, and thus falls
some three or more degrees beyond the northern boundary.
Between these arbitrary limits lies the greater part of Northern Nigeria
and practically the whole of Hausaland, presenting physical features
which vary through grassy plains and rolling downs, orchard-bush and
thin-crowned forest, laterite plateaux and hilly woodlands, to the
mountains of the Bauchi Highlands. The vegetative covering over a very
large area can be classed as one or other type of savannah, tree and
bush savannah, or open orchard and treeless savannah, with intermediate
grades. Local topography alters the type here and there, galleries of
evergreen vegetation occupying the intersecting belts of permanent
streams or fringing a marsh, wide meadows bordered by low forest, but
occupied entirely by grasses of few species, with scattered islets of
foliage, or, again, outcrops of bare laterite and isolated domes and
turtle-backs of crystalline rock, “inselbergs” and “kopjes,” introducing
features of their own.
The Niger Delta displays admirably the high evergreen or moist tropical
forest. This probably connects itself through the Kameruns with the
great Central African forest of French and Belgian Congo, which is again
said to be continuous through the gap between Ruwenzori and Lake Albert
with that of British East Africa.
West of the Niger Delta the coast, including Lagos, Dahomey and Togo, is
sandy, and bush rather than high forest commences almost on the shore.
Ascending the Niger, one finds that the true “rain forest” ends, but not
abruptly, in the neighbourhood of Asaba; a gradual transition occurs,
first to an intermediate type, partly evergreen with many large trees,
but mingled with those that lose their leaves in the months of little
rainfall. This change is apparent even on the river-bank, and below
Lokoja a more open but still semi-evergreen forest clothes the valleys,
but shows already more of the deciduous element on the hills. Farther
north the voyage from the mouth of the Kaduna River to the Zungeru light
railway terminus at Barijuko, as often experienced in previous years,
reveals again the progressively deciduous character of the foliage,
resulting in a still more open forest.
The river-bank, however, possessing permanent moisture and its own local
climate, is an inadequate index of the general features over the country
at large. To travel by land from Baro to Zungeru, and thence either
through Kontagora to Sokoto, or by Zaria to Kano and Gummel, is to have
the complete vision of the West African savannah in its various degrees,
and, except for local interruptions associated with considerations of
altitude or geological outcrop, etc., or with the lines of perennial
streams, to have it in its regular sequence.
Leaving out of account for the present the region south of Lokoja and of
the south bank of the Benué, which in part represents the “Zone
Guinéenne” of Chevalier, we find that the two routes suggested above
will take one through country almost entirely of the types included by
the same writer within the “Zone Soudanienne,” with an approach at
places along the Anglo-French boundary to the conditions occurring in
his “Zone Sahélienne.” It would be difficult and misleading to express
these zones definitely in terms of latitude, but one might hazard the
statement that the Guinea Zone passes to the Soudan Zone somewhere
between 8° and 10° North, and the latter extends either to the northern
boundary or verges on a drier belt beyond the latitude of 12° or 13°
North. If a complete botanical survey were possible, one could then
subdivide each belt into its different areas and provinces, with their
special floral characteristics, but at present one must be content to
indicate broadly the general composition.
The Soudan Zone, indeed, includes the greater part of Hausaland and is
representative of the typical West African savannah and savannah forest.
It merges into the drier sandy “steppe” conditions in the north and into
the mixed deciduous and semi-evergreen forests farther south. The only
giants in height are the silk-cotton-trees (_Eriodendron orientale_),
but baobabs of enormous girth are common, and the largest timber trees
are probably the Maje (_Paradaniellia Oliveri_) and the Kawo (_Afzelia
Africana_), fair specimens of the dry-zone mahogany, Madachi (_Khaya
Senegalensis_), occurring also in favourable situations.
Across the central part of Northern Nigeria, let us say from Kontagora
and South Sokoto through the whole of Zaria and South Kano to South
Bornu (but excluding the Bauchi plateau, of which I cannot speak from
personal knowledge), the plants named in the list here given might be
regarded as the average association of species, trees, shrubs and
herbaceous, the chief Natural Orders being represented as follows:
ANONACEÆ by the common wild custard apple, Gwandar daji, _Anona
Senegalensis_, a shrub.
CAPPARIDACEÆ by the Ingidido, _Cratæva Adansonii_, by shrubs or woody
undershrubs of genera _Boscia_ and _Mærua_, some thorny scramblers of
the genus _Capparis_, and the familiar weed Gasaya, _Gynandropsis
pentaphylla_.
BIXINEÆ by the Rawaya, _Cochlospermum tinctorium_, a shrub.
HYPERICINEÆ by the shrub Kaskawami, _Psorospermum Senegalense_.
OCHNACEÆ by the Namijin kade, _Lophira alata_, a tree very typical of
the region, two or three species of _Gomphia_, and a new species of
_Ochna_, a small shrub with crenulate leaves.
MALVACEÆ by numerous species of _Hibiscus_, including the cultivated
Rama (chiefly _K. cannabinus_) and Cotton, with the Ramaniya, _Urena
lobata_, and various undershrubs and suffrutescent weeds, mostly of the
genus _Sida_. The Kuka or baobab, _Adansonia digitata_, and the Rimi or
Silk-cotton Tree, _Eriodendron orientale_, marking the sites of human
habitations, past or present, are typical species of this area, as is
also the red-flowered Gurjiya, _Bombax buonopozense_ (Bombacaceæ).
STERCULIACEÆ by the Kukuki, _Sterculia tomentosa_, a tree, with which we
may place the common undershrub Hankufa, _Waltheria Americana_.
TILIACEÆ by several species of _Grewia_, the most familiar being the
Dargaza, _G. mollis_, by two or three species of _Corchorus_, edible
herbs allied to jute, and by shrubby weeds of the genus _Triumfetta_.
SIMARUBACEÆ by _Hannoa undulata_, a small-sized tree characteristic of
the region, and by _Irvingia Smithii_, a tree more abundant in the
South.
BURSERACEÆ by two species of frankincense-tree—_Boswellia Dalzielii_ and
_B. odorata_—and by _Commiphora Kerstingii_, a green-barked tree
familiar as an enclosure fence in towns.
MELIACEÆ by _Khaya Senegalensis_, the mahogany of the Soudan Zone, by
_Trichilia emetica_, and by _Pseudocedrela Kotschyii_; also by the
naturalized Kurnan nasara, _Melia Azedarach_.
OLACACEÆ by the Tsada, _Ximenia Americana_, a shrub with small yellow,
acid plums, and by the evergreen climbing shrub, _Opilia celtidifolia_.
CELASTRACEÆ typically by the shrub _Gymnosporia Senegalensis_, and less
by two or more species of woody twining _Hippocrates_.
SAPINDACEÆ by the woody twiner _Paullinia pinnata_, the 3-foliate shrub
_Schmidelia Africana_, and the world-wide twining weed _Cardiospermum
Halicacabum_.
ANACARDIACEÆ by the tree _Odina Barteri_, by other species of _Odina_ of
more local distribution, and by two species of _Anaphrenium_.
CONNARACEÆ by the abundant little shrub _Byrsocarpus coccineus_.
PROTEACEÆ by a single species of _Protea_, a shrub with large capitate
flowers, of local distribution in the Central areas.
POLYGALACEÆ by _Securidaca longipedunculata_ and the field weed
_Polygala arenaria_.
LEGUMINOSÆ by—
Larger trees: the Maji or Kadaura, _Paradaniellia Oliveri_, and the
Kawo, _Afzelia Africana_.
Medium-sized and smaller trees: _Parkia filicoidea_, _Prosopis oblonga_,
_Pterocarpus erinaceus_, _Isoberlinia doka_, _Berlinia acuminata_ in
ravines, _Tamarindus Indica_; several Acacias, e.g. _A. Sieberiana_, _A.
campylacantha_, _A. Arabica_; _Albizzia Chevalieri_, _Entada Sudanica_;
_Afrormosia laxiflora_ and _Burkea Africana_.
Small trees and shrubs: _Detarium Senegalense_, _Bauhinia reticulata_
and _B. rufescens_, _Erythrina Senegalensis_, _Lonchocarpus laxiflorus_,
_Dichrostachys nutans_, _Mimosa asperata_ on stream-banks, _Cassia
Sieberiana_, _C. Kotschyana_ and others, along with several shrubby
species of _Cassia_ and the dwarf _C. mimosoides_, _Swartzia
Madagascariensis_, _Ormocarpum bibracteatum_.
To these must be added the Zamarke, _Sesbania punctata_, and other
_spp._, and a host of herbaceous plants or half woody undershrubs,
chiefly belonging to the genera _Crotalaria_, _Indigofera_, and
_Tephrosia_, others of _Desmodium_, _Eriosema_, etc., and twiners of
_Vigna_ and _Rhynchosia_.
The chief cultivated Leguminosæ of the region are: Indigo, _Indigofera
arrecta_ and other _spp._, _Arachis hypogæa_, _Vigna sinensis_ in
numerous varieties, and _Voandzeia subterranea_.
ROSACEÆ mainly by _Parinarium curatellæfolium_, to which may be added
_P. polyandrum_ in the South and _P. macrophyllum_ in the North.
COMBRETACEÆ by several species of _Terminalia_, of which the commonest
are the Baushe (of more than one species) and the Kandari, _T.
macroptera_; more fully by a number of species of _Combretum_, which are
trees often gum-yielding, and very typically by the Marike, _Anogeissus
leiocarpus_.
MYRTACEÆ by _Eugenia Owariensis_, a tree, and _E. coronata_, a shrub.
LYTHRACEÆ by the “henna” shrub, _Lawsonia alba_, and the weed of damp
places, _Ammannia Senegalensis_.
ARALIACEÆ by an interesting species, _Cussonia Nigerica_, a small tree
of peculiar habit.
RUBIACEÆ by _Adina microcephala_, a fair-sized tree by bush streams; by
very numerous small trees and shrubs, e.g. _Crossopteryx Kotschyana_,
_Sarcocephalus Russegeri_, _Pavetta Barteri_, _Feretia canthioides_, the
_Gardenia erubescens_ and the Gauden kura, _G. ternifolia_, the Giyaiya,
_Mitragyne Africana_, typical of the islets of foliage clothing the
grassy swamps, _Morelia Senegalensis_ on stream-banks, and by more
humble but abundant species of _Oldenlandia_, _Spermacoce_, _Octodon_,
etc.
SAPOTACEÆ by the Shea Butter Tree, _Butyrospermum Parkii_, probably the
most characteristic member of the association.
EBENACEÆ by the African Ebony, _Diospyros mespiliformis_.
APOCYNACEÆ typically by the arrow-poison woody climber _Strophanthus
sarmentosus_, which is always wild, and _S. hispidus_, which is
generally planted near villages—both species called Kwankwanni; also by
the more common and inferior rubber vine, _Landolphia florida_, and
shrubs _Carissa edulis_ and _Cryptolepis Nigritiana_, the woody twiners
_Tacazzea Barteri_ and other _spp._, with numerous others.
ASCLEPIADACEÆ by the very typical giant milkweed Tumfafiya, _Calotropis
procera_, probably always in association with man, the smaller
undershrub _Asclepias lineolata_, and several suffrutescent herbs with
tuberous and sometimes edible rootstocks of the genera _Xysmalobium_ and
_Schizoglossum_.
LOGANIACEÆ by _Strychnos spinosa_, _S. alnifolia_, and _S.
triclisioides_, all shrubs or small trees.
BORAGINACEÆ by _Cordia Abyssinica_, a small tree, the undershrub
_Trichodesma Africanum_, three or four weeds of the genus
_Heliotropium_, etc.
BIGNONIACEÆ by _Stereospermum Kunthianum_, a small tree, and the
Aduruku, _Newbouldia lævis_, confined to towns and rarely more than a
tall, slender shrub; the Rahaina or Rawuya, _Kigelia Æthiopica_, occurs,
but in an interrupted distribution.
VERBENACEÆ by _Vitex Cienkowskii_, a fair-sized tree, _V. diversifolia_,
a small tree or shrub, and undershrubs such as _Lantana salvifolia_,
_Lippia Ukambensis_, and a few species of _Clerodendron_, etc.
EUPHORBIACEÆ by _Uapaca Guineense_, usually only a rather small tree in
the deciduous forest, _Bridelia ferruginea_ and _B. scleroneura_, both
shrubs, _Phyllanthus floribundus_, forming sometimes thicket-like
clumps, _P. reticulatus_, a shrub, _Flueggea microcarpa_, a white-
berried shrub, _Antidesma venosum_, and very typically by the Jan yaro,
_Hymenocardia acida_, a shrub which in these open regions has nearly
always an ochre-red bark. Numerous herbs and half-woody weeds are
common, belonging to the genus _Euphorbia_ (_E. pilulifera_, _E.
Ægyptiaca_, and congeners), _Acalypha_, _Phyllanthus_, etc., the Castor
Oil shrub (_Ricinus communis_) and the Physic Nut (_Jatropha curcas_)
are cultivated, while thoroughly representative through the whole area
are the familiar cactus-like Tinya, _Euphorbia unispina_ and _E.
Poissoni_, and the Kerana, _E. Barteri_, the latter at least never away
from habitations.
MORACEÆ by a host of species of the genus _Ficus_ (or _Urostigma_) not
yet fully elaborated botanically, e.g. Baure, Chediya, Durumi, Kauriri,
Wa, etc.
ULMACEÆ. A representative variety is _Celtis integrifolia_, a fairly
large tree.
SALICACEÆ by one species of _Salix_.
LORANTHACEÆ by seven or eight species of the parasite _Loranthus_,
called Kauchi, clothing deciduous trees with epiphytic foliage.
Orders represented mainly by flowering herbs, undershrubs, etc., are:
MENISPERMACEÆ by the popular medicinal twiner Jibda kassa, _Cissampelos
Pareira_.
NYMPHEACEÆ by at least four species of Bada or water-lily, _Nymphæa_.
PAPAVERACEÆ by the Yellow Poppy, _Argemone Mexicana_.
CARYOPHYLLACEÆ by species of _Polycarpæa_ characteristic of the dry
zone.
GERANIACEÆ by the familiar weed _Biophytum sensitivum_.
DROSERACEÆ by the widely distributed Sun-dew, _Drosera indica_.
AMPELIDEÆ by numerous vines of the genera _Vitis_, _Cissus_, and
_Ampelocissus_, of which perhaps the most striking are Dodoriya, _Vitis
quadrangularis_, and Dafara, _Vitis pallida_, while wild vines with
edible berries called Tsiberi kinkini are generally of one or other
species of _Ampelocissus_.
CUCURBITACEÆ by the familiar cultivated Kabeova or pumpkin, _Cucurbita
Pepo_, and Duma, the bottle-gourd, _Lagenaria vulgaris_, with its
endless varieties, the Guna or water-melon, _Citrullus vulgaris_, and by
many wild and half-wild species, e.g. the Balsam Apple, _Momordica
balsamina_, the Loofah gourd, _Luffa Ægyptiaca_ and _L. acutangula_,
_Cucumis prophetarum_, and one or more species of tuberous-rooted
_Trochomeria_.
FICOIDEÆ by common succulent weeds, e.g. _Trianthema monogyna_, _T.
pentandra_, and _Gisekia pharnaceoides_, and by species of _Mollugo_ in
river-beds, etc.
COMPOSITÆ by some weeds of cosmopolitan distribution, e.g. _Ageratum
conyzoides_, _Eclipta alba_, etc., and by very numerous herbs and
suffrutescent plants, amongst which the genus _Vernonia_ is the most
abundantly represented, including one typical of the region, viz. _V.
nigritiana_, with several species of _Aspillia_, _Coreopsis_, etc., and
the chewstick shrub, _Vernonia amygdalina_.
MELASTOMACEÆ by a few species of _Dissotis_ and _Osbeckia_.
CAMPANULACEÆ by a common little blue-flowered weed, _Cephalostigma
Perrottetii_, and a water herb, _Sphenoclea Zeylanica_.
HYDROPHYLLACEÆ by three or more species of _Hydrolea_, e.g. _H.
Guineensis_, etc.
LENTIBULACEÆ by ten or more species of _Utricularia_.
CONVOLVULACEÆ, a conspicuous order, well represented by numerous species
of _Ipomæa_, a few of _Merremia_, and a few erect undershrubs of the
genus _Astrochlæna_, to which one may add the little blue-flowered weed
_Evolvulus alsinoides_, of wide distribution in the world.
SOLANACEÆ by the “Thorn Apple,” _Datura Metel_, by numerous species of
_Solanum_, some edible, e.g. the several cultivated varieties of the
native bitter tomato, Gauta, varieties of _S. Melongena_; others
poisonous, e.g. Gautan kura, _Solanum incanum_, and others; also by two
common weeds of the genus _Physalis_, and the popular herb simple,
Dandana, _Schwenkia Americana_.
SCROPHULARIACEÆ by _Scoparia dulcis_, of world-wide distribution, and by
several parasitic species of _Striga_, of which the most familiar is the
Makasar adwa, _S. Senegalensis_. Besides numerous humble weeds of
cosmopolitan genera, e.g. _Moniera_, _Ilysanthes_, etc., mostly
occurring in damp places, two or three species of _Sopubia_ may be taken
as characteristic of the bush-lands.
ACANTHACEÆ by a variety of weeds, etc., of the genera _Blepharis_,
_Monechma_, _Justicia_, etc., to which the following may be added as
characteristic of the Order in Hausaland: _Nelsonia campestris_, a soft
herb of slightly acid taste, _Peristrophe bicalyculata_, an occasional
fodder plant, and _Dyschoriste Perrottetii_, the mucilaginous seeds of
which are used to remove spicules from the eye.
PEDALIACEÆ by the locally cultivated Ridi, _Sesamum Indicum_, and other
wild species of _Sesamum_, by the weed _Ceratotheca sesamoides_, and by
the half-shrubby _Rogeria adenophylla_.
LABIATÆ by several cultivated tubers, such as the Tumuku and Risga, by
odorous species of _Ocimum_ and _Æolanthus_, e.g. the Dodoya, _Ocimum
Americanum_, the weed _Acrocephalus polytrichus_, and by many common
herbs of various other genera.
AMARANTHACEÆ by the native spinage, Alayafu, _Amaranthus caudatus_, the
Zaki banza, _A. viridis_, a wild species sometimes cultivated, and by
several of the common weeds found in other countries—_Celosia argentea_,
_Pupalia lappacea_, etc.
THYMELÆACEÆ by the poisonous Tururibi, _Lasiosyphon Kraussii_, a yellow-
flowered, low, suffruticose plant with a woody rootstock, and by two of
three species of _Gnidia_.
ARISTOLOCHIACEÆ by the twiner _Aristolochia albida_.
LAURACEÆ by the leafless twiner _Cassytha Guineensis_.
The Monocotyledonous Orders may be said to be represented as follows:
HYDROCHARITACEÆ by the yellow-flowered aquatic herbs _Ottelia
lancifolia_ and _Boottia Abyssinica_.
ORCHIDACEÆ by a fair number of tuberous terrestrial orchids, of which
_Lissochilus arenarius_ is the most typical, several _Habenarias_ and
_Eulophias_, and a very few epiphytes, e.g. _Ansellia Congoensis_.
SCITAMINEÆ abundantly by _Kœmpferia Æthiopica_ in open woods, _Costus
afer_ in shady ravines, and Fitta, the food-wrapper leaf, _Clinogyne
filipes_, in streams, etc.
IRIDACEÆ by several species of _Gladiolus_, e.g. _G. quartinianus_, and
of _Tritonia_.
AMARYLLIDACEÆ by _Crinum yuccæflorum_, the red-flowered _Hæmanthus
rupestris_, _Pancratium trianthum_, and _Curculigo Gallabatensis_.
TACCACEÆ by the tuberous _Tacca involucrata_.
DIOSCOREACEÆ by _Dioscorea prehensilis_ and other cultivated yams,
chiefly in the South or on pagan hills, and by some species which are
either wild or escapes.
LILIACEÆ by several species of _Urginea_, e.g. _U. Nigritiana_, _U.
Indica_, etc., by other bulbous species of the genera _Anthericum_,
_Dipcadi_, etc., by the climbing lily, _Gloriosa superba_, several
species of _Chlorophytum_, _Aloe Barteri_, and by prickly scramblers
such as _Asparagus Pauli-Guilelmi_, _Smilax Kraussiana_, etc.
ALISMATACEÆ by some flowering water-plants, e.g. _Burnatia enneandra_,
_Lophotocarpus Guyanensis_, etc.
COMMELINACEÆ by various species of _Aneilema_—_A. lanceolatum_, _A.
Sinicum_, etc., of _Commelyna_—_C. nudiflora_, _C. umbellata_, etc., and
of _Floscopa_ and _Cyanotis_.
PALMÆ by the Giginya, _Borassus flabellifer_, var. _Æthiopum_, the
Goriba, _Hyphæne Thebaica_, chiefly in the North, and the Tukuruwa or
Bamboo Palm, _Raphia vinifera_, in ravines only.
AROIDEÆ by _Culcasia scandens_, by the Kinchia with yellow rhizome,
_Stylochiton Dalzielii_, _Amorphophallus Barteri_ and _A.
dracontioides_, _Anchomanes Dalzielii_, and other species.
CYPERACEÆ by very numerous species of _Cyperus_, e.g. the edible Aya,
_C. esculentus_, and the uncultivated Aya aya, _C. rotundus_, _C.
Fenzelianus_, etc., and several of _Pycreus_, _Fimbristylis_,
_Kyllingia_, _Bulbostylis_, etc.
GRAMINEÆ by the predominant tribe, _Andropogoneæ_, with numerous other
genera—_Eragrostis_, _Aristida_, _Digitaria_, _Pennisetum_, _Chloris_,
etc., and by a single locally distributed bamboo, _Oxytenanthera
Abyssinica_. The chief cereal is Guinea Corn, Dawa, _Sorghum vulgare_;
both species of sugar-cane, Rake, _Saccharum officinarum_, and Takanda,
_Sorghum vulgare_, var. _saccharatum_, are cultivated.
The FILICES are poorly represented by the widely distributed Adder’s
Tongue, _Ophioglossum vulgatum_, the water-fern, _Cratopteris
Thalictroides_, by _Adiantum lunulatum_, _A. Schweinfurthii_, and a few
species of _Nephrodium asplenium_, etc., by no means typical of the
region.
Having thus given a bird’s-eye view of the floral composition in the
central region of Hausaland, one may proceed to examine the variations
revealed in passing south to the semi-evergreen forests and north to the
drier open savannahs.
Southwards the transition is gradual, and nowhere abrupt, from forest
savannah with annual bush-fires and consequent tendency to revert to
grass, to forests in which the number of species is greater and the
deciduous element is more mingled with evergreens, either by the
persistence of species which in a drier region are deciduous, but retain
their foliage where the increased rainfall allows of this variation, or
by the appearance of species which always possess the evergreen habit.
_Bombax buonopozense_ is an example of the former and probably also
_Afzelia Africana_ and several others.
Some of the added constituents either absent from or more rare in the
area of lesser rainfall are:
ANONACEÆ: _Xylopia parviflora_, _Hexalobus Senegalensis_, _Popowia
Mannii_.
CAPPARIDACEÆ: _Ritchiea sp._, _Capparis viminea_, etc.
BIXINEÆ: _Oncoba spinosa_.
STERCULIACEÆ: _Cola laurifolia_.
RUTACEÆ: the Fasa kwari, _Zanthoxylum Senegalense_.
MELIACEÆ: _Trichilia retusa_.
ANACARDIACEÆ: _Spondias lutea_, _Hæmatostaphis Barteri_, and the
cultivated mango.
SAPINDACEÆ: _Blighia sapida_.
CONNARACEÆ: scrambling shrubs, e.g. species of _Agelæa_ and _Cnestis_.
[Illustration: FIG. 38.—=Marsh or “Fadama,” with islets of foliage,
Benué overflow, near Yola.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 39.—=The Lower Niger in flood.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 40.—=Fringing Forest on River Benué in the rainy
season.=]
To face p. 196.
LEGUMINOSÆ: _Tetrapleura Thonningii_, _Piptadenia Africana_,
_Erythrophlœum Guineense_, _Cynometra Vogelii_, _Pterocarpus
esculentus_, _Dialium Guineense_, _Millettia sp._ near _M. Sanagana_ and
other species of _Millettia_, _Cordyla Africana_, _Berlinia Heudelotii_,
_Cæsalpinia Bonducella_, _Lonchocarpus cyanescens_, _Baphia pubescens_
and _B. nitida_.
ROSACEÆ: _Parinarium subcordatum_.
COMBRETACEÆ: several species of scarlet-flowered _Combretum_ of climbing
habit—_C. racemosum_, _C. constrictum_, etc.
MYRTACEÆ: _Napoleona Vogelii_.
RUBIACEÆ: _Morinda citrifolia_, _Cuviera acutiflora_, _Canthium
Vanguerioides_, _Ixora radiata_, _Uncaria Africana_, _Oxyanthus
unilocularis_, some species of _Mussænda_, etc.
RHIZOPHORACEÆ: _Weihea Africana_.
SAPOTACEÆ: _Mimusops sp._
APOCYNACEÆ: _Voacanga obtusa_ and _V. Africana_, _Landolphia Owariensis_
and other _spp._, _Carpodinus hirsuta_, _Pleioceras Barteri_, and the
tree Wadda, _Rauwolfia sp._ near _R. Welwitschii_.
LOGANIACEÆ: _Anthocleista Vogelii_.
CONVOLVULACEÆ: _Calonyction speciosum_, _Merremia umbellata_, etc.
BIGNONIACEÆ: _Spathodea campanulata_.
ACANTHACEÆ: _Acanthus montanus_, _Asystasia Coromandeliana_, etc.
VERBENACEÆ: _Vitex chrysocarpa_ and _V. Angolensis_.
PIPERACEÆ: _Piper umbellatum_ and _Piperomia pellucida_.
GESNERACEÆ: _Streptocarpus nobilis_.
EUPHORBIACEÆ: _Alchornea cordata_, _Mallotus oppositifolius_.
MORACEÆ: _Chlorophora excelsa_, _Ficus Vogelii_ and other _spp._,
_Myrianthus serratus_.
ULMACEÆ: _Trema Guineensis_.
AMPELIDEÆ: _Leea Guineensis_.
POLYGALACEÆ: the cultivated _Polygala butyracea_ and the dwarf species,
_P. Clarkeana_.
BALANOPHORACEÆ: the root-parasite _Thonningia sanguinea_.
Amongst Monocotyledonous Orders the _Scitamineæ_ are more in evidence,
_Palisota thyrsiflora_ (_Commelinaceæ_) appears (along with a _Begonia_
on moist rocks—_B. rostrata_), and the water-loving Aroid, _Cyrtosperma
Senegalense_.
The Oil Palm, _Elæis Guineensis_, becomes locally common, ferns become
epiphytic, and the Elk’s-horn fern, _Platycerium Æthiopicum_, appears.
Northwards the savannah forests, with plenty of broad-leaved trees and
shrubs, or the open park-like formations with surface well covered with
grasses and herbs, give way in some places to still drier Acacia
forests, and in others to open areas of scrub, nearly treeless, the soil
possessed by grasses and low, scattered shrubs, often thorny.
Nevertheless, good pastures are often to be found, frequented by the
Fulani in the comparatively short rainy season, and only at some points
towards the French boundary do the conditions approach those described
by Barth in the latitude of Zinder and Timbuctoo. For example, part of
North Bornu, with a rainfall sometimes not exceeding 10 inches, may
exhibit features entitling it to rank with the upper region of
Chevalier’s “Zone Sahélienne.” A typical association in these scrub
regions is familiar to the Hausas in three of the plants mentioned
below, viz. the Sabarra, _Guiera Senegalensis_, the Magariya, _Zizyphus
jujuba_, and the Dashi, _Balsamodendron Africanum_. Sokoto, with an
average rainfall of 25 or more inches, still possesses thinly treed
savannahs and bush-lands, with a vegetation composed of grasses, small
sedges, low shrubs and the commoner leguminous and other weeds.
Nor does the transition occur evenly across the whole region. In the
eastern part between Kano and North Bornu the Acacia type prevails, and
whole areas may occur occupied largely by _Acacia Seyal_, with yellow or
rusty ochrey bark. On the western side Acacias, though present, do not
appear to prevail, and between Kano and Sokoto there exists a stretch of
broad-leaved forest in which most of the species found in Central
Hausaland reappear, but after all these differences may be found to hold
only over limited areas.
The wide and well populated circle around large northern towns, highly
cultivated and more or less stripped of trees to supply fuel does not
quite display the natural conditions of the bush, where uncontrolled
fires prevent natural regeneration of forest on cleared land, and where
open grassy formations with stunted vegetation tend to encroach on the
higher types of tree savannah.
The species more characteristic of the northern drier belt within the
Soudan Zone—if an arbitrary limit is allowed we may place it about 12°
North latitude—may now be briefly indicated, though it will be
understood that many of them are already present farther south.
CAPPARIDACEÆ: most of the species of _Capparis_, _Boscia_ and _Mærua_
existing farther south here prevail; the low shrub _Boscia Senegalensis_
is common, while _Cadaba farinosa_ is a characteristic shrub.
SIMARUBEÆ: the Aduwa, _Balanites Ægyptiaca_, is a typical species of
this region.
BURSERACEÆ: the Dashi, _Balsamodendron Africanum_, a shrub yielding
African Myrrh, is familiar, with its congener _B. pedunculatum_.
RHAMNACEÆ: the Kurna, _Zizyphus Spina-Christi_, usually planted in
towns, the Magariya, _Z. jujuba_, and the Magariyar kura, _Z.
mucronata_, the last two being very characteristic of the open savannah.
ANACARDIACEÆ: the Danya, _Spondias sp._, a fair-sized tree with yellow,
plum-like fruit having a leathery rind, is abundant.
LEGUMINOSÆ: Acacias are the most typical, but are not as a rule markedly
flat-topped, e.g. _A. Seyal_, _A. Senegal_, _A. albida_ var.
_saccharata_, _Dichrostachys platycarpa_, forming thorny thickets, while
_Entada Sudanica_, _Acacia Sieberiana_, _A. campylacantha_, _Albizzia
Chevalieri_ and others are also evident. _Parkinsonia aculeata_ is found
in towns; the Tripoli or Senegal Senna, Filasko, _Cassia obovata_, is
common, and the Tsamiya, _Tamarindus Indica_, becomes a predominant
tree.
ROSACEÆ: the Ginger-bread Plum, Gawasa, _Parinarium macrophyllum_, is
more familiar.
COMBRETACEÆ: the Geza, _Combretum sp._ near _C. altum_, a shrub or small
tree, with several gum-yielding trees of the same genus; the low shrub
Sabarra, _Guiera Senegalensis_, is perhaps the most typical plant of the
nearly treeless savannah.
CUCURBITACEÆ: the half-wild Gurji, _Cucumis Melo_, var. _agrestis_, is
common, and the Bambus, a variety of water-melon, is known in the North.
RUBIACEÆ: a characteristic species is _Randia Nilotica_, a thorny shrub;
_Gardenia Sokotensis_ is a new species found on low rocky hills.
APOCYNACEÆ: the Kariya, _Adenium Honghel_, an unarmed cactus-like shrub,
deciduous, with rose-coloured flowers, planted in towns, is
characteristic.
ASCLEPIADACEÆ: the small milk-weed, _Glossonema Nubicum_, and the
twiners _Oxystelma Bornuense_, _Pergularia tomentosa_ and _Leptadenia
lancifolia_, are all abundant, while the Karan masallachi, _Caralluma
Dalzielii_, generally planted farther south, is found wild on bare rocky
places.
EUPHORBIACEÆ: very typical are the two milk hedge Euphorbias, Aguwa, _E.
sepium_, and Fidda sartsi, _E. lateriflora_.
MORACEÆ: species of _Ficus_ planted for shade grow to a large size,
especially the Chediya, _F. Thonningii_, and the Durumi, _F.
syringifolia_; other species generally start as epiphytes.
The GRAMINEÆ is the prevailing Natural Order of Monocotyledons, and
includes all types—little annuals, perennial-rooted _Andropogons_, etc.,
and the Burugu, _Panicum stagninum_, which blocks the streams. The
fragrant Nobe, _Cymbopogon Sennariensis_, is a characteristic tufted
species, whilst the bur-grass Karangia, _Cenchrus catharticus_, has long
since spread far southward.
Rice and wheat are cultivated; the Bulrush Millet, Gero, _Pennisetum
typhoideum_, tends to displace _Sorghum_, and a wild rice, _Oryza
silvestris_, is found. The cultivated sugar-cane is the Takanda,
_Sorghum vulgare_, var. _saccharatum_.
Of LILIACEÆ the onion and garlic are features of cultivation. Several
bulbous herbs not peculiar to the North are common, e.g. _Dipcadi
occidentale_, _Urginea spp._, etc.
The Goriba or Dum Palm, _Hyphæne Thebaica_, is predominant, accompanied
also by the Giginya or Deleb Palm, while the Date begins to appear.
Within the limits of the Soudan Zone of vegetation many different types
of savannah may be found, besides the expected alterations in botanical
groupings resulting from the presence of perennial moisture or due to
elevation and rocky outcrop. Leaving the latter out of account, a few
notes may be made of some of the varieties familiar to travellers in the
Northern Provinces.
1. _Tree Savannah or Savannah Forest_.
Across a considerable area of Central Hausaland, e.g. occupying a large
part of the Zaria plateau west of the Bauchi Highlands, the country,
where not cleared for farming, is covered with an open deciduous forest
of fair height. This is a fairly closely wooded type, and although it
contains few truly evergreen elements apart from those lining the
streams, there is, perhaps owing to differing vegetative periods for
different species and to the double flowering season noted for many
trees in West Africa, practically always a fair amount of foliage
present. A proportion of the trees have well developed stems and fairly
high crowns, with a leafy canopy which filters but never excludes direct
sunlight, and the average height of the larger trees is from 30 to 40
feet. In the best developed portions of such forest the grasses do not
predominate, but frequent clearings or patches of stony outcrop lead to
the open conditions in which hardy perennial grasses take root, and
annual burning results in the encroachment and multiplication of areas
of the lower bush savannah referred to below.
This variety of forest is typically seen in Zaria province, e.g. between
the village of Ruka and the Koriga stream, near which point a sudden
drop in elevation occurs, and is familiar in parts of South Sokoto,
Kontagora and Nassarawa, etc. _Lophira alata_ has its chief habitat
here, but perhaps the prevailing and most characteristic tree is one
called Doka, which has been identified as _Isoberlinia doka_, Craib, et
Stapf. It has broad, shining leaves, and large, flat 5-6 seeded pods
which dehisce with curling valves. It seeds abundantly, and young
seedlings spring up quickly in the forest or by wayside clearings, etc.
Along with it will be found its congener, the Fara doka, _Isoberlinia
Dalzielii_, Craib, et Stapf., less abundant, and differing as to its
more obvious features in having leaves not shining, a paler grey bark
and a general slight degree of pubescence of all parts. Both species
exude a coarse red resin, which does not appear to be of value.
Most of the arborescent species mentioned in the list of the average
association detailed above are to be found, sometimes harbouring
epiphytic _Ansellias_ and a few woody climbers but no typical lianes,
and an undergrowth composed of Leguminous and Composite herbs and
undershrubs with some grasses. This type of forest probably at one time
covered a much wider area and had a greater extension northward than at
present. As mentioned above, a large proportion of its constituents may
again be found in the Duru forest between Sokoto and Kano, while within
the memory of officials of the present administration areas of woodland
previously visible from Sokoto have been denuded for firewood. It tends
progressively to give place to the following more open variety of
savannah.
2. _Bush Savannah_.
This is probably the form of “bush” with which travelling officials,
hunters, and others are most familiar in every province, and is, when
not overloaded with tall grass, deserving of the term “open orchard
savannah.” It is composed of scattered shrubs and small trees of short
growth and of a considerable sameness, the whole picture being
practically filled in with grasses, which may grow to a height of 6 to 8
feet in the rains, but which are swept off by bush-fires in the dry
period, leaving bare the intervening spaces, soon to be reoccupied by
suffrutescent plants with persistent rootstocks, and later by weeds and
the same grasses as before. This resurrection is not due to seeding,
which is itself abundant, but mainly to the fact that the majority of
bush grasses have perennial underground stems, which, once given
occupation, are difficult to dislodge, and, assisted by the recurrent
fires, which kill off the seeds and the seedlings of broad-leaved trees,
have everything in favour of their natural progress to predominance.
The commoner bush grasses of this habit found here are: _Andropogon
Gayanus_, _Cymbopogon Ruprechtii_, _C. diplandrus_, _C. giganteum_, _C.
hirtus_, _C. rufus_, _Andropogon tectorum_, _A. apricus_, _Rottbœllia
exaltata_, _Pennisetum pedicellatum_, etc. In clumps, generally found in
special situations, e.g. near river banks, etc., are _Vetiveria
zizanoides_, _Saccharum spontaneum_, _Arundo donax_, etc. It is possible
that some of these species which now cumber the soil might be put to use
in supplying the raw material for paper.
The prevailing shrubs and small trees of this formation are generally
somewhat as follows: _Bauhinia reticulata_ and _B. rufescens_, _Detarium
Senegalense_, several species of _Combretum_ with the dwarf _C.
herbaceum_; also _Afrormosia laxiflora_ and occasional _Acacias_, e.g.
_A. Sieberiana_, _Entada Sudanica_, _Dichrostachys nutans_; bright
flowering species, such as _Cochlospermum tinctorium_; several shrubby
species of _Hibiscus_; _Cassia Arereh_, _C. Goratensis_ and other
species, _Lonchocarpus laxiflorus_, _Securidaca longipedunculata_,
_Grewia mollis_, _Feretia canthioides_; the _Gardenias_—_G. ternifolia_,
_G. erubescens_, etc.; _Stereospermum Kunthianum_, _Sarcocephalus
Russegeri_, _Parinarium curatellæfolium_, _Psorospermum Senegalense_,
_Ximenia Americana_, _Anona Senegalensis_, _Pseudocedrela Kotschyi_,
_Strychnos spinosa_ and other _spp._, _Bridelia ferruginea_,
_Hymenocardia acida_, _Gymnosporia Senegalensis_. Occasional larger
trees will often be species of _Terminalia_, _Prosopis oblonga_,
_Butyrospermum Parkii_, _Lophira alata_, _Vitex Cienkowskii_, _Sterculia
tomentosa_, _Pterocarpus erinaceus_, or even _Afzelia Africana_ and
_Paradaniellia Oliveri_.
In the above association remark must be made of the Taura, _Detarium
Senegalense_, which is here rarely of dimensions meriting the
designation of tree, and therefore very different from the large timber
known in the southern forests and found also on the forested slopes of
Patti at Lokoja; of the Makarfo, a tree of twisted habit, not often over
30 feet high, with flaking bark, apparently much inferior to the
_Afrormosia laxiflora_, if it is this species, in the greater mixed
deciduous forests farther south; and of the Tsada, _Ximenia Americana_,
which is here unarmed, has rather thin, glabrous leaves, sometimes
almost shining, and thus differs in habit from the coastal variety, if
the identity is certain, which is spiny, has dull leaves sometimes half-
succulent, and is appropriately called by the French “Citron de la mer.”
3. _Park Savannah._
The open park-like formation is another which is typical of this region.
It is, perhaps, best seen where the population is not quite sparse, as
in the latter case the previous type tends to take possession. The Shea
Butter Tree is the one which more than any other gives the tone to this
type, but _Parkia filicoidea_ and, especially in the North, the Tamarind
are perhaps equally representative. The two first-named, though not
necessarily indicating the proximity of a village, have probably in most
cases owners, and the intervening spaces may or may not be more or less
cultivated. Open park-like country may, however, occur apart from any
contemporary interference by man, and wide stretches of it appear
alternating with scattered orchard bush or with open grass-land. The
grasses are of the previously mentioned types, with many species of
_Eragrostis_, _Aristida_, small annual tufted grasses and sedges, along
with _Cassia mimosoides_, _Oldenlandia grandiflora_, _O. Senegalensis_
and other Leguminous and Rubiaceous weeds. Other trees which well
maintain the park-like appearance are _Terminalia macroptera_,
occasional species of _Ficus_, _Vitex Cienkowskii_, _Acacia Arabica_ and
_A. Sieberiana_.
In flat, wide-stretching meadows which are often marshy in the rains,
this formation also maintains its character, single trees or island-like
clusters of tree and shrub dotting the expanse of heavy grass which is
burnt to desolation by the yearly fires. These islets are generally
found to be composed of Giyaiya, _Mitragyne Africana_, with shrubs such
as _Feretia canthioides_, _Sarcocephalus Russegeri_, and scrambling
undershrubs added thereto, while the edge of such a meadow or “fadama”
is in some cases fringed with deciduous high woods, in which
occasionally timbers like _Khaya Senegalensis_ and _Paradaniellia
Oliveri_ may appear along with the vegetation characteristic of Type 1.
4. _Evergreen Fringing Belts._
Along the water-courses which intersect the savannah lands will be found
dark evergreen strips of foliage, which, when extending beyond the
stream-banks and forming a fairly dense canopy, whatever the nature of
the underwood, are generally implied in the Hausa word “kurumi.” The
streams may not be always truly perennial, but the verdure remains
because the moisture in the soil persists long enough to maintain the
non-deciduous type, although bush-fires may reach their very margins.
Where a perennial stream of any magnitude occurs, species will be found
whose distribution in the Soudan Zone is confined to such localities,
but which are widely represented in the South.
Instead of enumerating the constituents of these strips of fringing
forest, we may briefly refer to the vegetation of the River Benué, which
has been already indicated as in some degree marking the boundary
between the semi-evergreen or mixed deciduous forests and the drier tree
savannah and open bush lands. The evergreen galleries along the streams
or fringing the swampy glades may be taken as on the whole botanically
similar to the bank foliage of the Benué and its backwaters, creeks and
tributaries. One feature of this type is the abundance of woody
climbers, often concealing the foliage of their supports, and
conspicuous to the eye in the flowering season are the _Combretaceæ_,
which are here scrambling and climbing shrubs instead of erect trees,
e.g. the flame-flowered _Combretum racemosum_, _C. constrictum_, etc.,
_Quisqualis Indica_ and others; also two or three species of
_Landolphia_ with other rubber vines, and of _Mussænda_, scarlet-fruited
_Connaraceæ_, _Uncaria Africana_, climbing by its old flower-stalks
becoming woody hooks, and _Alchornea cordata_, the most typical liane of
these formations. Other twiners are the showy moon-convolvulus,
_Calonyction speciosum_ (_Ipomæa bona-nox_), the Cowhage, _Mucuna
pruriensis_, _Dioclea reflexa_, _Entada scandens_ and numerous
_Ampelideæ_. These tend to form a dense and sometimes impenetrable
tangle, but where trees of timber size occur the undergrowth is more
scanty and a variety of forest weeds appear, in which the _Scitamineæ_
may be prominent.
The Benué region is rich in trees, of which the following species may be
mentioned: Goron ruwa, _Irvingia Smithii_, and Gedar kurumi,
_Pterocarpus esculentus_, _Trichilia retusa_, the large timber tree
called Kiriyar kurumi (undetermined), _Erythrophlœum Guineense_,
_Millettia sp._, _Sanagana_ and _M. sericeus_, _Cynometra Vogelii_,
_Anthocleista nobilis_, _Berlinia Heudelotii_, _Baphia nitida_,
_Chlorophora excelsa_, _Cola laurifolia_, _Parinarium subcordatum_,
_Kigelia Æthiopica_, _Uapaca Guineensis_ (here a large tree and
sometimes prop-rooted), _Ficus spp._ Smaller trees and shrubs are:
_Spathodea campanulata_, _Voacanga obtusa_ and _V. Africana_, _Morinda
citrifolia_, _Xylopia parviflora_, _Zanthoxylum Senegalense_, _Oncoba
spinosa_, _Vangueria euonymoides_, _Ixora radiata_, _Polysphæria
macrostyla_, _Garcinia ovalifolia_, _Myrianthus serratus_, _Elæis
Guineensis_ and _Raphia vinifera_. Not all of these extend far beyond
the Benué, but the majority of them will be found in one or other
fringing belt far into the deciduous region, and perhaps the two which
best represent this extension of the semi-evergreen to the savannah are
the woody climber _Alchornea cordata_ and the tree _Irvingia Smithii_.
In a general view, Northern Nigeria, thus lying beyond the equatorial
belt, possesses plant features which, apart from river and stream
fringes, range between the mixed deciduous and xerophilous habit, and in
the dry season the prevailing character of the open savannah forests is
a monotonous drab or grey, intersected by the dark lines of greenery
following the streams or encircling the swamps. The climate is largely
of the continental type, with a temperature ranging from 120° F. to 40°
or less (exclusive of thermometer readings on the Bauchi plateau), and a
rainfall which throughout will usually fall between 30 and 50 or 60
inches, with diminution to 20 or even 10 inches in the most northerly
provinces. Such a climate, with the concomitant regularity of two, not
four, well marked seasons, the dry and the wet, is entirely that
associated with the occurrence of savannah formations, scattered bush
with prevailing grasses, suffrutescent herbs and small trees, much open
grass or thinly timbered park-land, with stretches of thick woods which
are generally not heavily grassed and never cumbered with impenetrable
undergrowth.
Trees which are valuable timber species in the moist southern forests
often scarcely attain reputable dimensions in the deciduous zone.
These conditions also, which are doubtless partly the result of ill-
considered human operations, put certain definite restrictions on
cultivated species and determine the character of the natural products
of the wild. The staple cereal is Dawa or _Sorghum_, instead of maize,
with Gero or _Pennisetum typhoideum_ in the North. Possibly the limit of
Guinea Corn as a staple of native cultivation is also the limit of the
savannah forests, i.e. of the region of trees of secondary size, short
of the region of Acacias, of Geza, _Combretum altum_, and of scrub,
where Bulrush Millet is the commoner. Both species are generally
cultivated along with beans, _Vigna Sinensis_. The sweet potato
displaces the yam and cassava; industrial cultivation is represented by
cotton and indigo. Of forest products, the most representative are Shea
nuts and gum arabic, rather than rubber and large timber; and lastly,
both cattle-grazing and horse-breeding are important industries proper
to the region.
VII. SOME TREES OF HAUSALAND.
BY DR. J. M. DALZIEL.
A few notes on some of the better known trees of Northern Nigeria are
here given, the Hausa name being appended in most cases.
_Afrormosia laxiflora_, Harms (Leguminosæ). Makarfo.
In the mixed deciduous forests towards the coast this appears as a large
timber tree, in certain regions dominant both in abundance and size, and
is also a constituent of the moist evergreen forests. In Northern
Nigeria it never forms a straight stem, never attains the dimensions of
a timber tree, and has generally a twisted stem and main branches. Its
habit, therefore, rather than its mere presence, affords a striking
instance of the changes accompanying the limited rainfall of the
savannah forests, and its distribution probably does not extend beyond
the northern boundary. The trunk has a somewhat pale piebald appearance,
resulting from the flaking of large pieces of the bark exposing lighter
portions below. The centre wood is so dark in colour as to have led
European foremen of works to report it as lignum vitæ, and the wood is
hard enough to earn for it in some districts, along with other trees,
the designation “break axe.” It has shining leaves, whitish flowers and
thin, flat pods.
_Afzelia Africana_, Sm. Kawo; “African” or “Rhodesian” Mahogany,
“Mahogany Bean,” etc.
A large tree, common to nearly all types of forest in West Africa,
tropical high forest, mixed deciduous and savannah. In Northern Nigeria
large specimens may still be found, though these do not generally have
tall, straight stems, but show the wide-spreading umbrella crown common
in drier regions.
_Paradaniellia Oliveri_, Rolfe. Kadaura or Maje.
This has previously been classed with _Daniellia thurifera_, Bennett,
the so-called West African Copaiba Balsam Tree.
In the Northern Provinces of Nigeria it is one of the largest trees, 50
to 80 feet, with strong, straight stems and affording good timber for
local use. The chief native use of the oleo resin is to fumigate
garments. Its distribution probably stops short of the northern
boundary.
_Isoberlinia doka_, Craib, et Stapf. Doka.
A tree which is the prevailing type in the savannah forests of Central
Hausaland, generally 30 to 40 feet high, with broad, shining leaves,
rather small white flowers and large flat pods containing five or six
discoid seeds. The valves of the pods curl up after dehiscence, and
young seedlings spring up vigorously where not choked by grass, farm
clearings in Zaria province being often quickly occupied by them.
A coarse red resin exudes from injuries or punctures of the bark.
_Isoberlinia Dalzielii_, Craib et Stapf. Fara doka.
Another new species of similar occurrence and habit, differing in having
a more grey appearance associated with a slight pubescence, leaves not
shining and pods less smooth. A species of the wild silkworm, _Anaphe
Moloneyi_, and perhaps others, are found on them.
_Pterocarpus erinaceus_, Poir. Madobia; “Senegal Rosewood,” “African
Kino,” etc.
A tree generally of 30 to 40 feet or more in open savannah forests,
easily recognized by its bright yellow flowers, the regular venation of
the leaves, and the bristly, flat, one-seeded pods. The blood-red resin
is a variety of Kino, and in districts where the Camwood is not found,
the bark of Madobia is sometimes sold as a substitute. The wood is hard
and fine-grained.
_Cassia Sieberiana_, DC. and C.; _Kotschyana_, Oliv. Marga or Gamafada.
These are small trees with conspicuous yellow flower racemes, having a
superficial resemblance to laburnum. They are abundant in the dry
savannah regions as well as in savannah forest, and flower freely in the
dry season. The pods are long and cylindrical and do not dehisce.
_Cassia Arereh_, Del., is similar, but the leaves are more acuminated
and the pods split up longitudinally.
_Detarium Senegalense_, Gmel. Taura.
A good timber tree in the mixed deciduous and higher savannah forests,
as also in the mountainous peninsula of Sierra Leone. Fairly large
specimens of timber dimensions occur in the rocky forest overlooking
Lokoja, but the Hausa Taura, hitherto identified as botanically the
same, is of a very different habit, abundantly represented in the open
bush savannah as a shrub or small tree having somewhat flattened fruits,
oval, less succulent than, and one-half or one-third the size of, those
shed by the forest specimens.
_Tamarindus Indica_, Zinn. Tsamiya; “Tamarind Tree.”
A very familiar tree in the northern Hausa States and Bornu, as well as
in French territory to the north, but much less common on parts of the
border-line between Southern and Northern Nigeria, so that probably its
actual distribution is local and interrupted. Barth places its limit at
Tagalel, in Damerghu, or about 15° North latitude.
In Hausaland it is a conspicuous tree, less from its dimensions than
from the beauty of its foliage, sometimes umbrella-spreading and at
others compact, and giving a good deal of shade when in full leaf. The
ground becomes littered with the small leaflets in the dry months, and
as a rule little undergrowth is to be found beneath it.
In Sokoto and Kano provinces, and elsewhere in the North, specimens with
a dense, compact and symmetrical crown are common, the branches often
reaching to within 3 or 4 feet of the ground. The fruit has familiar
medicinal and culinary uses, but rarely develops the soft rich pulp of
the Indian specimens. One of the wild silkworms, _Anaphe sp._, feeds on
the leaf, the silken nest being called “Tsamiyar Tsamiya.” A familiar
association which did not escape the notice of Dr. Barth is that of
tamarind and baobab, in which case the former is often without a proper
bole and spreads itself half scandent amongst the stout branches of the
baobab.
_Parkia filicoidea_, Welw. Dorowa; “West African Locust Bean.”
A characteristic tree of the savannah forests, and one of the most
typical members of the open park-like formations. It appears to be
scarce in Bornu, but abundant from Zaria to Katsina, and its northern
limit is probably about 14° North latitude.
The pods afford both food and fodder, the fermented cakes called
Daudawa, made from the seeds, being an article of local commerce. In the
bush, far from villages, Dorowa trees are ownerless, but elsewhere they
are generally private property.
_Burkea Africana_, Hook. Farin makarfo.
A tree of 30 to 40 feet, of irregular distribution in open savannah
forests, fairly common between Yola and Bornu as well as in Southern
Sokoto. It has light, silky foliage, flowers in pendulous, creamy
spikes, and dark, almost black, bark. The hard wood is used for handles
of axes and hoes.
_Prosopis oblonga_, Benth. Kiriya.
A common tree of the savannah region, extending beyond the Anglo-French
boundary, but better developed in the Benué region, where fair timber
specimens occur. The wood is hard, with red centre wood, and takes a
beautiful polish. It is recognized by its acacia-like foliage, spikes of
creamy flowers and stout brown pods, with seeds sometimes used like
those of Dorowa.
_Bauhinia reticulata_, DC. Kargo.
A shrub or small tree, one of the commonest constituents of the bush
savannahs; readily recognized by the cleft leaves, rusty bark and flat,
twisted pods. The tough bark forms an emergency tie-tie, and its long
vast fibres furnish strong cordage, which is its chief use in Northern
Nigeria. The bark and leaves, containing tannin, have astringent uses.
_Acacia Sieberiana_, DC. Fara kaya, or “White Thorn Acacia.”
A very widely distributed species in the deciduous zone, not usually
gregarious and occasionally flat-topped. It is easily recognized by its
generally dark foliage and pale bark, the flowers not yellow, but in
small, creamy-white balls, and by the long white thorns. It yields a
soluble gum, which is perhaps not of the best quality.
_Acacia Arabica_, Willd. Bagaruwa; Indian “Babool.”
One of the commonest species, especially in the northern Hausa States
and Bornu, and a source of gum arabic. The flowers are in bright yellow
balls and the foliage is a good camel food. The jointed pods are “Sant”
or “Gambia” pods, used all over the Soudan for tanning.
_Acacia Senegalensis_, Willd. Dakwora.
Usually only a shrub, not often over 10 feet, sometimes gregarious, and
characteristic of the thin bush savannahs; it has grey bark, flowers in
white spikes, and three sharp recurved stipular hooks at the base of
each leaf.
This species yields probably the best gum from Senegal to Somali, and
the root-bark affords a very tough fibre.
_Acacia albida_, Del., var. _saccharata_, Benth. Gawo.
A fair-sized tree, confined to the open dry country in the North,
extending into French territory, and an important camel food, but not a
gum yielder. The flowers are in creamy-white spikes and the pods are
yellow and twisted. It is peculiarly deciduous in the wet season, and
bursts into foliage just at the cessation of the rains.
_Acacia Seyal_, Del. Dussa; “Talh of the Soudan.”
A rather small tree, not often over 20 feet, but gregarious and very
abundant in North-east Hausaland and Bornu, less common, but local, in
Sokoto, etc. It has a yellow or ochrey bark, white thorns and brilliant
yellow balls of flowers, and the pods are narrow, sickle-curved and
constricted between the seeds. The gum is of good quality, but not equal
to that of _A. Senegal_.
_Acacia campylacantha_, Hochst. “Farichin shafu” (= Falcon’s claw).
A fairly tall tree with white flower-spikes and strongly curved spines
suggesting the native name. It is sometimes gregarious in limited forest
patches, and the gum is said to be good in colour, cleanliness, etc.
[Illustration: FIG. 41.—=A Baobab (Adansonia digitata).=]
[Illustration: FIG. 42.—=Giginya or “Fan Palm” (Borassus flabellifer,
var. Æthiopum), with Water-lilies (Nymphæaceæ).=]
To face p. 208.
_Albizzia Chevalieri_, G. et P. Katsari.
A tree of 30 to 40 feet, common in the more open savannah formations,
especially in the northern districts. It has whitish flower-balls, with
long, pinkish stamens and thin, flat pods. The bark is sometimes used
for tanning.
_Entada Sudanica_, Schweinf. Tawatsa.
A small tree of the savannah forests and open plains, easily
distinguished by the peculiar jointed pods, each embossed seed section
falling out and leaving the empty marginal frame. The flowers are in
yellowish axillary spikes, generally two or three together.
_Mimosa asperata_, Linn. Kaidaji.
Forms dense thorny thickets fringing the open bush streams. The flowers
are in pinkish balls, and the leaves possess the sensitive quality in a
mild degree.
_Lophira alata_, Banks (Ochnaceæ). Mijin kade.
An “African Oak” and one of the most familiar trees of the savannah
forests and open country. It is apparently very similar to _Lophira
procera_, the “Red Ironwood” timber tree of the southern forests;
frequently stunted by forest fires. The seeds yield an oil and the bark
is medicinal. The flowers are in handsome white panicles, appearing
about November or December, and the leaf and habit often give it an
appearance resembling the Shea Butter Tree, but the leaf is beautiful
and finely veined. An extraordinary fact is the widespread belief of
pagan tribes in the efficiency of the leaf as a charm.
_Eriodendron orientale_, Steud. (Malvaceæ). Rimi; “Silk-cotton Tree.”
A giant in the evergreen forests, and still a comparative giant in the
dry zone. In Northern Hausa towns the only very tall trees are Rimi; the
wood is light and the stems are sometimes hollowed out for canoes: the
floss of the seeds is Kapok, and has the usual local uses. Barth says
its distribution eastwards stops at 11° East longitude, and that it is
therefore absent from Bornu proper.
Northwards it apparently scarcely extends beyond the Anglo-French
boundary.
_Bombax buonopozense_, Beauv. Gurjiya; “Red-flowered Silk-cotton Tree.”
A member of the evergreen forests, but quite a common tree of the open
country and savannah forests, sometimes more or less gregarious, and
extending at least beyond the Anglo-French border. It reaches about 40
feet or more in height, with crowded spines on the bark and tulip-like
red flowers appearing during the deciduous period, generally after the
middle of December and in January.
_Adansonia digitata_, B. Juss. Kuka; “Baobab.”
A characteristic tree of the dry savannah regions, often grouped in
inhabited areas, with enormously stout stems, but in height limited to
40 to 60 feet. Specimens of 30 to 40 feet girth are not quite uncommon,
the swollen stem, with soft, spongy wood, being an adaptation to a dry
climate, by storing water to meet excessive transpiration by the leaves.
The bark is smooth and often has a shiny purplish tinge. Apart from
fibre from both bark and wood, the dry fruit pulp and the seeds are
prepared in various ways as food and drink. Large specimens are still
found at Maradi, north of the Sokoto boundary, but chiefly stunted trees
are met with at Zinder.
_Sterculia tomentosa_, G. et P. (Sterculiaceæ). Kukuki.
A member of the semi-evergreen forests and common also in the dry zone
as a medium-sized tree with soft, palmate-shaped leaves and pods four or
five together, splitting to expose the black seeds with yellow arils. A
watery juice from the bark refreshes thirsty travellers and a kind of
gum tragacanth exudes from the trunk.
_Hannoa undulata_, Planch. (Simarubeæ). Namijin gwabsa or Takandar giwa.
(One of two species called by the latter name, _vide_ _Cussonia_.)
A common tree of no great size in the savannah forest. The leaves are
pinnate, with five to seven leaflets on long stalks, the flowers, in
creamy, fragrant panicles, appearing in October or November, and the
fruit is a black plum with unpleasant taste.
_Irvingia Smithii_, Hook. fil.
A tree of evergreen and mixed deciduous forests which invades the
ravines and fringing belts in the savannah region as far at least as
Kontagora. In the Benué region it is a fairly large tree of 40 feet or
more, often gregarious, as in a patch of moist forest opposite Katsina
Allah, along with _Pterocarpus esculentus_. The scarlet fruits are known
as Goron ruwa or Goron biri (i.e. Water or Monkey Kola), and are eaten
by monkeys.
_Balanites Ægyptiaca_, Del. Aduwa; “Desert Date.”
Typical of the Soudan and of the northern drier provinces of Nigeria and
extending into French territory; characterized by its bifoliate
deciduous leaves, spiny habit in dry soil and evergreen bark. The yellow
oval fruit has a thin layer of sugary, bitter-sweet pulp, and the kernel
yields Betu oil.
_Boswellia odorata_, Hutch., and _B. Dalzielii_, Hutch. (Burseraceæ).
Hano or Ararabi.
Two new species of “Frankincense Tree,” yielding a fragrant gum resin.
They reach 30 feet or so in height, have white bark which peels off in
thin sheets, racemes of white flowers and pinnate leaves with serrate
leaflets.
_Commiphora Kerstingii_, Engl. Dali or Bazana.
A small tree, commonly used as a fence support around native compounds.
The bark is smooth and green, and the soft wood can be hollowed out for
quivers.
_Balsamodendron Africanum_, A. Rich. Dashi.
A shrub commoner in the northern regions, extending beyond the Anglo-
French boundary. In arid regions it forms a good hedge, with some
resemblance to the blackthorn. The leaves and bark are fragrant, and it
yields a gum resin which is a variety of African myrrh.
_Khaya Senegalensis_, A. Juss. (Meliaceæ). Madachi; “West African
Mahogany” of the dry zone.
A large tree for the dry savannah region, but one of the smaller of the
mahoganies. In the North, where dry conditions prevail, it tends to
favour the banks of streams or the edges of marshy meadows, and is never
buttressed, but often acquires a good spreading crown. Good timber
specimens have been found on the Gurara River, but apart from this, and
perhaps some other favoured localities, it does not as a rule exceed
about 4 feet to 4½ feet in girth. It occurs from Gambia to Nigeria and
Kamerun, and is again found as a West African element in the flora of
Uganda and Mozambique. Northwards it reaches North Sokoto, but
apparently does not extend to Zinder. The bark is a reputed bitter tonic
in native medicine.
_Pseudocedrela Kotschyi_, Harms. Toman or Tonas; “Dry-zone Cedar.”
In Northern Nigeria this is rarely more than a small to medium-sized
tree of 20 to 30 feet, and not usually of good straight growth, probably
from the effect of annual fires, but yielding a fine wood. The leaflets
are undulate-margined, the flowers are in graceful panicles, appearing
about February and March, and the dry, erect capsules, full of winged
seeds, split from above downwards in five valves. Occasionally little
copses of the species occur, as it seeds freely and numerous seedlings
arise—most of them, however, doomed to perish in the next bush-fire. In
protected localities it might be fostered into a useful timber tree.
Natives find various medicinal uses for the bark.
_Trichilia emetica_, Vahl. Jan sayi.
A fairly common tree across Central Hausaland, not often much over 20
feet in height. It has medicinal properties; the white flowers are
fragrant and used to rub the teeth, and the seeds yield a less important
oil.
_Trichilia retusa_, Oliv.
A large timber tree with tall, straight stems, found in the Benué
region. The flowers are white, appearing about January, in axillary
racemes or below the leaves; the leaflets are generally five or three,
with wide, shallow indentation at the tip.
_Odina Barteri_ (Anacardiaceæ). Faru.
A fair-sized deciduous tree of the savannah forests, with pinnate
pubescent leaves and inconspicuous flowers in pendulous, clustered
racemes. It yields a sort of resin, and the small fruits, tipped with
four sharp points, are eaten by birds.
_? Spondias sp._ Danya.
A very common tree of the drier savannah forests, very abundant in the
North; it has light foliage of pinnate leaves with small leaflets and a
yellow, very pleasantly flavoured fruit, with a tough rind like that of
the mango. The fruits litter the ground in the months of May and June.
The wood is very hard and used for making a heavy kind of basin known as
_akushi_.
_Anogeissus leiocarpus_, G. et P. (Combretaceæ). Marike.
This is one of the “Chew-sticks” of Yoruba, and while occurring in
fringing forests and evergreen patches, it is very common in the open
savannah regions, but probably does not extend beyond the northern
boundary. It may be 50 feet in height, and possesses light, graceful
foliage, pale bark and small yellowish flowers in globose heads, forming
tiny dry two-winged fruits. It affords an inferior gum and is much used
medicinally.
_Terminalia sp._, near _T. macroptera_, G. et P. Baushe.
A fairly large tree, 40 feet or more in height, with the oval winged and
embossed fruits of the genus, along with its congeners, e.g. _T.
Elliotii_, Engl. and Diels, _T. Baumanii_, Engl. and Diels, etc., very
abundant and typical of the savannahs of Northern Nigeria. Bows and
sticks are made from the roots.
_Terminalia macroptera_, G. et P. Kandari.
A smaller tree with much broader leaves, typical of open park-like
formations.
_Combretum spp._
Several arborescent species of _Combretum_ are truly characteristic of
the open and bush savannahs, and are well represented even in the
northern parts, where, however, in some districts, they are replaced by
Acacias. They are practically all gum-bearing; the flowers are small and
yellowish in axillary spikes, but the genus is generally easily
recognized by the fruits having four papery wings and the usually
whorled arrangement of the leaves. The Northern Nigerian species have
not all been fully determined, and the native names are at present
somewhat confused and may include more than one species. Most of them in
this region are shrubs or small trees, occasionally reaching 30 feet or
so, with smooth or hoary foliage. The Taramniya is generally _C.
leonense_, Engl. and Diels; the Chiriri of Sogoto includes probably _C.
Hartmannianum_, Schweinf., and other species; the Dalo is _C.
glutinosum_, Perr., or near it.
_Parinarium curatellæfolium_, Planch (Rosaceæ). Rura.
A small tree, very common in the bush and forest savannah, usually only
about 10 to 15 feet high, with pale leaves and a dry, pear-like fruit.
Of its congeners, _P. macrophyllum_, Sabine, the Gawasa or Gingerbread
Plum, is its representative in most northerly provinces, and _P.
polyandrum_, Benth., with grape-like bunches of purple not edible fruit,
is common in the southern parts of the deciduous region.
_Eugenia Owariensis_, Beauv. (Myrtaceæ). Malmo.
A small tree, generally about 20 to 30 feet in height and always found
in moist places, by streams, etc. It has shining, odorous foliage,
white, fragrant flower-clusters, and a small black-purple, succulent
fruit.
_Cussonia Nigerica_, Hutch. (Araliaceæ). Gwabsa or Takandar giwa.
A new species, occurring in the open and bush savannahs as a small tree
from 10 to 15 feet in height, with peculiar bare, raking branches,
producing at their ends clusters of digitate leaves or of long catkin-
like spikes of inconspicuous flowers. Incisions in the rough, fissured
bark yield a clear gum. (For the native name compare _Hannoa undulata_.)
_Cratæva Adansonii_, G. et P. (Capparideæ). Ingidido.
A small tree, occasionally 20 feet high, fairly abundant in the North,
of local distribution and common in towns. The leaves are trifoliate and
can be used as a vegetable; the flowers are white and the fruit yellow,
spherical, and about the size of a small orange.
_Zizyphus spina-Christi_, Willd. (Rhamnaceæ). Kurna.
A small tree characteristic of the dry open regions and commonly planted
in northern towns. It is generally about 10 to 20 feet high, spiny, with
leaves three-nerved, and a rather dry, edible berry of pleasant taste.
_Z. jujuba_, Lam., is the Magariya, and is similar, but in these regions
generally has less of a stem and is more shrubby and thorny, and is not,
as a rule, planted, though the fruit is even pleasanter.
_Sarcocephalus Russegeri_ (Rubiaceæ). Tafashia.
A shrub, or occasionally a small tree, common in moist meadows, but
found also in the open dry bush. The flowers are in rather large creamy
balls, and the coarse red, succulent fruit is the analogue of the Sierra
Leone peach, _S. esculentus_, Afzel, which grows to a large tree in the
evergreen forests.
_Mitragyne Africana_, Korth. Giyaiya.
This is a characteristic tree of swampy areas in the deciduous regions,
found by streams and marshes or forming island-clumps with a few lesser
shrubs and weeds in the grassy meadows, which dry up in the rainless
months. It is generally from 20 to 30 feet in height and has close,
spherical heads of whitish flowers and smooth, but not shining, leaves
with regular venation.
_Crossopteryx Kotschyana_, Fenzl. Kasfiya.
A small tree of 15 to 20 feet, with foliage resembling that of Giyaiya,
bunches of whitish flowers, and abundant small black, pill-like fruits,
which remain attached long after they are ripe.
_Adina microcephala_, Hiern. Kadanyar rafi.
A fairly tall tree of 30 to 40 feet, found in stream-banks in the
savannah region. It has whitish balls of flowers and tapering smooth
leaves.
_Morelia Senegalensis_, A. Rich. Innuwar bauna.
An evergreen shrub 10 to 20 feet high, common on stream-banks, and found
both in the semi-evergreen forests and in the fringing belts of the
deciduous region. The flowers are white and somewhat fragrant, and the
fruit is spherical, tipped by the tubular remains of the calyx.
_Butyrospermum Parkii_, Kotschii. (Sapotaceæ). Kadanya; “Shea Butter
Tree.”
A typical tree of the savannah hinterlands, and one which gives the
park-like character to many parts of Northern Nigeria, it barely extends
to the northern boundary, and is rarer on the Bornu side. It is
generally 25 to 30 feet high or more, with a dense crown and a curiously
corrugated bark. Flowers, in white, head-like clusters generally appear
about December. The brown, chestnut-like kernels are ripe about July.
The milky juice and the coarser venation of the leaves readily
distinguish this tree from _Lophira alata_.
_Diospyros mespiliformis_, Hochst. (Ebenaceæ). Kanya or Kaiwa; “African
Ebony.”
A fairly large tree, up to about 40 feet in height, in the savannah
forests and open country, extending north to beyond the Anglo-French
boundary, larger in the mixed deciduous forests farther south and in
fringing evergreen belts. The foliage is dark and the bark blackish; the
inconspicuous whitish flowers, of separate sexes on different trees, are
attractive to bees. The wood is white, with a black heartwood, and the
spherical yellow fruits (“Monkey Guava”) have a crisp rind and sweet
edible pulp, with four or five seeds.
_Strychnos spinosa_, Lam. (Loganiaceæ). Kokiya.
A small thorny tree with opposite three- to five-nerved leaves,
conspicuous by its round yellow fruit, which is orange-like, but has a
hard rind and flat seeds embedded in a pleasant acid edible pulp.
_Cordia Abyssinica_, R. Br. (Boragineæ). Aliliba.
A shrub or small tree with broad leaves and white flowers, valued for
the sweet yellow berries, which are used in making sweetmeats.
_Kigelia Æthiopica_, Decne.; var. _Bornuensis_, Sprague (Bignoniaceæ).
Rahaina or Rawuya.
A species of “Sausage Tree,” of irregular distribution in Northern
Nigeria, known in Sokoto, etc., but commoner in the Benué region and in
Bornu (possibly more than one species occurring). It grows to a fairly
large size, with dense foliage and pendulous racemes of lurid purple and
spotted flowers and large, yam-like fruits.
_Stereospermum Kunthianum_, Cham. Jiri or Sansami.
A small tree of the savannah forests, with smooth pale bark, beautiful
pink caducous blossoms and long slender pods.
_Vitex Cienkowskii_, Kotschii et Peyr. (Verbenaceæ). Dinya.
A fairly large tree, chiefly of open forest country and extending at
least as far as the Anglo-French border. The bark is somewhat smooth,
the crown of digitate leaves fairly dense, and the black, damson-like
fruits are used in making molasses and sweetmeats. The natives value the
wood as strong and suitable for local use.
_Uapaca Guineensis_, Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceæ). Ka Jafogo.
In the open country a rather small tree, with the habit of a Ficus, but
becoming a large tree, sometimes prop-rooted, in the Benué region and in
some ravines.
_Chlorophora excelsa_, Benth. and Hook. (Moraceæ). The “Iroko” or
“Odum.”
Some of the splendid Nupé canoes are made of this, but the tree really
belongs to the southern forests, though it occurs in the Benué region
and perhaps in some northward extensions in river valleys.
_Celtis integrifolia_, Lam. Zuwo or Dukki.
This is a fairly large tree of the savannah forest region, found as far
north at least as Sokoto. The leaves are edible and are used as fodder.
_Ficus_ or _Urostigma spp._
This genus has not yet been fully elaborated, and the native names
cannot in all cases be definitely applied to distinct botanical species.
The following appear tp be fairly established: Chediya, _Ficus
Thonningii_, Bl., one of the commonest shade trees, planted in towns and
abundant far North in French territory; Durumi, _F. syringifolia_,
Warb., perhaps equally common, with shining heart-shaped and pointed
leaves; Baure, _F. gnaphalocarpa_, A. Rich. (the rough-leaved species
with soft figs which are sometimes considered edible); Uwar yara, _F.
Capensis_, Thunb. (_sensu lato_), recognized by the wavy or indented-
margined leaves, and especially by the figs being borne in dense
clusters on the trunk; Gamji, _F. platyphylla_, Del. (the source of “Red
Kano Rubber” and the host of one of the wild silkworms, _Anaphe sp._).
Kawuri probably includes _F. kawuri_, Hutch., and _F. glumosa_, Del. Wa
is a species with broadly cordate leaves, strongly veined, and Shirinya
is a narrow-leaved species. _F. Vogelii_, Mig., is a glossy-leaved
rubber-tree, more abundant in ravines and in the moister forests farther
South.
The Gamji and Shirinya, and perhaps some of the others, almost
invariably begin life as epiphytes.
Most of the species have abundant aerial rootlets, and the latex of _F.
Vogelii_, of Gamji, and perhaps of Kawuri and Shirinya, yields rubber of
varying quality.
_Raphia vinifera_, P. Beauv. (Palmeæ). Tukuruwa; “Bamboo Palm,” “Wine
Palm.”
This well-known palm is found in ravines in the savannah region as far
as Zaria province, but is a proper member of swampy patches and moist
forests of the South. Roofing poles and palm-wine are its products most
used in the North.
_Borassus flabellifer_, var. _Æthiopum_, Warb. Giginya; “Deleb,”
“Palmyra” or “Fan Palm.”
The most characteristic palm of Hausaland, with tall, straight and often
beaded stems. The germinating shoots from the planted nuts are a
vegetable called _muruchi_, and the wood and leaves have the familiar
uses in house-building, mat and basket weaving, etc.
_Hyphæne Thebaica_, Mart. Goriba; “Dum” or “Gingerbread Palm.”
The typical palm of the more northerly Hausa provinces, characterized by
its forked stems and obliquely fan-shaped leaves. The kernel and the
rind of the nut are used in certain food preparations, and the fronds
have the usual applications for plaited utensils, etc.
_Phœnix dactylifera_, Linn. Dabino; “Date Palm.”
Introduced by Arabs and confined (with a few exceptions, e.g. at Yola
Mosque) to the Northern towns.
In Kano it may be possible to see the three palms, Deleb, Dum and Date,
together, but the last is in no sense a tree of Hausaland.
J. M. DALZIEL.
[Illustration: FIG. 43.—=Mahogany (Khaya grandis), 6½ years old, showing
bent leader, owing to previous one being eaten out by the leading-shoot
borer.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 44.—=1909 Mahogany (Khaya grandis and K. Punchii).
Plantation after six years’ growth, near road to Chief Conservator’s
House, Olokemeji Arboretum.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 45.—=The largest Mahogany (Khaya Punchii), seven
years old, Olokemeji Arboretum, in the Forest Reserve.=]
To face p. 216.
APPENDIX I
NIGERIAN TREES.—A LIST OF TREES FOR THE NORTHERN PROVINCES
(Hausa names obtained from _Hausa Botanical Vocabulary_, by J. M.
Dalziel.)
_Botanical Name._ _English Name._ _Hausa._
GRAMINEÆ.
Oxytenanthera — Gora.
Abyssinica
PALMÆ.
Raphia vinifera Bamboo Palm, Tukuruwa Gongola or Gwongola
Palm or Wine Palm gwangwala (Nupe),
Tukuruwa; also Murli,
Gangame.
Hyphæne Thebaica Dum Palm or Goriba, Kaba or Kodago
Gingerbread Palm and Kwalo (nut).
Elæis Guineensis Oil Palm Kwakwa.
Cocos nucifera Coconut Palm Kwakwar, Attagura.
Borassus flabellifer, Deleb Palm, Fan or Giginya.
var. Æthiopum Palmyra Palm
SALICACEÆ.
Salix Willow Ba ruwana, syn. Rimni
(Sok.).
ULMACEÆ.
Celtis integrifolia Nettle Tree Dukki or Dunki, syn.
Zuwo (Kano, Zaria,
etc.); also Dinkin.
MORACEÆ.
Artocarpus incisa Breadfruit Barabutu (corruption
of Breadfruit).
Ficus gnaphalocarpa — Baure, Bauren fadama,
Bauren rafi.
Ficus sp. — Bijaje.
Ficus populifolia — Bishiyapl bishiyoyi,
generic.
Ficus Thonningii — Chediya, Gazari or
Gizeri (Hadeija).
Ficus sp. — Danko maiwari.
Ficus sp. Large Fig Dulu.
Ficus syringifolia Small Fig Durumi.
Ficus platyphylla Guttapercha Tree Gamji or Ganji (Kano).
Ficus Capensis — Garicha (Zanfara),
Haguguwa (Kano and
Bauchi), Uwar yara
(Kano and Katagum).
Ficus Kawuri and Ficus — Kawuri.
glumosa
Chlorophora excelsa — Loko.
Ficus sp. — Non gwanki.
Ficus sp. Narrow-leaved Fig Tree Shisinya, syn. Shiriya
(Sok.).
Ficus Vogelii — Taba ni ka samu, cf.
Kurnan nasara and
Zogalagandi.
Ficus sp. — Wa or Ya (Sok.).
Ficus sp. — Wan kurumi.
Ficus Capensis — Uwar yara (Kano,
Katagum), syn.
Haguguwa (Kano,
Bauchi).
ANONACEÆ.
Anona Senegalensis Custard Apple Gwandar daji.
Xylopia Æthiopica African, Guinea or Kimba.
Negro Pepper
CAPPARIDACEÆ.
Mærua Angolensis — Chichiwa (Sok.).
Cratæva Adansonii — Ingidido.
MORINGACEÆ.
Moringa pterygosperma Horse-radish Tree Samarin danga or
Zogalagundi, syn.
Bagarumar makka
(Sok.), Barambo
(Gobir); also Taba ni
ka saniu (cf. Kurnan
nasara).
ROSACEÆ.
Parinarium Gingerbread Plum Gawasa.
macrophyllum
Parinarium polyandrum — Kaikai.
Parinarium — Rura; also Gwanja kusa
curatellæfolium and Kaikai.
LEGUMINOSÆ.
Sesbania leptocarpa — Alambo.
Sesbania aculeata — —
Sesbania Ægyptiaca — Sasabani and Zamarke.
Lonchocarpus Yoruba Wild Indigo Bahar tahki.
cyanescens
Acacia Arabica Egyptian Mimosa Bagaruwa, Gabaruwa.
Afrormosia sp. — Ba-jini, syn. Jina-
jina (Sok. and Zanf.).
Acacia Sieberiana — Bauji (E. Hausa), syn.
Fara kaya.
Swartsia Cassia Tribe Bogo zage (Zanfare),
Madagascariensis Bayama (Kontagora),
syn. Gwazkiya, Gamma
fada.
Cassia Occidentalis — Ba-Zanfare (Katagum),
syn. Rai dore, Sanga-
sanga (Sok. and West).
Tetrapleura Thonningii — Dawo (Hausa?), Ai-da
(Yoruba), cf. Kalangon
daji and Sandan mayu.
Isoberlinia doka — Doka.
Isoberlinia Dalzielii — Fara doka.
Parkia filicoidea African Locust Bean Dorowa, Dorawa.
Tree
Acacia Seyal “Tall” Gum Acacia Dushe (Kano), Dussa
(E. Hausa), syn.
Jimshi (Sok.), and (?)
Ishishiya (Zanfara).
Acacia Sieberiana Acacia Fara kaya, syn. Bauji
(E. Hausa).
Acacia campylacantha Acacia Catechu Farachin shafo or
Kumbarshafo. Karkara
(Kano), Karki (Sok.,
Kats., and Zanf.),
Kayar rakumi; also
Karo (Kano, Sok., and
Kats.).
Acacia macrostachys — Gardayi.
Acacia albida — Gawo.
Lonchocarpus — Farin sansami, syn.
laxiflorus Shunin Biri Zanfara
halshen sa.
Afzelia Africana African Mahogany or Fasa-daga, Kawo.
Mahogany Bean
Cassia Kotschyana — Gamma fada hada fuda
(Sok.).
Pterocarpus esculentus — Gedar, Kurumi.
Erythrophlœum Sasswood or Ordeal Gwaska or Itchen
Guineense Tree gwaska.
Bauhinia rufescens — Jirga (Sok. and
Kats.), syn. Tsatsagi
(Sok. Zaria, Kano,
etc.).
Paradaniellia Oliveri West African or Ilorin Kadaura (Kano, Zaria,
Copaiba Balsam Tree etc.).
Mimosa asperata — Kaidaji, Kardaji
(Sok.).
Tetrapleura — Kalangen daji.
Ambygonocarpus — Kashi Kashi (Kontagora
Schweinfurthii Kols).
Albizzia Chevalieri — Katsari.
Prosopis oblonga — Kiriya, Akiye or
Akwiye (seeds),
Kokara.
Burkea Africana Break-axe Tree Kurdi, Bakin makarfo,
Kariye gatari.
Acacia Caffra? Thorny Acacia Kwandariya.
Pterocarpus erinaceus Africa Rosewood or Madobia.
“Bloodwood”
Paradaniellia Oliveri Balsam Tree Maje (Sok.).
Syn. Daniellia West African Copaiba Syn. Kadaura (Kano,
Thurifera Balsam Tree Zaria, etc.).
Baphia pubescens Camwood Majigi.
Erythrina Senegalensis Coral Tree Majiriya (Sok. and
Kats.), Minjiriya
(Kano).
Afrormosia laxiflora Break-axe Tree Makarfo, also called
Kariye gatari.
Indigofera — Dan marike.
secundiflora
Cassia goratensis — Runhu or Rumfu.
Parkinsonia aculeata Jerusalem Thorn Dan sarikin itatuwa
(Sok. and Kats.),
Sasabani (Hadeija,
etc.), Sharan lobbi
(Sokoto), cf. Alambo.
Lonchocarpus — Shunim biri, syn.
laxiflorus Farin sansami (Sok.
and Kats.), Halshen sa
Zanfar.
Lonchocarpus West African Indigo or Talaki or Talakin
cyanescens Yoruba Wild Indigo Yarubawa.
Detarium Senegalense — Taura.
Entada Sudanica — Tawatsa or Tawassa.
Tamarindus Indica Tamarind Tree Tsamiya.
RUTACEÆ.
Zanthoxylum — Fasa-kwari.
Senegalense
Limonia — Kokuwa (Sok. and
West).
SIMARUBACEÆ.
Irvingia Smithii — Goron biri or Goron
ruwa.
Hannoa undulata — Takandar giwa (Kats.,
Sok. and Zanf.), syn.
Namijin gwabsa
(Kontagora, etc.);
also Raken giwa.
BURSERACEÆ.
Canarium “African Elemi Tree” Atillis.
Schweinfurthii
Boswellia odorata Frankincense Tree Basamu (Sok. and
Zanf.).
Boswellia Dalzielii Frankincense Tree Syn. Hano (Sok. and
Kats.), and Ararabi
(Kats.).
Commiphora Kerstingii — Dali and Dalu (Kano
and Katsina), syn.
Bazano (Kano and
Zaria), Gurzundali
(Katagum), Hana gobard
(Zanfara), Ka Ki ganin
bula (Zanfara); also
Bar nagada.
Balsamodendron myrrha Myrrh Jawul.
MELIACEÆ
Melia Azedarach Pride of India, Itchen kurdi, syn.
Persian or African Kurnan nasara, E.
Lilac, or Bead Head Hausa Kontagora.
Trichilia emetica — Jan saye (Sok., Zanf.,
Kontaga).
Khaya Senegalensis Species of African Madachi or Madwachi
Mahogany (Sok.).
Pseudocedrela Kotschyi — Tuna (often pronounced
Tunam or Tunas).
EUPHORBIACEÆ
Hymenocardia acida — Jan yaro or Jan
itache.
Uapaca Guineensis — Ka fafogo.
Euphorbia Barteri — Kerana.
Euphorbia Abyssinica — —
Phyllanthus — Majiriyar kurumi
floribundus (Kano); also called
Kumchi (Sok. and
Zanf.).
ANACARDIACEÆ.
Spondias sp. Yellow Plum Danya (fruit called
Nunu), C. Tsadar
Masar.
Odina Barterii — Faru, syn. Tudi
(Zanfara), Farum biri
(Sok.).
Anacardium Occidentale Cashew Kanju.
Mangifera Indica Mango Mangoro.
Spondias lutea Hog Plum, Yellow Tsadar Lamarudu or
Spanish or Jamaica Tsadar Masar.
Plum
Hæmatostaphis Barteri Blood Plum Tursuje.
SAPINDACEÆ.
Blighia sapida Akee Apple Alale, usually called
Gwanje kusa.
RHAMNACEÆ.
Zizyphus Spina-Christi — Kwina, cf. Magariya.
Zizyphus jujuba Jujube Tree Magariya.
Zizyphus mucronata Buffalo Horn Magariyar kura.
VITACEÆ.
Vitis quadrangularis — Dodoriya or Dadori.
BOMBACACEÆ.
Bombax buonopozense — Gurjiya, syn. Kuriya
(Sok. and Zanf.).
Bombax buonopozense Red-flowered Silk- Kuriya (Sok. and
cotton Tree Zanf.), syn. Guriya.
Adansonia digitata Baobab, Monkey-bread Kuka.
Tree, or Sour Gourd.
Eriodendron Orientale White Silk-cotton Tree Rimi (Kano) or Rini
(Sok.).
STERCULIACEÆ.
Cola acuminata Kola Nut Goro or Labuje goriya
(largest nuts).
Sterculia tomentosa — Kukudi.
FLACOURTIACEÆ.
Oncoba spinosa — Kokochiko.
COMBRETACEÆ.
Terminalia sp. — Baushe.
Nr. Terminalia — Kandari.
macroptera
Terminalia Elliotti — —
Terminalia Baumanii — —
Terminalia — —
Avicennioides
Combretum Kerstingii — Chiriri (Sok. and
Zanf.), syn. Dagera
and probably also
Zindi.
Combretum glutinosum — Dalo.
Combretum sp., — Geza.
probably Combretum
altum
Combretum sp. (?) — Goga jiki.
Combretum leonense
Anogeissus leiocarpus Chew-stick Tree Marike.
Combretum — Taramniya.
verticillatum
Combretum — —
geitonophyllum and
others
Combretum leonense — Wuyan damo.
Combretum sp. near — Zindi (Katagum,
Kanuri).
Combretum — Chiriri.
Hartmannianum,
probably same as C.
Kerstingii
MYRTACEÆ.
Eugenia caryophyllata Clove Kanumfari.
Eugenia Owariensis — Malmo.
ARALIACEÆ.
Cussonia Nigerica — Gwabsa (Sok., Kats.
and Zanf.), Raken
giwa.
SAPOTACEÆ.
Butyrospermum Parkii Shea Butter Tree Kadanya or Kadai.
EBENACEÆ.
Diospyros — Kaiwa (Sok.) or Kanya
mespiliformis (Kano).
LOGANIACEÆ.
Anthocleista nobilis Cabbage Tree Kwari.
(G. Don)
Anthocleista Vogelii — Kwari.
(Planch)
Anthocleista — Kwari.
parviflora (Baker)
APOCYNACEÆ.
Voacanga obtusa — Kokiyar biri
(Kontagora)
Rauwolfia Welwitschii — Wadda.
BORRAGINACEÆ.
Cordia Abyssinica — Aliliba
VERBENACEÆ.
Vitex Cienkowskii — Dinya (Kano), Dumya
(Sok.)
Vitex diversifolia — —
SOLANACEÆ.
Solanum sp. — Jaudari (E. Hausa),
syn. Gorgo.
BIGNONIACEÆ.
Newbouldia lævis — Aduruku, syn. Ba reshe
(?).
Stereospermum — Jiri or Sansami or
Kunthianum Sasami, syn. Jiri dan
sarikin itatuwa (Sok.
and Kats.).
Kigelia Æthiopica, Sausage Tree Rahaina, syn. Rawuya
var. Bornuensis (Sok.) and Nonon giwa.
RUBIACEÆ.
Randia malleifera Gardenia sp. Katambiri.
Randia Nilotica — Barbaji, syn. Tsibra
or Tsura (Sok.).
Mitragyne Africana — Giyeya or Giyaiya.
Crossopteryx — Kasfiya (Sok., Kats.
Kotschyana and Zanf.).
Sarcocephalus A common Chew-stick Tafashia.
Russegeri
Adina microcephala — Kadanyar rafi or
Kadanyar kurumi.
COMPOSITÆ.
Vernonia amygdalina — Fate fate.
Vernonia sp. — Shiwaka.
APPENDIX II
NIGERIA—FOREST EXPORTS
----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------
| 1909. | 1910. | 1911.
Products. +-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------
|Quant. | £ |Quant. | £ |Quant. | £
----------------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------
Palm kernels |158,849|1,815,967|172,998|2,450,814|176,389|2,574,405
| tons | | tons | | tons |
| | | | | |
Palm kernel | 853 | 1,512| 1,168 | 2,070| 943 | 973
shells | tons | | tons | | tons |
| | | | | |
Palm kernel oil | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | |
Palm oil | 6,335 |1,447,163|76,850 |1,742,234|79,336 |1,696,876
| tons | | tons | | tons |
| | | | | |
Kernel cake | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | |
Rubber | 619 | 109,076| 1,175 | 311,691| 961 | 179,355
| tons | | tons | | tons |
| | | | | |
Gum arabic | — | — | — | — | 373 | 6,559
| | | | | tons |
| | | | | |
Gum copal | — | — | — | — |10 tons| 362
| | | | | |
Gutta-percha | — | — | — | — | 104 | 8,787
| | | | | tons |
| | | | | |
Shea butter | 309 | 5,230| 340 | 6,804| 248 | 4,978
| tons | | tons | | tons |
| | | | | |
Shea nuts | 9,728 | 78,029| 4,464 | 43,510| 3,629 | 35,518
| tons | | tons | | tons |
| | | | | |
Kola nuts | — | — | — | — |79 tons| 2,377
| | | | | |
Coconuts | 2,240 | 71,916| — | — |20,500 | 82
| tons | | | | nuts |
| | | | | |
Kapok | — | — | — | — |2 tons | 152
| | | | | |
Copra |21 tons| 259| — | — |96 tons| 1,672
| | | | | |
Timber, mahogany| — | 46,372| — | 60,191|13,675 | 55,575
| | | | | logs |
| | | | | |
„ ebony | — | — | — | — |74 tons| 266
| | | | | |
„ other than | — | — | — | — |3 tons | 1
furniture | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Camwood | — | — | — | — | — | 1
| | | | | |
Mangrove bark | — | — | — | — | 504 | 671
| | | | | tons |
| | | | | |
Rafters | — | — | — | — | 280 | 28
| | | | | pkgs. |
| | | | | |
Beeswax | — | — | 256 | — |11 tons| 566
| | | tons | | |
----------------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------
TOTALS |178,955|3,574,524|257,252|4,617,314|262,767|4,569,211
| tons | | tons | | tons |
| | | | | |
| | | | |20,500 |
| | | | | nuts |
| | | | | |
| | | | |13,675 |
| | | | | logs |
| | | | | |
| | | | | 280 |
| | | | | pkgs. |
----------------+-------+---------+-------+---------+-------+---------
[Continued]
----------------+-----------------+-----------------
| 1912. | 1913.
Products. +-------+---------+-------+---------
|Quant. | £ |Quant. | £
----------------+-------+---------+-------+---------
Palm kernels |184,624|2,797,411|174,720|3,109,820
| tons | | tons |
| | | |
Palm kernel | 1,472 | 3,140| 649 | 1,313
shells | tons | | tons |
| | | |
Palm kernel oil | 499 | 16,341| 3,857 | 129,443
| tons | | tons |
| | | |
Palm oil |76,994 |1,654,933|83,085 |1,854,384
| tons | | tons |
| | | |
Kernel cake | — | — | — | 31,484
| | | |
Rubber | 705 | 25,022| 510 | 89,995
| tons | | tons |
| | | |
Gum arabic | 307 | 1,785| 710 | 3,133
| tons | | tons |
| | | |
Gum copal |72 tons| 1,686|19 tons| 322
| | | |
Gutta-percha | 106 | 5,419|74 tons| 4,424
| tons | | |
| | | |
Shea butter | 179 | 4,798| 120 | 4,044
| tons | | tons |
| | | |
Shea nuts | 7,756 | 46,609| 9,420 | 70,427
| tons | | tons |
| | | |
Kola nuts |72 tons| 2,136|48 tons| 1,459
| | | |
Coconuts |15,550 | 51|147,745| 496
| nuts | | nuts |
| | | |
Kapok | 1 ton | 69|19 tons| 1,097
| | | |
Copra |94 tons| 1,628|96 tons| 1,890
| | | |
Timber, mahogany|15,565 | 78,006|19,152 | 105,440
| logs | | logs |
| | | |
„ ebony |37 tons| 102| 119 | 608
| | | tons |
| | | |
„ other than |5 tons | 2|10 tons| 5
furniture | | | |
| | | |
Camwood |13 tons| 46|67 tons| 314
| | | |
Mangrove bark | 213 | 448|48 tons| 200
| tons | | |
| | | |
Rafters | 95 | 8| 40 | 2
| pkgs. | | pkgs. |
| | | |
Beeswax |4 tons | 247|5 tons | 388
----------------+-------+---------+-------+---------
TOTALS |273,158|4,639,892|273,583|5,410,695
| tons | | tons |
| | | |
|15,550 | |147,745|
| nuts | | nuts |
| | | |
|15,565 | |19,152 |
| logs | | logs |
| | | |
| 95 | | 40 |
| pkgs. | | pkgs. |
----------------+-------+---------+-------+---------
APPENDIX III
IMPORTS OF TIMBER INTO NIGERIA
-----------------+--------------------+--------
Wood and Timber, | |
Rough Hewn, Sawn | Superficial Feet. | £
and Split. | |
-----------------+--------------------+--------
1910 | 5,754,135 | 34,166
| |
1911 | 3,246,924 | 35,920
| |
1912 | 3,915,004 | 37,904
| |
1913 | 4,531,262 | 43,157
| |
1914 | 6,094,126 | 54,673
| |
1915 | 4,194,935 | 45,027
| |
1916 |Information not yet | —
| available |
-----------------+--------------------+--------
TOTALS | 27,736,386 |£250,847
-----------------+--------------------+--------
APPENDIX IV
NIGERIAN TREES PROTECTED UNDER THE FORESTRY ORDINANCE
With the gracious permission of the Nigerian Forest Department and the
Nigerian Government a copy of the schedule of protected trees under the
Nigerian Forestry Ordinance has been inserted here.
SCHEDULE A
PROTECTED TREES
1ST CLASS TREES.
_Fee_, 46_s._; _Royalty_, 10_s._; _Total_, 56_s._ _per tree_.
(_a_) 11 feet minimum girth limit.
_Khaya_. All species except _K. Senegalensis_. Mahoganies. Ogangwo
(Yoruba); Gedu (Benin); Digiten (Brass); Dirinshi and Odala (Ibo);
Efriyo-moniba (Efik).
_Entandrophragma_. All species, scented Mahoganies. Ijebo (Yoruba);
Onomokyukyu and Ikwapobo (Benin); Eden (Efik); Etori (Ekoi).
_Chlorophora excelsa_. Iroko (Yoruba); Iroko (Benin); Odji (Ibo); Nsan
(Ekoi); Efriyo (Efik).
(_b_) 10 feet minimum girth limit.
_Gaurea Thompsonii_. Walnuts. Obobonikwi (Benin).
_Gaurea_. All other species.
_Lovoa Klaineana_. Anamomila (Benin).
(_c_) 8 feet minimum girth limit.
_Sarcocephalus esculentus_. Moist forest form. Opepe (Yoruba); Obiache
(Benin); Owessu (Brass); Awesu (Jekri).
(_d_) 6 feet minimum girth limit.
_Funtumia elastica_. Rubber trees.
_Ficus Vogelii_.
(_f_) No minimum girth limit.
_Elæis Guineensis_. Oil Palm.
[Illustration: FIG. 46.—=Corner of the 1908 Teak Plantation, Olokemeji
Arboretum, showing it at the end of the dry season, March 1915; Captain
Owens.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 47.—=Cedrela odorata (Cigar-box Cedar), three years
old (seen close); R. E. Dennett, Esq.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 48.—=Corner tree of the 1908 Teak Plantation, with
H. N. Thompson, Esq., 1911.=]
To face p. 228.
2ND CLASS TREES.
_Fee_, 28_s._; _Royalty_, 8_s._; _Total_, 36_s._ _per tree_.
(_b_) 10 feet minimum girth limit.
_Mimusops Djave_. Efam (Efik); Mfam (Ekoi); Ungu (Ibo).
_Canarium Schweinfurthii_. Eben-etridon (Efik); Njasun (Ekoi).
_Detarium Guineensis_.
_Piptadenia Africana_. Agboin (Yoruba); Chen (Ibo); Ekhimi (Benin);
Sanga (Ijaw).
_Cylicodiscus Gabunensis_. Anyan (Efik); Okan (Benin); Aja-igi or Olosan
(Yoruba).
_Agba_ of the Benis. Mobonran (Ijaw).
(_d_) 7 feet minimum girth limit.
_Afzelia Africana_.[4] Apa (Yoruba); Kanwo (Hausa); Adja (Ibo); Ayin-
bukbo (Efik); Aligna or Adya (Benin).
_Blighia sapida_. Ishin (Yoruba); Alale or Gwanja-kusa (Hausa).
_Lophira procera_. Eki (Yoruba); Eba (Benin); Kuru (Ijaw); Umowenek
(Efik).
_Tamarindus Indicus_.[5] Tsamia (Hausa).
(_e_) 6 feet minimum girth limit.
_Mimusops multinervis_. Emido (Yoruba); Apassa (Efik).
3RD CLASS TREES.
_Fee_, 18_s._; _Royalty_, 6_s._; _Total_, 24_s._ _per tree_.
(_b_) 10 feet minimum girth limit.
_Santiriopsis Klaineana_. Incense Tree. Odonomo-kyu-kyu (Benin).
_Poga oleosa_. Inoi (Efik); Inyere (Ekoi); Imonor (Ibo).
_Brachystegia spicæformis_. Ako or Eku (Yoruba); Akpakpa (Ibo); Ukung
(Efik).
(_c_) 6 feet minimum girth limit.
_Carapa_. All species. Ibegogo (Benin).
_Albizzia fastigiata_. Ayinre-eta (Yoruba).
_Albizzia Brownii_. Ayinre-bonabona (Yoruba).
_Pterocarpus tinctorius_. Camwood. Ukpa (Efik); Nkohen (Ekoi); Uhie
(Ibo); Auchi (Brass).
_Pterocarpus Osun_. Barwood. Osun (Yoruba); Ukpa (Efik).
_Khaya Senegalensis_. Dry-zone Mahogany. Ogangwo (Yoruba); Madachi
(Hausa).
_Erythrophlœum Guineense_. Sasswood. Erun (Yoruba); Ifwan (Efik); Inyi
(Ibo); Gwaska (Hausa).
_Erythrophlœum micranthum_. Ihi (Ekoi); Iringi (Ibo).
_Schrebera Golungensis_. Opele (Yoruba).
_Afrormosia laxiflora_. Yellow Satin Wood. Ainyesan (Benin).
_Parkia biglobosa_.[6]
_Parkia filicoidea_.[6] Darowa (Hausa); Irugba (Yoruba).
_Pseudocedrela Kotschyi_.[7] Tuna (Hausa); Emigbegi (Yoruba).
_Irvingia Barterii_. Oro (Yoruba); Okherli (Benin).
_Mammea sp._ Bolo (Ijaw); Bolo (Brass).
_Casearia sp._ Ebo (Yoruba).
_Otutu_ of the Yorubas. Aiye (Ondo).
_Klaineodoxa Gabonensis_. Alukon-raba (Yoruba); Ifainaki (Egba); Odudu
(Ondo).
_Diospyros_.[8] Ebonies. Kainya (Hausa).
4TH CLASS TREES.
_Fee_, 9_s._; _Royalty_, 3_s._; _Total_, 12_s._ _per tree_.
(_c_) 8 feet minimum girth limit.
_Terminalia_. All species except _T. Togoensis_.
_Terminalia Superba_. Afara (Yoruba).
_Uputtu_ of the Benis.
_Diospyros dendo_. Obiletu (Efik).
_Diospyros mespiliformis_. Kanran (Yoruba).
_Diospyros Mombuttensis_. Ogan-pupa (Yoruba).
_Diospyros atropurpurea_.
_Diospyros crassiflora_. Aborpor (Benin).
_Cordia Millenii_. Omo (Yoruba).
_Triplochiton Johnsonii_. Arere (Yoruba); Obeche (Benin).
_Triplochiton Nigericum_. Arere (Yoruba).
_Mitragyne macrophylla_. Uwen (Efik); Ebar (Brass); Ebar (Ibo); Abura
(Yoruba).
_Daniellia Ogea_. Ojia (Yoruba); Udeni (Ibo); Ozia (Benin).
_Yinrin-yinrin_ of Ijaws and Ikales.
_Jebere_ of the Ondos. Alofin (Jebu).
(_e_) 6 feet minimum girth limit.
_Berlinia acuminata_. Apado (Yoruba); Ekpogoi (Benin).
_Berlinia auriculata_.
_Cordia_. All species except _C. Millenii_. Aliliba (Hausa).
_Pausinystalia sp._ Idagbon (Ondo); Wenren-wenren (Jebu).
_Microdesmis sp._
_Ohiomo_ of the Benis.
_Ewai_ of the Benis.
_Spondias sp._ Ekika-aja, Opon (Yoruba).
_Saxoglottis Gabunensis_. Ndat (Efik); Tala (Ibo); Tala (Brass); Edat
(Ekoi); Atala (Yoruba).
_Sarcocephalus sp._ Opepe-ira (Yoruba).
_Pycnanthus Kombo_. Akomu (Yoruba).
_Ormosia monophylla_. Akoriko (Yoruba).
_Ashasha_ of the Yoruba.
_Alstonia Congensis_. Awun, Ahon (Yoruba); Dubu (Brass); Eba (Ibo).
_Parkia filicoidea_.[9] Danowa (Hausa).
_Parkia biglobosa_.[9]
_Acacia_.[10] All species. Gabarua (Hausa).
_Butyrospermum Parkii_. Shea Butter. Emi-emi (Yoruba); Kadanya (Hausa).
_Pterocarpus erinaceus_. Apepe, Ara (Yoruba); Madobia (Hausa).
5TH CLASS TREES.
_Fee_, 4_s._ 6_d._; _Royalty_, 1_s._ 6_d._; _Total_, 6_s._ _per tree_.
(_b_) 10 feet minimum girth limit.
_Eriodendron_. All species. Silk Cotton Tree. Araba (Yoruba); Ukum
(Efik); Shakka (Brass); Okha (Benin); Akpe (Ibo); Rimi (Hausa).
_Bombax_. All species.
_Antiaris toxicaria_. Oro (Yoruba); Nuwo (Ekoi); Odjiwawa (Ibo).
(_c_) 8 feet minimum girth limit.
_Iya-Igbo_ of the Yorubas.
(_e_) 6 feet minimum girth limit.
_Tetrapleura Thonningii_. Aridan (Yoruba); Dawo (Hausa).
_Erythrina_. All species except _E. Senegalensis_.
_Paradaniellia Oliveri_. Balsam Copaiba Tree. Iya (Yoruba).
_Pentaclethra macrophylla_. Apara (Yoruba); Ukana (Efik); Ukpakara
(Brass).
_Lonchocarpus Zenkeri_.
_Daniellia_. All species except _D. Ogea_. Gum Copal Trees. Iya
(Yoruba).
_Cynometra_. All species.
_Ricinodendron Africana_. Erimmado (Yoruba); Okwen (Benin).
_Uapaca Guineensis_. Ile (Ibo).
_Uapaca Staudtii_. Akun (Yoruba).
_Garcinia sp._ Agberibede (Yoruba).
_Scottelia Kamerunensis_. Okilolo (Ijaw).
_Oropa_ of the Yorubas. Odoko (Yoruba).
_Erohun_ of the Ikales.
(_f_) 4 feet minimum girth limit.
_Xylia Evansii_.
_Trichilia Heudelotii_.
_Pseudocedrela Kotschyi_.[11] Emigbegi (Yoruba).
_Ukpi-nikwi_ of the Benis. Enyin Mbukpo (Efik).
6TH CLASS TREES.
_Fee_, 2_s._ 6_d._; _Royalty_, 6_d._; _Total_, 3_s._ _per tree_.
(_c_) 8 feet minimum girth limit.
_Sterculia cordata_. Ogugu (Yoruba).
(_e_) 6 feet minimum girth limit.
_Sterculia oblonga_.
_Pentadesma butyracea_. Candle Tree. Udia Ebiong (Efik).
_Adina microcephala_.[12] Kadanyar rafi (Hausa).
_Anogeissus leiocarpus_. Ayin (Yoruba); Marike (Hausa).
_Isoberlinia_.[12] Both species. Doka (Hausa).
(_f_) 4 feet minimum girth limit.
_Chrysophyllum_. All species. Osan (Yoruba).
_Polyadoa umbellata_.
_Baphia nitida_. Irosun (Yoruba).
_Baphia pubescens_. Ubara (Efik).
_Baphia polygalacea_. Mbomo-nkuku (Efik).
_Parinarium macrophyllum_. Gawasa (Hausa).
_Parinarium mobola_.
_Funtumia Africana_. Ako-ire (Yoruba); Bassa-bassa (Benin).
_Tamarindus Indicus_.[13] Tsamia (Hausa).
_Eugenia Owariensis_. Malmo (Hausa).
_Vitex_. All species.
_Sterculia Barterii_. Eso (Yoruba).
_Lophira alata_. Ipawhaw (Yoruba); Namijin-kadai (Hausa).
_Zanthoxylon Senegalensis_. Ata (Yoruba); Fasa-kwari (Hausa).
_Spondias lutea_. Hog Plum. Iyeye (Yoruba); Tsada-Masar (Hausa).
_Cola_. All species.
_Ita_ of the Yorubas.
_Hannoa Klaineana_. Igbo (Yoruba).
_Macrolobium_. All species.
_Ormosia laxiflora_.[14] Ba-fini, Makarfo (Hausa); Shedun (Yoruba).
_Prosopis oblonga_. Kirya (Hausa).
_Lonchocarpus sericeus_. Ipapo (Yoruba); Njassi (Ibo); Obong (Efik).
_Dialium Guineense_. Awin (Yoruba); Ohiorme (Benin).
(_f_) 3 feet minimum girth limit.
_Adina microcephala_.[15] Kadanyar Rafi (Hausa).
_Isoberlinia_.[15] All species. Doka (Hausa).
_Ormosia laxiflora_.[16] Makarfo (Hausa).
(_g_) No minimum girth limit.
_Borassus Æthiopica_. The Fan Palm. Giginya (Hausa).
7TH CLASS TREES.
_Fees, Nil, except when taken under a Fuel Permit._
(_g_) No minimum girth limit.
_Acacia_. All species, when in Southern Provinces.
_Anona_. All species. Afe (Yoruba); Gwandar-daji (Hausa).
_Conopharyngia_. All species.
_Deinbollia insignis_.
_Erythrina Senegalensis_. Majiriya (Hausa).
_Garcinia conrauana_. Efiari (Efik); Odji (Brass).
_Hannoa undulata_. Ikwepokin (Benin).
_Holarrhena Wulfsbergii_.
_Kigelia pinnata_.
_Millettia Thonningii_.
_Musanga Smithii_. Umbrella Tree. Aga (Yoruba); Uno (Efik); Oro (Brass).
_Pachylobus edulis_. Eben (Efik).
_Parinarium_. All species except those detailed in 6th class.
_Pterocarpus esculentus_. Gedar-kurumi (Hausa); Gbingbin (Yoruba).
_Ochna multiflora_. Toi-tsi (Ibo).
_Rauwolfia vomitoria_.
_Spathodea_. All species.
_Sterculia_. All other species except those detailed in other classes.
_Terminalia Togoensis_.
_Treculia Africana_. Afon (Yoruba).
_Xylopia Æthiopica_. Eru (Yoruba); Kimba (Hausa).
_Chrysobalanus Icaco_. Ikate (Yoruba).
8TH CLASS TREES.
Minimum girth limit, 12 inches.
_Fees_—_On trees over_ 24 _inches in girth_, 6_d._ _per tree_.
_On trees_ 12 _to_ 24 _inches in girth_, 3_d._ _per tree_.
_Rhizophora racemosa_. Red Mangrove. Egba (Yoruba).
_Rhizophora mangle_. Red Mangrove.
_Avicennia Africana_. White Mangrove. Ofun (Yoruba).
For the purposes of this schedule, the girths must be measured at a
vertical distance of 4 feet 6 inches from the ground at the foot of the
tree, or in the case of buttressed trees at the place where the highest
buttress merges into the stem.
SCHEDULE B
PROTECTED MINOR FOREST PRODUCE
1ST CLASS.
_Fee_, 15_s._; _Royalty_, _5s._; _Total_, 20_s._ _per permit_.
_Rubber_—taken from wild rubber-yielding trees and vines.
2ND CLASS.
_Fee_, 7_s._ 6_d._; _Royalty_, 2_s._ 6_d._; _Total_, 10_s._ _per
permit_.
_Bamboo poles_—taken from the midribs of the Tombo palm (_Raphia
vinifera_) or other species of Raphia. _Piassava fibre_ from the stem
and midribs (leaf stalks) of the Raphia and other species of palms.
And in the Northern Provinces:
Poles, gofas, etc., not to exceed 6 inches in diameter, taken from
_Isoberlinia sp._, _Anogeissus leiocarpus_, _Ormosia laxiflora_,
_Lophira alata_ or _Pterocarpus erinaceus_.
3RD CLASS.
_Fee_, 4_s._ 6_d._; _Royalty_, 1_s._ 6_d._; _Total_, 6_s._ _per permit_.
_Chew-sticks_—or native tooth-brushes taken from the roots of the Iyin
tree (_Anogeissus leiocarpus_).
_Native sponges_—made from the bast fibres of various species of vines
and lianes.
_Pandanus_ fibre (from the screw pine) and the leaf stalk of all species
of Phrynium, taken for the manufacture of mats.
_Gum copal_.
_Gum arabic_—and other gums procured from _Acacias_.
[Illustration: FIG. 49.—=Shea Butter Tree (Butyrospermum Parkii)
standing near the Conservator of Forests’ House, June 1915, after being
protected from fire eight years.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 50.—=Teak (Tectona grandis), three years old,
Compartment 2, Range 2, Olokemeji Forest Reserve.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 51.—=Shea Butter Tree (Butyrospermum Parkii) in
fruit, April 1911, standing near the Conservator of Forests’ House. This
tree has been protected from fire nearly four years.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 52.—=Shea Butter Tree (Butyrospermum Parkii)
standing near the Conservator of Forests’ House. The same tree of which
the fruit was photographed, April 1911.=]
To face p. 234.
CHAPTER IX
THE NIGERIAN TIMBER TREES
INDIGENOUS TREES OF NIGERIA
B. SOUTHERN PROVINCES.
=Palmæ.=
_Raphia Hookeriana_. Hooker’s Palm or the Piassava Palm. Aiko (Yoruba);
Iya (Efik); Angor (Benin); Ori (Oban, Ekoi).
It is found chiefly in the Calabar, Warri, and Ondo provinces of
Nigeria, mixed with _R. vinifera_ at the edges of estuaries and rivers
in the evergreen forest zone.
One of the main differences between this palm and _R. vinifera_ is
that the fruit is much shorter (at the most 1½ inches long and ¾ inch
in diameter) and more stumpy in shape, coming abruptly to a point at
the tip. _R. vinifera_, on the other hand, is much longer, reaching 2½
to 3 inches in length and ¾ inch to an inch in diameter, and it is
very elliptical in shape. The bunches of fruit of this palm, _R.
Hookeriana_, are much smaller, rarely exceeding more than a foot in
length, and containing 50 to 75 nuts, whereas _R. vinifera_ may have
bunches 3 feet long, each containing 500 nuts or more. In the stem,
too, this palm is smaller, often not reaching more than 6 to 9 inches
in diameter, with a total height of 20 feet, whereas _R. vinifera_
will reach over a foot in diameter and a total height of over 60 feet.
The natural cleaning of the stem begins much later in this palm, and
does not reach anything like the height of that of _R. vinifera_. In
many specimens, in fact, the stem remains always more or less covered
with the very upward tending branches. In this respect it reminds one
a little of _R. Ruffia_. The leaves, however, are more similar to _R.
vinifera_, but only about half the size, especially in length; they
are not quite so wide, nor are the leaf stalks quite so large.
The timber is very similar, but more fibrous and of a looser texture
than that of _R. vinifera_. It is a little easier to cut. In the older
specimens the foliage still retains its dark green colour compared
with the dry, yellowish hue which _R. vinifera_ takes on as it gets
older. It is a somewhat slow-growing, shade-bearing tree. It likes a
somewhat rich soil, but can, however, stand in water, and apparently
withstands floods. Natural regeneration appears to be good.
The timber has not been cut for export nor for local use. The fronds
are occasionally used for a similar purpose as that of _R. vinifera_,
and sometimes the leaves also.
_Native Use_.—The fronds and leaves are used in a similar way to those
of _R. vinifera_. The base of the leaf stalk is cut off into lengths
up to 6 feet (it almost encircles the tree and extends much further up
than in the case of _R. vinifera_) and laid in stagnant water. After
the intervening substance between the fibres has got more or less soft
and partly rotted away, the whole is taken out and the fibres cleaned
with a kind of comb. These are then dried, and packed together in
bundles of 20 pounds upwards, and sold to the European factory as
Piassava. This industry is more widespread in the Eket district of the
Calabar province, but it has taken a great number of years of thought
and careful attention to bring it up to its present dimensions. The
cutting of the leaves is undertaken mostly by the men and the rotting
and cleaning of the fibre mostly by the women. Before the war Piassava
fibre was rarely worth more than £28 per ton. It is now worth over
£70. Unless, however, a price of at least £20 per ton is offered in
Liverpool market for this fibre, it is doubtful if the industry can be
made profitable for everyone concerned, producers included.
_Raphia vinifera_. The Palm Wine Tree, or Tombo Palm, or Bamboo, the
last named being the name used by the English-speaking Jekris. Ako
(Yoruba); Emmaha Augor (Benin); Oukot (Efik).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ondo, Benin, Warri, Owerri and Calabar
provinces and the Colony of Nigeria, at the edges of the streams and
rivers in the evergreen forest zone, where it grows in large groups
and pure forests.
It is a medium-sized palm, growing separately with one stem, which
clears itself of the leaf fronds for about half its height between the
twelfth and fifteenth year. The trunk then is comparatively smooth,
except for the very large scars of the leaf stalk. The fronds are the
longest of any of the African palms, reaching sometimes a length of 40
feet, roughly sickle shaped; in section they reach about 2 inches
diameter at the broadest part, and are a yellow-brown colour. The
leaves come out from the stalk almost at a right angle, thus making
them much wider and, owing to their greater length, much finer and
heavier foliage than that of the Oil Palm, or even the Coconut Palm.
In fact, an isolated specimen growing well could be not unfavourably
compared to the Royal Palm in the grandeur of its spread of leaf and
the beauty of the outward-spreading, fan-shaped bold crown. Both the
male and the female flowers are very conspicuous. The bunches of
fruit, up to 3 feet in length, hang down like enormous elongated
bunches of yellow grapes. The nuts are covered with a smooth yellow
hard skin, set in scales very similar to those of a cone, except that
each scale is tightly joined to the next. When the fruit decays, or is
boiled, the scales come off as well as the yellow, fibrous matter,
which gives a yellowish tinge to the water. The main difference
between the base of the Oil Palm and that of the leaf of this tree is
the extension of it more than half round the bole in the case of _R.
vinifera_, and also flatly and smoothly down the stem. On the other
hand, in the Oil Palm the leaf grows more abruptly out of and away
from the stem. Owing to the Tombo Palm stem being smaller (on the
average only 9 inches in diameter), the base of the frond extends
nearly all round the tree, the lower one overlapping the higher one,
and each placed in revolving fashion round the trunk, one above the
other. The leaf scars of the Oil Palm are much smaller. Owing to the
greater length of the leaf of this palm, the crown does not appear to
be such a tuft of leaves at the top of the tree as in the case of the
Oil Palm. In old age it appears more as a cylindrical mass of leaves
occupying the upper half or third of the tree.
The timber is more fibrous and soft than that of the Oil Palm. The
fibres, however, are dark brown, almost black when very wet or after
they have lain in water for any length of time.
On the whole the tree is slow-growing, even slower than the Oil Palm.
It stands a good deal of shade in the earlier stages, but later on is
apparently a light-demanding tree. It grows in freshwater swamps and
at the edges of such places. Although it thrives best in certain
localities, it can be planted and does grow on solid and comparatively
dry land near Calabar. In the Calabar province they are often planted
as an avenue leading up from the main road through the farm to the
house. It will stand floods. Natural regeneration is good, and with
the spread of propagation it tends to be more widely distributed. In
the Calabar and Ogoja provinces seeds were distributed to the natives
for planting for the production of palm wine to take the place of that
obtained from the Oil Palm. The timber has not been used for export,
nor has it been cut for local use. The leaf stalks, however, have been
used for building labourers’ lines and in some European houses. In a
similar way the leaves themselves have been used as a roofing material
after being made up into small mats.
_Native Use._—The tree is tapped near the base of the leading leaves,
or at the base of the male inflorescence, for the production of the
sap, which is collected in calabashes. These are placed in position
every evening and emptied every morning, and replaced in position.
Occasionally the chimpanzees climb up the palms, drink the wine in the
calabash and replace it. A native once shot a chimpanzee, finding it
was the thief of his palm wine and not a human being. The wine is of a
white, sometimes almost creamy colour, and when fresh is quite thin
and foamy. It has a rather pleasant, sweet, and almost sharp taste.
After being kept a few days it begins to ferment, and even moderate
quantities are intoxicating. Either fresh or fermented, it is sold in
bottles or calabashes in the local markets. The supply scarcely, if
ever, exceeds the demand. The natives often put pieces of the bark of
Tala, _Saccoglottis Gabunensis_, in the wine to give it a more bitter
taste. Occasionally also the bark of mahogany and other trees is used.
Tala, however, is the correct bark to use, and it forms an article of
local commerce for this purpose. Owing to the comparative
inaccessibility of some of the “stands” of this tree away in the
swampy regions near the estuaries of some of the larger rivers, such
as the Benin and the Siluko, there are still vast areas where neither
the leaves are cut nor the palms tapped for wine. The seeds are boiled
and placed in the bottom of a canoe, and when sufficient canoes have
been got together, each with its quota of boiled nuts, these are
trodden with the feet of those in the canoe, and both the nuts and the
scaly shell as well as the small amount of yellow flesh are thrown in
the water of a half-stagnant river. This yellow substance partly
blinds and stupefies the fish, the smaller ones of which come half
floating and swimming to the surface, the larger ones being washed
along near the bed of the river. These are caught in convenient places
where the river has been staked all across its width and bamboo
netting put down, except for an opening where a flexible net is used.
Some of the people go about in small canoes, netting the fish that
come to the surface. One of the most famous spots to see this is in
the Osse River, in the reach just below Noami, where the combined
fishery forces of the Jekris and, to a lesser extent, Sobos and Ijors,
for a day or two in succession in April each year, carry on this work.
The catch of fish obtained is enormous. Unless, however, it can be
soon smoked and dried, much of it goes bad. This method of getting
fish is also used by individual natives in stagnant backwaters of
rivers and in isolated pools. The poison apparently does not spoil the
taste or other quality of the fish. Occasionally this palm is also
used for getting out the Piassava fibre, but it appears to be more
difficult, and it is doubtful if it is as valuable as the fibre
obtained from _R. Hookeriana_. Owing, however, to the fact that both
species grow in the same locality and often quite mixed together, it
is highly probable that part of the Piassava obtained is taken from
this palm. In order to stimulate the flow of sap, a fire is often made
at the base of the tree, which burns all the lower leaves and even
part of the top, and thus induces an extra flow of sap, but of course
to the detriment of a continual yield, as the tree subsequently dies.
In many parts of the country there is a regular local industry in the
making of roofing mats from the leaves of this palm. The small ones,
about 3 feet long, are, however, sold 25 for 3d. and the big ones,
over 6 feet long, 25 for 6d. In some places they are cheaper. As a
roofing material they are very durable, and will last at least seven
years. If, however, they are put on very thickly, overlapping more
than two-thirds of their width, and the roof is thoroughly smoked from
the inside, it becomes nearly black, and will last fifteen years. For
native houses it is one of the most used roofing materials, except in
the Benin country, where the large Ewayon leaves are used. Roofing
mats are, of course, being superseded by galvanized iron in the more
civilized places. The leaf stalk is used both as a pole for pushing
lighters or heavily laden canoes through comparatively shallow water,
or as a boat-hook, or pushing and guiding pole for the smaller canoes
in getting up swift, winding and comparatively narrow rivers.
_Raphia Ruffia_. Roofing Palm.
_Chief Characteristics._—It does not form a proper stem, like other
raphias; the long, thin leaves sprout out from the ground, and only
when the tree is some years old is there any trace of a stem, which is
quite short. The petioles are thin, compared to the length, and the
leaflets are thin and narrow.
_Distribution._—It is found in the Calabar and Ogoja Provinces of
Nigeria. It is often planted near watercourses in damp valleys to
provide roofing material for the natives, who make mats from the
leaves (Ikom, Obubra districts).
_Phœnix reclinata_. Swamp Date Palm. Elekikobi (Yoruba); Ukukon
(Benin).
A common tree of the Warri province of Nigeria. It is usually found in
or at the edge of the mangrove swamp, where it appears to thrive. It
is often rather bent in shape, and does not exceed 10 feet in height.
It is usually partially gregarious, though the groups of this species
are much smaller than those of _P. spinosa_. The natives in this
locality scarcely use it at all. The fruit is rather smaller, and it
bears in a less prolific manner than _P. spinosa_.
_Phœnix spinosa_. Wild Date Palm. Okun (Yoruba); Ukukon (Benin).
It is a common tree in the Ogoja, Benin, Ondo and Ibadan provinces of
Nigeria. In appearance more like a very thin stemmed Oil Palm, on
nearer approach the bluish-green, almost silvery, more open, shorter
and rather sharply pointed fronds readily distinguish it from the Oil
Palm group. The fruit is the shape of a very small date, many of which
are borne on thin fibrous twigs of a very stout stalk. It is usually
found in the open deciduous or savannah forest zone.
The natives use the stems for rafters and house-posts; the fruit and
bark are used medicinally; and the leaves are used for making sieves,
hats, mats and bags.
_Calamus deerratus_. Benin Cane or Rattan. Erogbo (Benin).
It is found in the Benin province of Nigeria. It is one of the rarer
canes of the forest, has a yellow flower, and is found near Okenuhen.
The canes are used for fences and house-building.
_Eremospatha macrocarpa_ (Mann and Wenal). Small Benin Rattan. Ukan
(Yoruba); Ikan (Benin).
It is found in the Benin, Calabar, Ondo and Abeokuta provinces of
Nigeria.
It is a common ½-inch thick cane, which attains a length of nearly 200
feet. It grows in clumps and climbs up over the surrounding trees. The
fruit is yellow and rather like a small larch cone which has not
opened. It is used for making rope and baskets, tying timber rafts,
house-building, etc.; in fact, it is the best cane in West Africa.
_Eremospatha sp._ Large Benin Rattan. Okakan (Benin).
It is found in Ondo, Abeokuta, Benin, Warri, Brass, Owerri, Calabar
and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria.
It is a large creeper, nearly an inch in diameter and attaining a
length of nearly 200 feet. It is usually found partly growing on other
trees in more or less open places at the edge of the forest, near
river banks, in the evergreen forest zone; it is also found at the
edges of swamps in the same region. It often forms dense cane brakes.
One of the most typical features of this cane is the reddish-orange
cone-like fruit, which is borne in large clusters on the terminal
shoot of the creeper.
The light-yellow, long spikes of the male flowers are most conspicuous
early in the season, especially when seen from a canoe when passing
down a river like the Osse.
The natives strip off the bark and long shoots of fish-hooklike
spines, and use the comparatively smooth canes as supports for the
canoe mats and for making tying material for house-building; it is
also used for making rope. When whole, it is used in making bridges as
well as for joining logs together for rafting purposes. When cut into
short lengths and bent at one end, it can be used for walking-sticks.
It is rather a slow-growing creeper, and usually ten or twelve grow
out of one root stock. In 1904 this cane was examined in England as a
substitute for rattan, but it was found to be more brittle, and the
internodes were found to be too close together to be attractive as
walking-sticks. Still later, in 1908, it was tried for basket work,
but was found to be too coarse both in structure and texture of grain.
_Elæis Guineensis_. The Oil Palm, the West African Palm. Ope, Ipa ukoro
(Yoruba); Udin (Benin).
It is found in all the Southern Provinces of Nigeria and as far North
as Zungeru, in the Northern Provinces. It belongs to the evergreen
forest zone, though it will spread with cultivation into the mixed
deciduous and dry zones.
It is the common palm of all the farms and forests of the moist and
mixed zone of Nigeria. It bears a bunch of fruit containing as many as
two thousand individual fruits in one drupe. In the drier parts there
may be only as many as one hundred seeds. There is one forked palm on
the right-hand side of the line about seven miles from Ibadan, just
beyond Moor Plantation. This is a very rare occurrence, and I have
only seen one in twelve years’ travelling in Nigeria. The male
inflorescence is not unlike a very close horse’s tail, turned up on
end. The orange-brown-coloured female flowers are very small, and do
not last long (a few days). The male flowers always appear first, and
above the female in each case. The natives say some trees only bear
male flowers, but it is doubtful if this is ever true, except in very
isolated cases. It bears fruit in the fifth year, and will go on for
about a hundred years. There is a most marked difference in the height
of a tree which has grown up in the “high forest” and one which has
come up in an old farm, the former being fully 100 or even 150 feet
high and the latter only 20 to 30 feet in height. In a similar way the
bole of the forest-grown palm is only about 3 feet in girth, whereas
the farm-grown palm may be over 6 feet in girth. It goes without
saying that the latter bears larger bunches of fruit and the
individual nuts are larger and also more numerous.
Between the twelfth and fifteenth year the tree begins to clear itself
of the lower leaves, thus forming a clean bole up to the tuft of
fronds at the top.
Owing to the fact that the bunches of fruit form in the axis of the
leaf stalk, they are compressed very tightly, and thus ripen
comparatively slowly. By cutting off the leaf immediately below the
fruit, the ripening period is shortened by three weeks. This is, of
course, partly due to the increased amount of light. Cutting leaves,
however, above the fruit, or at all excessively in number, leads to a
deceleration in growth, so that pruning should only be moderate. Both
in the forest and in the open, epiphytic ferns, figs, and other plants
grow amongst the leaves on the stem, and more especially later at the
top of the tree. The trees are rarely, if ever, cleaned of these
hindrances to healthy growth, but naturally they retard the flowering
and ripening of the fruit. The leaves are also used for making brushes
for sweeping the ground.
_Native Use._—Oil is made from the pericarp of the fruit, and from the
kernels, for rubbing on the skin. The leaf stalk is used for roof-
poles.
Natural regeneration is good, although the Oil Palm thrives best in a
deep, moist soil with considerable mineral content. It is, however,
found growing amongst rocks on laterite and poor sandy land, and that
in such case the rainfall is deficient, i.e. below 40 inches. A few
small plantations have been made. It is noticeable that self-grown
seedlings grow much slower than those transplanted. In the first year
the self-sown seedlings grow only one pair of leaves, whereas those
transplanted grow five or six in the same period. Apparently the Oil
Palm does not thrive unless the soil is kept well covered and a good
surface tilth maintained. With a planting distance of 20 to 24 feet
there is considerable scope for the planting of other crops between.
The chief difficulty appears to be to grow these at a profit without
impoverishing the soil or hindering the quick development of the Oil
Palm. On suitable soil the most profitable crops appear to be the
following: ground-nuts, beans (three or four kinds), Egusi Bara,
_Citrullus vulgaris_.
A fuller consideration of this subject, and the Oil Palm generally,
will be found in the separate section about it.
_Elæis Guineensis_, var. _Thompsonii_. The Palm of Everlasting Life or
King Palm. Eviromilla (Benin). This is the meaning according to the
Benin name.
It is found in the Colony of Lagos, and Abeokuta and Benin provinces
of Nigeria. On the whole, it is an uncommon tree, but there is no
doubt of its being an indigenous tree to this part of Africa. The
leaves are long and very compressed, being set at an acute angle to
the leaf stalk and of smaller size than in any other species. It gives
the palm almost the appearance of a Cycad. It also looks as if the
leaves had closed up with the cold or were not fully developed. The
leaves also are of a much darker green (almost olive-green) than the
ordinary palm. Amongst the Benis it is considered the Sacred Oil Palm
Tree, the nut obtained from it being especially revered. From the
Resident’s office is seen one of these trees which was planted in the
Benin City Arboretum some nine years ago. It is a very slow-growing
palm, having scarcely one quarter of the rate of growth of the
ordinary oil palm. The stem is much thinner in proportion to the
height than the ordinary oil palm; and it does not attain more than
half the height of an oil palm. When growing in a group, it gives
quite a funereal appearance.
The nuts are used by the natives as “Ju-ju” of divination to see into
the future. It is said that “the nuts talk,” in the Benin country,
where the tree is held to be that of everlasting life.
_Elæis sp._ Ope trumfo (Yoruba).
Abeokuta province, Yoruba country.
_Elæis sp._ Small Oil Palm. Ope Ifu No. I (Yoruba); Ogiedi (Benin).
Abeokuta province, Yoruba country.
_Elæis Guineensis_, var. _Lisombe_. Palm, or Lisombe Palm, or Soft-
shelled Palm. Ogeddin (Benin).
The main difference of this species is in the small oblong, pointed
fruit on a much smaller drupe, and the larger quantity of oil obtained
from the pericarp and the very small kernel in the nut. It is also
much softer to crack. The foliage looks a fresher green than the
ordinary variety; also the leaflets are placed at an acuter angle to
the leaf stalk than the other.
It is not very prevalent in the Benin, Abeokuta, Calabar and Ogoja
provinces of Nigeria.
_Silviculture._—The nuts, when sown, do not germinate true to species,
except for a few per cent. It is planted in the Indem country of the
Ogoja province.
_Native Use._—The oil is collected in a similar way to the other, but
is liked more by the natives of Benin. The kernels are used for making
oil as well.
_Hyphæne_. Dum Palm or Forked Palm. Kaba, Kodago, Kwalo (nut), Goriba
(Dr. Dalziel’s Hausa list).
It is found in the Zaria and Niger provinces of Nigeria.
The only branched palm in West Africa. It attains a height of 30 feet.
It is more or less gregarious in habit, though the individual groups
of palms are not very large. It is apparently somewhat fire-resisting,
though this may be due to its being found amongst the dry-zone
vegetation. The stem is short and the two forks often crooked, so that
little or no use is made of the wood by the natives. The seeds are
turned into buttons, and so have recently obtained a value for this
purpose. They were first sent to England from the Soudan, where
apparently the tree is much more common than in West Africa.
_Borassus flabelliformis_, var. _Æthiopica_. Palmyra or Black Run Palm,
Fan Palm, Bottle Palm, Arac Palm. Agbon, Olodu, Igoti (Yoruba); Oluwa
(Benin).
It is a common tree in the dry-zone forest regions of Ibadan, Benin,
Onitsha, and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria. This palm, with the swollen
upper part of the bole making it appear more like a large inverted
bottle, is thus not to be mistaken for any other. The huge fan-shaped
leaves distinguish it from either the Coconut Palm or the Oil Palm. In
the distance, too, the leaves appear more silvery-green, and not the
yellow-green of the Coconut, or the bright, fresh green of the Oil
Palm, or the sombre dark green of the Wine Palm. A large mass of
coconut-shaped nuts, but with a smoother, more yellow surface, and
more cylindrical in shape, without the ridges of the coconut, are
another feature of this tree. At the base of each nut the old sepals
of the flower remain, appearing like large dark-brown leaf scars. The
young seedlings are easily seen amongst the grass, sticking up as they
do like little silvery-green fans of varying size, in detail showing
the folds of a fan most distinctly, the leaf opening out in a similar
way to a fan. The bole is dark brown and practically smooth, showing
no leaf scars, and only faintly lined vertically down the stem. The
base is only slightly swollen, and the roots do not form a large mound
round it, as is the case with the Oil Palm, and to some extent with
the Tombo Palm. Inside the fruit there are two or three large,
flattish nuts.
The timber is fibrous, hard, but very durable and quite termite proof.
Although the upper part of the stem is hollow, long sectional pieces,
four by two, and even thicker, can be cut out. It planes up with a
smooth surface, and the grain looks very pretty with the thick fibres.
It nails fairly well and splits longitudinally.
It is a light-loving tree, moderately fast growing for a palm. It is
usually found growing gregariously in groups of a few acres up to
hundreds of acres in extent. However, it is rarely thick enough to
thoroughly shade the ground. Natural regeneration is good, even though
in most areas annual grass-fires run through the trees and to some
extent char the fruit. No plantations have been made of these species.
The timber has not been exported, but locally it has been used for
house-building, as well as for fences near the railway. The natives
occasionally use it for house-building, but they do not know how to
tap it for the wine. The leaves are sometimes used for making
temporary shelters. The fruit is sometimes eaten, and has a pleasant
taste. The nuts might be exported for making into buttons.
=Cyanastraceæ.=
_Cyanastrum cordifolium_. Ikoto.
It has an edible fruit. Found in the Benin province of Nigeria.
=Liliaceæ.=
_Dracæna sp._ Dragon’s Blood. Ewanenimi (Benin).
It has a very long, thin leaf of the usual monocotyledonous type and
with a somewhat branched stem, with thin papery bark.
It is fairly common in the Benin country. It is one of the few
monocotyledonous trees of the forest, and thus easily distinguishable
from other trees. The parallel veins of the leaf are very long and
laid fairly close together. The stem is very porous and not woody,
being more fibrous in type. It reaches a girth of about 4 feet and a
height of 40 feet.
_Native Use._—The leaves are used by the natives medicinally; and
occasionally the sap is used to blind people.
_Dracæna surculosa_. Dragon’s Blood. Ope, Igbo.
Is found in Olokemeji.
_Dracæna cylindrica_. Boundary tree. Peregun (Yoruba); Ukpogun, Ogihu
(Benin).
Found in the Olokemeji Reserve.
_Dracæna cylindrica_. Boundary tree. Peregun (Yoruba); Ukpogun, Ogihu
(Benin).
It has a wider and shorter leaf than the Ewanenimi tree, but again
with the parallel veins, which are, of course, typical of the
monocotyledon. It does not really form proper timber, but the stem is
of a spongy, fibrous nature. It reaches a girth of about 5 feet and a
height of about 50 feet. It usually has one stem, which is unbranched
for a very considerable length, but sometimes a whole group will grow
up in one place.
Both this and the former species are propagated very easily by
cuttings. In fact, it is possible to take the end of a branch complete
with the leaves and put it in the ground, when it will grow. It likes
a comparatively deep moist soil, though it will stand any amount of
drought without actually dying. It stands pruning well and grows
moderately rapidly.
It is useful for making live fences.
_Native Use._—Both Yorubas and Benis use the tree for boundaries,
simply sticking cuttings in wherever it is wished to mark a place.
“Ju-ju” places are also marked in this way. The leaves are used
medicinally in Benin.
_Dracæna Perrottetii_. Boundary tree. Ope, Kanakan (Yoruba).
Found in the Mamu Forest.
_Dracæna sp._ Boundary tree. Oro Igbo (Yoruba); Uruaro (Benin).
A common Dracæna found in the Benin and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
It is often used for making fences to farms and boundaries for village
or farm land, and for marking special “Ju-ju” places. The Benin people
state that it has more latex than the other species of this genus.
=Marantaceæ.=
_Clinogyne_, syn. _Donax cuspidata_. Yoruba Soft Cane. Toto (Y.).
It is found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria. It is a small soft
cane which grows gregariously in groups from a quarter to half an acre
in extent in the Olokemeji Reserve, to a height of about 5 feet, and
has large, alternating, very fine parallel-veined leaves.
Inflorescence, raceme or panicle-like bracts, deciduous. Some species
yield starch or fibre. Toto is found quite abundantly in the middle of
the Olokemeji Reserve. It is used for mat-making, and considered most
valuable.
=Orchidaceæ.=
_Polystachya sp._ (Lindl.). Eme-ela (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve in the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria.
_Polystachya odorata_. Afoma (Yoruba).
This is a parasitic plant, very similar to mistletoe, which attacks
many kinds of trees and has recently been found on the six-year-old
teak at Mamu and Olokemeji, in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria.
=Ulmaceæ.=
_Celtis solenostigma_. Hard Celtis (large). Ita (Yoruba); Ita, Uta
(Ikale); Ohianamemme, Ohia (Benin); Omoin, Itako, Ita gangan (Egba).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan, Ondo, Benin, Owerri, and Ogoja
provinces of Nigeria, in the mixed deciduous forest zone, where it is
usually very prevalent. In many places it is almost gregarious.
It is a large tree 10 feet in girth, with smooth stem and large, long,
thin buttresses. It has a bigger leaf (6 inches) than the other Ita,
with a very prominent mid vein on the leaf.
The fruit is dark coloured. The root buttresses are very long and
thin, extending sometimes 15 feet up the trunk of the tree. They are,
however, shallower and thinner than in the case of mahogany and cotton
trees. They merge gradually at an angle of about 15 degrees into the
stem. The bole may reach a length of about 90 feet, and is usually
very straight. The crown is compressedly spherical, rather shallow in
proportion to the size of the tree, but fairly wide-spreading.
Occasionally, if the bark has a yellow tinge, especially in smaller
specimens, the tree may be mistaken for Opele, _Schrebera
Golungensis_.
Timber is white and very hard, and splits well when it is dry. When
dry it is inclined to be brittle, though it shows considerable lateral
strength. The texture of the grain is fine, and it planes up with a
smooth surface. It is liable to split with nails, but it saws well.
Under cover it is durable; in the open, unless very carefully dried,
it is liable to decay. When thoroughly dry it hardens very
considerably, and is not attacked by white ants, especially when used
in a suitable place. When dry it will float, but the wood is liable to
become discoloured by contact with water.
As firewood it burns slowly, gently and steadily, giving out much
heat. It is a fairly rapid-growing tree, at first shade-bearing and
later somewhat light-demanding; in the older stages it scarcely
protects the soil. Up to the pole stage it is a soil-improving tree,
the leaves making a rich humus. Natural regeneration appears to be
good. It does not sprout from the stump. Considering its size it is
fairly wind-firm. No plantations have been made of this tree.
The timber has not been exported, not has it been sawn up for local
use. Considering its prevalence, it deserves a trial.
_Native Use._—It is considered the best firewood in Benin, and also
used as firewood among the Yorubas.
_Celtis sp.?_ Soft Celtis (small). Ita ita (Yoruba); Ohia (Benin).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan, Ondo, Benin, and Ogoja provinces
of Nigeria, in the mixed deciduous forest zone, where it is very
prevalent.
It is a medium-sized tree up to 4 feet in girth, with medium sized,
thin leaves and white-coloured twigs. The stem is slightly scaly and
yellowish-green in colour, especially in the upper parts. A very
common tree in the deciduous forest. With its yellowish-green bark in
the upper part of the bole it is very similar to Opele, _Schrebera
Golungensis_, and can often be mistaken for it. The trunk, however, is
not slightly pitted, as is the case with Schrebera. On the whole, this
tree is shorter, reaching a height of about 40 feet. The root
buttresses are much slighter than in the case of _C. solenostigma_,
though they are of a similar shape, being very thin and merging
gradually into the trunk to a height of about 5 feet from the ground.
Timber is white and fairly hard, but not durable. It hardens somewhat
on exposure to the air. The texture of the grain is fine, but
occasionally cross-grained. It planes moderately well, and takes nails
moderately well also, more so than _C. solenostigma_. It saws easily
and splits well.
As a firewood it burns steadily and slowly, giving out great heat. It
does not crackle nor cause sparks.
It is a moderately fast growing, at first shade-bearing, and
subsequently a light-demanding tree. During most of its life it is a
soil-protecting and soil-improving tree. Natural regeneration is good.
It sprouts a little from the stump, but not strong enough for purposes
of reproduction.
The timber has not been exported, nor has it been sawn up for planks
for local use. Being smaller than _C. solenostigma_, after trial it
may not be found so useful, but it could be used for similar purposes.
_Native Use._—Firewood of the best kind, and occasionally used as side
house-posts.
_Trema Africana_. African Elm. Ehunogo, Ehrunbogo (Benin); Affi (Ibadan
and Oyo); Afoforo (Egba); Offun (Lagos).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan and Benin provinces of Nigeria, in
the mixed deciduous forests, where it is moderately prevalent.
It is a medium-sized tree with nettle-like leaves, which wither
rapidly. It has a very thin, smooth bark. The fruit is small, thin and
long, and is eaten by pigeons. It grows up where old trees fall in the
forest, and is also a common tree in old farms. Medium-sized specimens
are in general appearance, from a little distance, very similar to
Iroko, and it can be mistaken for this tree. The crown, however, is
narrower, and the foliage is somewhat thicker, and the leaves and
branches are placed rather closer together than those of Iroko. The
bark is slightly fissured, and does not show lenticels like the Iroko,
especially not on the roots. In proportion to the size of the tree,
the root spurns are larger than in the case of Iroko. It it usually
found growing singly, whereas groups of Iroko are often common, or
anyhow several are found in one locality.
The timber is white and of medium hardness, but very durable indeed.
It is termite proof. It planes well, but does not split easily. It
saws well and takes nails fairly easily.
It is of fairly rapid growth, at first shade-bearing, and later a
somewhat light-demanding tree, with soil-protecting and soil-improving
qualities. Natural regeneration only appears to be moderate. It
sprouts from the stump.
The timber has not been exported, not has it been sawn up for local
use.
_Native Use._—The timber is used amongst the Benis as rafters and
ceilings for house-building, as it is uncut or squared.
_Trema affinis_ or _T. Africana_. African Elm. Afofero (Yoruba).
Found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria.
=Moraceæ.=
_Antiaris toxiaria_. False Oroko. Oro Aiyo, (Egba) (Yoruba); Ogiovu
(Benin).
It is a common tree in the Calabar, Ogoja, Owerri, Warri, Benin, Ondo,
Ibadan and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
It is a large tree, reaching a girth of 15 feet and a bole length of
70 feet, of very cylindrical shape. There are large surface roots,
which stick up out of the ground on roadsides, but form only low root
spurns. The bark is grey, smooth and almost shiny in the sun. The
crown is heavier and less open than Iroko, but otherwise in habit it
is similar. The leaves on the whole are smaller and the foliage
generally is of a lighter green than the Iroko, except when the latter
puts on new leaves in February or March. The fruit is a little
spherically shaped nut with a papery covering easily removed,
disclosing a round nut with small markings all round it. Two kernels
are found inside on cracking it. The slash is yellowish white, and
gradually a little thin white latex exudes. The tree usually appears
after a few years on abandoned farms. The leaf is rough to the hand,
almost as bad as _Ficus asperata_, but there are no hairs on the under
surface. On the whole the branches are much flatter than Oroko, though
the top of the crown is round. The timber is soft and white all
through. Termites attack it. It is very light and might almost pass as
a substitute for cork. It has large and wide medullary rays, more
especially in the root. In cross section the root looks almost porous.
_Native Use._—Amongst the Yorubas the bark is used medicinally and the
wood for doors, benches and matchet handles.
It grows very fast and likes light. Scale insects like to make their
nests in a junction of a branch with the stem, where there is quite a
hollow. In youth the firm and almost horizontal branches are quite a
contrast to the long, up-shooting or drooping branches of Oroko. It
has not been cut either for local use or for export.
The roots are used for making corks in the Calabar district.
It is used often as a “Ju-ju” tree, like the Iroko, chiefly in the
Calabar Division. The hunters sit near the tree, when in fruit,
because the Maxwell’s Duika, Yellow-backed Duika, Red-headed Duika,
etc., eat the fruit. The bark is used in sections for making bags by
sewing the two ends together, as well as one side.
_Antiaris sp._ Ovu (Benin).
It is a common tree in the Benin and Ondo provinces of Nigeria. It is
medium-sized, reaching a girth of 9 feet and a bole length of about 50
feet. The leaf is larger, but the crown appears thicker and heavier
than _Antiaris toxiaria_. The seed is the same size as _Antiaris T._,
but the root spurns are very slight, even less than _Antiaris T._ The
branches spread out from the stem, thus making the crown longer and
narrower than _Antiaris T._ In this respect the _Antiaris sp._ is more
like the Oroko than the _Antiaris T._
The timber is white and soft. No proper heartwood. It splits well.
It is a shade-bearer and is often found in the thick forest. It grows
much slower than _Antiaris T._
It has not been cut for local use or exported to Europe. Perhaps it
could be tried for wood pulp.
In Benin the branches of this tree are used for making figures of
their ancestors, which are placed outside the house. The bark is used
for making bags in a similar way to that of _Antiaris T._ It is also
used for making rope or string for tying bags.
_Antiaris sp._ Cedar-like Lauro. Oregbon I (Yoruba); Opputtu (Benin).
It is a common tree found in the Benin and Abeokuta provinces of
Nigeria. It is very similar in habit and shape to the _Antiaris
toxiaria_, but it does not attain nearly such a large size. The tree
exudes very fine, white latex in a very small quantity. The timber is
soft and white and not durable.
[Illustration: FIG. 53.—=Mature Opepe (Sarcocephalus esculentus), in
middle of picture, across Ogun River, Olokemeji Forest Reserve.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 54.—=Mature Oganwo (Khaya Punchii), near Dajopa,
Olokemeji Reserve, showing base of stem for nearly 12 feet stripped of
bark.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 55.—=Large Emido (Mimusops multinervis), 10 feet in
girth, Dajopa, Olokemeji Reserve.=]
To face p. 250.
It is a soil-protecting and soil-improving tree, and stands a good
deal of shade. The tree has not been cut for local use, nor has it
been tried as a timber for export.
_Ficus sp._ Common Fig. Obobo (Yoruba); Ohau (Benin).
It is a common tree of the Calabar, Ogoja, Owerri, Warri, Benin, Ondo,
Ibadan and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria. One of the most typical
features of this tree is its free growth, open crown, and green,
yellow and orange-coloured bark from the base upwards. It is a medium-
sized tree, attaining a girth of 10 feet. The small red-coloured figs
attract pigeons especially, as well as other birds, to the trees in
the fruiting season. The leaf is small for a Ficus and oval in shape.
The wood is white and soft. The white latex which exudes from the
trunk when cut distinguishes this tree from the satinwood, _Afrormosia
laxiflora_, with which it might be confused owing to the similar
shades of green, yellow and orange-colour of the bark. It is chiefly
found in the secondary forest, also near villages in the evergreen
forest zone. Owing to the parrots and pigeons carrying the seed,
reproduction from this source, both in epiphytic and tree form, is
very good, but it is most usually found growing alone in an open
place, without any support from other trees. It is very fast growing
and impatient of shade.
The wood has not been used locally nor for export, nor does the native
apparently have any use for it, as it soon rots when cut down.
The native occasionally eats the ripe fruit.
_Ficus exasperata_. Emido, Oboba (Yoruba).
This tree is found in the Abeokuta province.
_Ficus Thonningii_. Opoto (Yoruba).
This is one of the smaller fig-trees of the mixed deciduous zone. As
with the others, it is not used as a timber tree, but occasionally for
fences.
_Ficus triangularis_. Abadan (Yoruba); Obadan-nikwi (Benin).
It is a common tree in the Benin, Ibadan and Abeokuta provinces of
Nigeria. It is chiefly found in the mixed deciduous forests. It is of
no use as a timber tree, but is used occasionally for fences by the
natives.
_Ficus Vogelii_. Lagos, Abba or Abbo Rubber. Abadon (Yoruba); Obadan
(Benin).
It is the common tree of the Calabar, Ogoja, Onitsha, Benin, Ondo and
Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria. This is the most common fig-tree, and
is usually found along the sides of roads in the native villages. The
very large, shiny leaf (not quite as glossy as _Ficus Indica_) is one
of the most typical features of this tree. In Benin it is usually
deciduous for about thirty-six hours, and the pinkish tips of the
fresh leaves and the great rapidity of their development are
remarkable. The bark is dark brown and rougher than the other species.
In the Benin Forestry Compound there is a large specimen. On the
whole, it is less common in the evergreen forest than near villages or
roads. In the forest it is most often found as an epiphyte growing on
oil palms, Sasswood, and oil-bean trees. The timber is white and soft;
it has not been used for local purposes nor for exports. The “Balata
rubber” of the Upper Niger district is obtained by roughly coagulating
the latex of this tree in the air, with or without reagents, such as
the latex of _Bauhinia reticulata_, or salt. The natives use the tree
for making fences by sticking in pieces of the stem of suitable
length, and in a similar manner it is used as a shade tree on the
sides of roads in the villages. This is more especially the case in
the villages in the dry zone, where other shade trees are scarce.
Pigeons and parrots spread the seed, and thus its reproduction is
assured.
_Ficus platyphylla_. Gambia Rubber.
It is also found in the upper reaches of the Ogan River, in the Ogo
province of Nigeria.
_Ficus asperata_. Sandpaper Leaf. Ekpin (Yoruba); Ameme (Benin).
It is a common tree in the Ogoja, Owerri, Benin, Onitsha, Ibadan, Ondo
and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
It is often found as a small, scrubby tree, though when fully grown it
reaches a girth of 8 feet, especially in the Benin province. The rough
leaves are harsh to the touch.
The pigeons are very fond of eating the fruit and seeds.
The wood is white and soft.
The leaf is of the usual Ficus style, with a short stalk and deeply
dentated, making almost a five-lobed leaf.
The leaves might be useful as a substitute for sandpaper. It has not
so far been cut for export or local use.
_Native Use._—The leaves are used for cleaning calabashes by the
Yorubas and Benin people.
_Ficus sp._ Ograw (Yoruba).
Found in the Abeokuta province.
_Musanga Smithii_. Cork-wood or Umbrella Tree. Agbawo or Aga (Yoruba);
Ogohen (Benin); Oro (Brass).
It is a very common tree, found growing in new clearings amongst the
evergreen and mixed forests of the Calabar, Ogoja, Owerri, Onitsha
(?), Warri, Benin, Ondo, Ibadan and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
It is a medium-sized tree with an umbrella-shaped crown. It is the
most distinctly gregarious tree of any in the forest, often alone
covering many acres of land, supported on a series of aerial roots,
the centre one of which is really the tap-root. The tree looks
altogether top-heavy when mature (it is short-lived). It reaches a
girth of nearly 5 feet. The bark is thin and of a light brown colour,
spotted here and there with large yellow lenticels. The large pink
sheath containing the immature staminate flower is often found lying
on the forest pathway after the storm. The leaf is reminiscent of the
horse chestnut, but with about eight digits. The young leaflet is of
an orange-red colour. It is doubtful if it passes an age of thirty
years.
The timber is white and soft, with no distinguishing heartwood, but
with brown pith half an inch in diameter. When properly dried it has a
fine, smooth grain and is usually free of knots. It dries much harder
than when freshly cut. It splits well, but it is rather brittle.
It is the quickest growing of all the African forest trees, and
certainly reaches timber size before any other. Regeneration by seed
is prolific, seeds often germinating after lying dormant for over a
hundred years, when a heavy forest is cut down. It is a light-lover,
protecting the soil with its heavy foliage, and enriching it by making
a good mould when it falls to the ground. It will stand a little shade
as a young seedling. Very few trees will grow under it, though it is a
useful “nurse.”
The timber is used for floating other wood heavier than water, but it
has not been exported or cut for local use. The roots are used
medicinally, and hunters tap the tree for water in the dry season.
_Native Use._—As the Yoruba name implies, a group of the aerial roots
is used for a native chair. Young 6-inch stems, split in half, cut
about 4 feet long and dried, are used upright to form the walls of
temporary farm-buildings. The wood is also used in place of cork, and
for making matchets and knife scabbards in the Benin and Ibo countries
respectively.
_Chlorophora excelsa_. African Oak, African Teak. Iroko (male), Iroko
(female), Oba’s Tree, Rock Elm. Iroko (Yoruba); Uloko, Oroko
Ulokoodigpe, Uloko-nushinogbon (Benin); Odji (Ibo, Asaba); Ofryio
(Efik); Nsan (Oban, Ekoi).
It is a very large forest tree, reaching a girth of 30 feet and a bole
length of 90 feet under favourable conditions. The male tree is
usually thinner and of more compressed build, whereas the female shows
more spreading growth and larger size; it is also quicker growing than
the male. The female has stout, finger-thick, solid catkins, whereas
the male has thin, long, open catkins up to 6 inches long. The timber
of the male is darker brown and closer grained than that of the
female, and also harder. The sapwood is wider in the female tree, but
there is also a very wide difference between trees of both genders
when they are grown in the open, old farms, or in dense, high forest,
the latter yielding the hardest and closest-grained timber. The crown
is almost umbrella-shaped and open, so that the leaves appear large in
proportion, and it is usually possible to see through it. Three or
four large limbs form the mainstay of it (see plate No. 37). The
yellow lenticels on the stem, especially in younger specimens, and
also on the red roots, are typical of the tree. The slash is
yellowish, with little red spots in it. A little white latex flows out
too.
In proportion to the size of the tree the root spurns are not very
large, reaching 3 or 4 feet up the tree, and being well rounded, do
not spoil the shape of the base of the bole. In older specimens the
bark becomes brown, and finally almost grey in colour, and scales off
to a slight extent. Although it forms very large side roots, it has a
tap-root going to considerable depth. The loose seeds are small and
flat, being not unlike those of alder, but rather larger and thinner.
It is found in all the Southern Provinces of Nigeria, both in the
evergreen and mixed forest zones, where it is none too prevalent.
_Timber._—Sapwood is yellowish white, and the heartwood of a yellow
brown to dark brown (oak to teak brown). It is moderately hard, very
durable and termite-proof. It does not plane very well, being
sometimes cross-grained; it can, however, be worked up to a smooth
finish. The grain is rather open and the pores very long. It has,
however, an oily feel, and a certain amount of sheen. It takes nails
with difficulty, splits moderately well and saws easily. It soon
darkens on exposure to the air and light, becoming in this respect
much darker than oak in a similar period. When seasoned properly it
does not warp excessively. If taken green from the forest zone into a
drier climate it will split. In the past a good deal of timber has
been used in this state.
It is a moderately fast-growing, at first shade-bearing and
subsequently a light-demanding tree, with soil-protecting and soil-
improving qualities. It is deciduous for a few weeks in the year,
generally in February or March, but specimens vary a great deal in
this respect. Natural regeneration is very good, and in suitable
localities it tends to spread more and more with the advance of the
native farms into the forest. It stands transplanting very badly.
Nursery sowings, however, show an enormous percentage of germination,
the seedlings often coming up more thickly than grass. The ground pig
eats the roots of transplanted seedlings, especially in localities
where there are less desirable trees. It will grow as much as 6 feet
in one year, and wherever it has much light in the forest, self-sown
seedlings will grow 3 or 4 feet each year. The leaves are attacked by
a minute coccus which causes them to swell up into an irregular shape,
including the bud, thus stopping the growth for that season. Inside
each of these swellings there are several of the young insects. Only
the younger trees are attacked, and from the pole stage onwards trees
do not appear to suffer nearly so much. In localities, too, where the
trees grow very rapidly they appear to be less attacked, if at all. It
is not very susceptible to fire, though in the mixed deciduous the
base of the stem is often burnt. It is one of the most storm-firm of
all the African trees. The bole is very cylindrical, especially if the
tree which has been growing in the forest is given plenty of space to
grow. The increment put on the bole is very great, being as much as 11
inches in circumference in one year.
In 1906 sample logs of this timber were sold in the Liverpool market
as Iroko at 5d. per superficial foot, sale measure. Since that date it
has been sold as African Oak and African Teak at a similar price, and
appears now to be fairly well established in the market. As there are
large supplies in many districts, such as the Yoruba country, Onitsha,
Ahoada and Ogoja districts, there should be no difficulty in keeping
the market supplied with moderate quantities year by year, at perhaps,
though, slightly increasing costs. Locally the tree has been felled
and sawn up for planks, scantlings, rafters, beams and general
constructional work. By the Railway Administration it has thus far
been considered the best wood for sleepers. Amongst the natives it is
often worth more than it is to the European, the price varying from
half a crown to 4s. 6d. per cubic foot for sawn boards 12 feet long,
12 inches wide and 1 inch thick.
_Native Use._—The most valued of all woods for wall-plates and door
lintels, treasure-boxes, washing-basins for chiefs. Doors, too, are
made of it in Benin. Women place little pieces of chalk, yams,
plantains, cowries, coco yams at the base of the tree, and it is said
they will be blessed with children. Chiefs sacrifice a goat with a mat
and a fine white cloth to propitiate the witches, who are supposed to
hold their court in the Iroko tree and try to catch one of the sons of
the chief.
_Treculia Africana_ (Decne). African Breadfruit. Afon (Yoruba); Ije
(Benin); Ijeni (fruit).
This tree is usually found near the edge of the villages of the
Calabar, Benin, Ondo and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
It grows to a large size, with a bole length of 20 feet and a girth of
9 feet, but it is usually a rather open-crowned, spreading tree. For
its size the foliage is not over-dense. The leaves are single and
roughly lanceolate, with a dark-green and rather shiny upper surface.
The most conspicuous feature of this tree is the huge green, perfectly
spherical-shaped fruit. Immature fruits of all sizes, from a cricket-
ball upwards to a size of 18 inches in diameter, are seen growing
close against the stem of the trunk and bigger branches of the tree.
Some years ago, one of these ripe fruits fell off a tree at the edge
of the Benin market and struck a woman on the shoulder with such force
that she died a few days later. The natives subsequently cut the tree
down.
The chief use of the tree is the fruit, which is placed in water to
rot so that the seeds can be more easily extracted from the
concentrically arranged fibres growing from the centre of the fruit
outwards to the periphery. These are subsequently cooked and eaten,
often being beaten up in a soup. From the outside the fruit looks as
if it were made up of thousands of little green fibres closely packed
together from the centre of the fruit, with the ends sticking out on
the surface, thus giving it a rough feeling to the touch and making it
appear as if it were full of holes.
The junction of a branch with the stem shows a large swelling all
round the base of the branch, which thins out to its regular size
about 6 to 9 inches away from the trunk.
The tree is comparatively slow-growing, but of a soil-protecting and
light-loving nature. In the dry season, great quantities of dew
condense on this tree, so that underneath the soil is kept moist.
Probably more dew falls on this tree than _Myrianthus arboreus_, which
shows a similar feature.
Thus far the wood has not been used for any purpose.
_Treculia sp._ Small-fruited African Breadfruit. Izenagan (Benin).
Found in the Benin province.
_Morus sp._ Aye (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province in
Nigeria.
_Myrianthus arboreus_. Shapo Obibere (Yoruba); Ihege (Benin).
It is a small to medium-sized tree, with short stem rarely exceeding 8
feet in height, and a much-branched, heavy crown, with very large
leaf, cut up in the form of a large digit, much more pronounced than
the horse chestnut. The leaves, on falling, rot and form a heavy layer
of black humus. In the dry season the dew condenses to such an extent
on the leaves that the tree drips in the morning, and the
neighbourhood of such trees is always moist when the rest of the
forest is dry.
The large, rough, elongated, pear-shaped fruit, like an overgrown
sweetsop, is quite characteristic of this tree.
It is found in the Ondo, Benin, Owerri, Warri, Calabar and Ogoja
provinces of Nigeria.
It is scarcely big enough for timber, but would make a good
undergrowth for a light-loving species such as mahogany or teak, and
would kill all weeds on good soil. Usually found on good soil. The
timber is white and soft.
_No botanical name_. Iragbo-Amuje (Yoruba); Igogo (Benin).
It is a large tree with almost hard white wood, more the texture of
Triplochiton. The fruit is a drupe, with a small nut inside. Termites
do not attack the wood. It is a quick-growing tree, which comes up
very frequently in old farms.
It is a common tree in the Benin country.
It is a shade-bearer.
_Native Use._—In the Benin country it is used for door lintels and
cross-pieces in house-building.
=Urticaceæ.=
_Urera_. Ela (Yoruba); Akinrankiri (Benin).
Found in the Yoruba and Benin countries.
=Proteaceæ.=
_Faurea speciosa_. Red-brown timber.
Found in the Calabar province.
=Olacaceæ.=
_Heisteria parvifolia_. White Nut (?). Ikereoha (Benin).
It rarely exceeds the height of about 8 feet and a girth of about 1
foot.
This is a small shrub with red flowers of four petals at right angles
to each other, in the middle of which a white-coloured fruit forms. On
peeling off the white skin, a black nut is disclosed, which is edible.
It tastes more like a hazel-nut. The red flower is the most
distinguishing feature, and makes this plant show up amongst the
evergreen zone.
It is found in the Ondo, Benin, and Calabar provinces of Nigeria.
It is a shade-bearing and slow-growing shrub, with soil-protecting and
soil-improving qualities. It serves a very useful purpose amongst the
undergrowth in the forest. Natural regeneration appears to be fair,
but no plantations have been made with this species. The nuts have not
been tested in the export market. Amongst the natives the nuts are
very popular, and it is the only use which they have for this shrub.
This chiefly refers to the Benin district.
_Heisteria sp.?_. Benin Nut, Edible Nut. Evialegbi (Benin).
It is found chiefly in the Benin province of Nigeria, though probably
its area of distribution extends to the Ondo and Ogoja provinces as
well. It is a tall, comparatively thin-boled tree in proportion to its
height. Attaining a girth of about 8 feet, the bole is 40 feet in
length. The bark is dull green and not very thick, being more in the
nature of cortex than real bark. The most typical feature of the tree
is the fruit, which is a spherically-shaped nut with a pointed tip.
When dry, it is marked with shallow groves about half a millimetre
apart, all converging to the tip. When cracked, the kernel obtained is
rather pleasant to the taste, with plenty of oil. The timber is a
yellowish colour and moderately hard. It is fairly durable, though it
is attacked by a small wood-borer when it is left lying in the forest.
It is a moderately fast-growing tree, but is a shade-bearing, soil
protecting and improving tree. Natural regeneration appears to be
poor. No plantations have yet been made with it, but its yield of nuts
should be tested. The timber has not yet been exported, nor has it
been cut for local use. So far, the chief use of the tree is the nut,
but even here proper tests have not yet been made, and it is only the
natives who really know the tree. The exact oil content has yet to be
tested.
_Coula edulis_. Nkula in the Gaboon, Gaboon Nut. Omumu (Benin).
An edible nut containing oil. It is nearly round in shape, but
slightly depressed at the top, with a soft shell.
_Chief Characteristics._—The tree is of medium size, with narrow crown
and small leaves, the fruit being borne on the upper side of the
branches. It is moderately common near Ugo and also on the Siluko road
(both in Benin). This is apparently a rare tree in reality, and it may
be mistaken for Ivialegbi.
The timber is brown with a red tinge, almost hard.
_Native Use._—The nut decorticated is sold in the native markets and
eaten as a delicacy.
_Value._—According to report made some years ago, it was valued at £7
per ton in Liverpool. It was difficult to get sufficient for a sample.
=Loranthaceæ.=
_Loranthus leptolobus_. African Mistletoe, or Red-flowering Loranthus.
Found in the Yoruba and Benin country.
=Menispermaceæ.=
_Cissampelos Owariensis_. Ebewaki (Benin).
A medicinal plant.
_Cissampelos Pareira_ (L.). Jokoye (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria.
=Anonaceæ.=
_Enantia polycarpa_ (Kew). Abeokuta Bark, Kanda or Canta Bark. Ghido
(Yoruba).
Found in the Egba province.
_Enantia chlorantha_. African Yellow Wood. Yaru (Yoruba); Ehranbabogo
(Benin).
It is a common tree of the Ondo, Benin, Owerri, Ogoja and Calabar
provinces of Nigeria.
It is a medium-sized tree, attaining a girth of 5 feet and a bole
length of 25 feet. The most peculiar feature of the tree is the fruit,
a bundle of reddish clubs all coming out of the twig at one point. The
stem is dull green, with scattered lenticels here and there. The bole
is uneven near the base and almost divided by large spurns, which
makes it difficult to cut out a square log. Standing in dense shade
usually, and often with a piece of the bark removed, showing the
yellow cambium layer or wood, it is easily distinguished from other
trees.
The yellow wood is similar both in the sap and in the heartwood. It
splits well, even into tiny thin, lath-like pieces. It is soft, but
planes up into a smooth surface. The medullary rays are often
prominent, and make the wood look very pretty. The sheen of the wood
also adds to its appearance.
The tree is a shade-bearer and rather slow-growing; perhaps in more
open localities it would grow faster. Natural regeneration does not
appear to be good, though more extensive observations on this point
may reveal more. Small quantities of seed are borne each year. It
sprouts a little from the stump, but this method of reproduction
cannot be relied upon. Cuttings have not yet been tried. It likes a
good moist soil of the evergreen forest and lower parts of the mixed
deciduous forest. It has not yet received a place in the forest
plantations.
Samples of the timber have been tried in England and used with good
effect as a substitute for American “Whitewood,” to which it is
similar in texture. Its small size rather hinders its more extensive
use. In the Benin district it is used as cross-pieces and rafters in
building; wooden shovels are also made from it. It is occasionally
used to make a yellow dye, especially the bark. Native caps are made
from the bark, which is fibrous. It is also used for verandah-posts
and door-frames.
_Dennettia tripetala_. Igberi (Yoruba); Ako (Benin).
It is a common tree in the Benin, Ondo (?) and Abeokuta provinces of
Nigeria.
It is a medium-sized tree, reaching a maximum girth of 6 feet, with a
short bole and a much-branched crown. Most commonly seen as a shrub-
like tree in the mixed deciduous forest. The flower has three petals,
with red colour inside and brown outside. The flowers grow on the stem
or the twigs with little or no stalk, usually two or three in one
place.
The timber, which is white and soft, is eaten by termites. There is no
proper heartwood.
It is a shade-bearer, and rather slow-growing tree. It likes good
soil, and is rather an indication of a loose, good and deep soil.
It has not been exported or used locally.
_Native Use._—The fruit, which has a peppery taste, is eaten. The
chiefs only eat the fruit after it has become red and really ripe. The
small boys use the new young leaves uncooked to make the mouth warm
when the rain falls.
_Dennettia sp._ Agedegbo, Ako (Benin).
This tree was determined from specimens obtained in the early part of
1917 from Olokemeji, where it is somewhat common. Owing to the fact
that only immature and mature fruiting specimens were sent, it may be
identical with _Dennettia tripetala_. It is, however, a much smaller
tree, and the fruit is not nearly so large and is a more oblong shape
than _D. tripetala_. It is a small, much-branched tree and yields a
hard, whitish-yellow wood which might be used as substitute for
lancewood. The Benis eat the fruit, but the Yorubas have no use for
the tree.
_Xylopia Æthiopica_. Negro Pepper. Eru (Yoruba); Unie (Benin); Atta
(Efik).
Is a medium-sized tree with silvery smooth, grey trunk, and found
growing near the banks of rivers in all the southernmost provinces of
Nigeria.
[Illustration: FIG. 56.—=Large-leaved Mahogany (Khaya grandis), 14 feet
in girth, with smaller Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa) standing at the side,
Olokemeji Forest Reserve.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 57.—=Arere (Triplochiton Nigericum), 120 feet high,
thirty years old.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 58.—=Ebony (Diospyros mespiliformis), 7 feet 6
inches in girth, on Dajopa Road, Olokemeji Reserve.=]
To face p. 260.
It is stated to be useful for oars and masts for small boats,
according to the report on the Exhibition of 1867. Since that date,
however, it has not been used for this purpose. The bole reaches a
girth of about 5 feet and a length of about 45 feet. The crown is
narrow and comparatively long, but rather compressed and compact. The
foliage is dense and comparatively close together. The root spurns are
slight and narrow, not extending very far up the bole. In proportion
to its height the trunk is thin and very cylindrical in shape, though
occasionally near the base it may not be absolutely round and tends to
bulge out rather more on one surface than the other. The fruit, when
ripe, is like a bunch of black keys, or little short, round-ended
pieces of wood, all projecting out of one central stalk or fork, which
is the most typical feature of the tree. The cortex is comparatively
thin, and remains smooth even in the mature trees. The bole tapers
only very slightly, and does not divide or send out any branches until
the crown is reached.
The sapwood is white, as also the heartwood, except that the latter
tends to have a very light yellowish-brown tinge, especially as it
seasons. It is moderately hard, showing great elasticity, planing with
a smooth surface, splitting moderately well, taking nails and not
warping or shrinking to any great extent. Even fresh it is
comparatively a dry wood. It saws well and shows considerable textile
strength, as also strength in compression, is moderately heavy and
termite-proof. The texture of the grain is very fine and even, and the
grain is very straight.
This tree is somewhat slow-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting,
and soil-improving. Natural regeneration is moderate. It does not
sprout from the stump. It stands a certain amount of flooding, but it
seems to demand a good soil with plenty of moisture, including a very
moist atmosphere. No plantations have been made of this tree.
The timber has not been felled for export, nor has it been cut for
local use, but it appears to deserve a trial as a substitute for
lancewood, or other woods which show considerable elasticity. It
should be noted that it belongs to the same family as that of the
lancewood. Owing to the straightness and comparative evenness of the
bole for a very considerable length, it might be suitable for shafts
or even telegraph poles.
The fruit is used as a kind of comestible amongst most of the natives,
as it has a peppery taste which is not unpleasant.
It is usually dried and sold in the native markets, several bunches
for a penny. By some it is almost looked upon as a medicine.
_Xylopia parviflora_ (Eng. and Diels). Small-flowering Negro Pepper.
Sesedo, Issa oku (Yoruba); Aghako or Oziza (?) (Benin).
This tree is found in the Abeokuta and Benin provinces of Nigeria,
where it is none too prevalent. It is a medium-sized tree with a very
straight, thin and tall bole. Except for its size it is very much like
_X. Æthiopica_; the fruit is much smaller and scarcely to be seen from
the ground. The timber is grey-white, and the heartwood, though
occasionally a light brown, is scarcely to be distinguished from the
sapwood. It is hard, durable, and said to be termite-proof. It does
not take nails easily, nor does it split well, but it saws
comparatively easily. Natural reproduction by seeds appears to be
poor. It scarcely sprouts from the stump. It is a shade-bearing, soil-
protecting and soil-improving tree.
The timber has not been exported. The bark and roots are used
medicinally.
It is used locally for house-building, as verandah-posts or supports
for the roof. It has considerable tensile strength and stands
compression better still.
_Anona Senegalensis_ (Pers.). Wild Custard Apple. Abo (Yoruba).
This is found in the Oyo and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria. It is a
small, shrub-like tree, with a short stem of about 4 or 5 feet, and
has a very oval leaf, almost ovate in shape. It bears a yellow fruit
which divides up into the typical segments common to this family. It
resembles the Sugar Apple, has a delicious taste, and the fruit is
most refreshing on a hot day at the end of the dry season. The tree is
fire-resisting. Being deciduous, it is not a soil-improving tree. It
is soil-exacting, but is also found in rocky localities. The tree is
not very prolific, but sprouts very strongly from the stump and to a
less extent with root suckers. The small timber is occasionally used
for house-building.
_Anona palustris_ (Foster). Alligator Apple. Afe (Yoruba).
The wood is supposed to be soft, and to have been introduced into the
country some years ago.
It is found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria. The fruit is edible,
the foliage dense and heavy. In the dry season the dew condenses on
the leaves and towards morning drips off on to the ground, thus
keeping the immediate vicinity of the tree quite moist. The leaves,
when decayed, make a rich humus. It is one of the most valuable soil-
improving trees.
_Anona Mannii_.
It grows in the forest region of the Central and South Provinces of
Nigeria. It is a medium-sized tree bearing large green fruit close to
the stem.
_Popowia Mannii_.
A specimen of this Popowia has been found in Alasko, near the Oha
River in the Ibadan province of Nigeria.
_Anona Afzelii_. Probably the same as _Dennettia sp._ Ako, Aggedegbo
(Benin).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Benin and Warri provinces of Nigeria.
It is a medium-sized tree of the more swampy parts or moister regions
of the evergreen forest zone. The leaves are a very large size, often
reaching a length of 1 foot. The wood is yellowish-white and soft and
not very durable. Owing to the very dense foliage, quite a thick layer
of humus is formed in the shade of the tree, so that its soil-
improving properties are very great. It would be a valuable tree for
underplanting mahogany or any deciduous tree, both with a view to
providing soil cover and improving the soil.
The natives do not use this wood.
_Hexalobus grandiflorus_ (Benth.) Afara (Yoruba).
Found in the Abeokuta province.
_Uvaria Afzelii_. Gbogbonshe (Yoruba).
It is found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria. A small tree with
hard wood.
_Uvaria Busgenii_. Paddlewood. Umaja or Umazza (Benin); Uruiju Arogu
(Yoruba).
It is found in the Calabar, Ogoja (?), Benin, Ondo and Abeokuta
provinces of Nigeria.
It is a large tree, and reaches a girth of about 10 feet with a good
bole and limbs. The crown is narrowish, being formed by many small
branches. The bark is light green, scaling off and leaving yellow
patches with a red edge to each; otherwise it is smooth and almost
shining. It is a common tree of the evergreen forest. With the
exception of slight hollows near the base of the stem the bole is
quite round.
The timber is a faint orange-colour with a reddish tint. There is very
little difference between the heart and sap wood, except that the
former is a lighter colour. It splits well and planes into a smooth
surface. At the corner of a square block pieces are liable to split
off. The grain is a little open and the pores are rather long.
Termites (white ants) make no impression on it. The timber is hard,
with a certain amount of rigidity, and yet has no resilience.
It is a slow-growing tree and shade-bearer. Judging by the number of
small trees found, reproduction from seed must be good. It does not
sprout from the stool, and root suckers are thrown up after the trees
have been felled. It likes moist and deep soil, which must be
moderately good, e.g. the red soil of Benin and sandy loam of Badagry
district.
In 1906 samples of the wood were sold in the Liverpool market as
Sabicu and realized 1s. to 2s. per superficial foot. It has also been
used for European house-building in the Calabar province.
_Native Use._—It is chiefly used for making paddles. It is also used
for joists and posts by the Benin people.
_Uvaria Chamæ_ (Kew). Eruju (Yoruba).
It is a large shrub with sweet-scented flowers. Lagos Island.
_Artabotrys sp._ Ako gbogbonshe (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria.
_Monodora tenuifolia_. African Nutmeg. Lakosin (?) (Yoruba); Unyenghen
(Benin).
In younger trees there are a few narrow white streaks in the dull
green bark, which gives it quite a distinctive appearance.
_Chief Characteristics._—It is a medium-sized tree with yellow flowers
tinged with white, most conspicuous after they have fallen to the
ground. The flower has three petals with wavy edges, and reminds most
people of an orchid. In fact, many have asked whether it is not an
orchid. The leaves are light green, especially on the under-side,
though darker as the rainy season advances. The fruit is a spherical
drupe, containing several small nuts or seeds. The tree flowers before
the leaves come fully out, so that it looks very handsome indeed. It
is, in fact, one of the prettiest of all the flowering trees. It
flowers at the end of February or at the beginning of March. It
reaches a girth of about 2 feet and a bole length of about 10 feet,
though it is often much branched from about 4 feet from the ground.
It is quite common in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria, especially in
the Olokemeji Reserve and on the road between that place and Mamu, in
the Benin province, as well as being found in the mixed deciduous
forest zone.
The timber is hard and white and fairly durable. It is tough and does
not split well.
Although it stands a little shade it is a somewhat slow-growing,
light-loving tree, but does not protect the soil. Natural regeneration
appears to be fair. It sprouts well from the stump, often in this way
forming quite a clump. On these stool shoots it bears flowers and
fruit early. It transplants badly, more especially when placed in the
open. It is somewhat exacting as to soil, demanding a certain amount
of moisture as well as depth. It is somewhat fire-resisting, sprouting
out again after such injury.
As it does not really reach timber size, it is not of much use for
local constructional purposes.
_Native Use._—The smaller trees are used as walking-sticks and the
larger ones are sometimes used for hoe and axe handles. In clearing
the land for farms, stool shoots are left standing, to act as supports
for the tendrils of the yams after they have been planted.
_Monodora myristica_, var. _grandifolia_. Calabash Nutmeg. Lakoshe or
Abo Lakoshe, Ilakosin, Igbo (Yoruba); Ukposa, Eddo Binoyoba (Benin).
It is found in the mixed deciduous forests of the Ibadan, Ondo, Benin,
Owerri, and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria, where it is somewhat
prevalent.
_Chief Characteristics._—It is a large tree, up to 7 feet in girth,
with open crown and thin foliage. The flowers are very conspicuous
when they fall, having three very large pointed red petals streaked
with white, almost reminiscent of an orchid. The edge of the petal is
wavy, too. On the tree, the flowers hang from the under-side of twigs
with very short petioles. It is the most handsome and largest
flowering tree amongst the Monodoras. It is, however, never quite so
much covered with flowers as the _M. tenuifolia_. The flowers are
considerably larger, being quite half to one inch longer. The bole
reaches a length of about 15 feet, but is often branched lower down.
The fruit is a large drupe, containing a number of small nuts.
The timber is whitish, hard and somewhat tough, and does not split
well.
It is a moderately fast-growing, light-demanding tree. With the
exception of the period when it loses leaves, it is a soil-protecting
and soil-improving tree.
Although it scarcely reaches timber size, it might be tried for
smaller constructional purposes, such as handles, posts, or rails. The
quantities, however, are not very large.
_Native Use._—The nut is ground up and used in soup.
_Monodora brevipes_. Yellow-flowering Nutmeg. Ause, Lakosin (Yoruba);
Iyoha (Benin).
Grows abundantly throughout the Tropics. The seeds are useful as
condiments or as medicine.
=Myristicaceæ sp.=
_Pycnanthus Kombo_. White Cedar. Akomu (Yoruba); Omocham (Benin).
It is found in the Calabar, Ogoja, Owerri, Benin, Ondo and Abeokuta
provinces of Nigeria.
It is a very common tree, especially at the edges of roads and in old
farms. It is not so common in the original forest. It grows up to 15
feet in girth. It has a very cylindrical bole, with long, straight,
outstanding branches growing close together, more or less forming a
flat crown. The leaves are large and pinnate, and the small fruit,
which grows in clusters, half opens, disclosing a bright red interior
with one round seed covered with pink, mace-like fibre. The slash is
pinkish-white, and heavy, sticky white latex streaked with red exudes
very freely after it has been cut.
The timber is soft and white and not durable. It has not so far been
used either for export or locally.
=Lauraceæ.=
_Ocotea_ cf. Egg-shaped fruit tree. Agkwokhau (Benin).
Found in the Benin province.
=Capparidaceæ.=
_Cratæva Adansonii_ (Guill. et Perr.). Egun oran (Yoruba).
Tree 30 feet high with yellow flowers. Found growing at Fiditi, Oyo
province.
_Capparis Thonningii_. Ekkana, Awoa (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria.
=Rosaceæ.=
_Parinarium sp._ Babu (Yoruba); Oria (Benin); Oko (Ibo, Owerri); Oguru
(Brass); Edat (Efik); Ukpoi, Edat, Mpuri (Oban, Ekoi).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria, and Asaba district, Benin province.
It is a large tree with irregular surface to the bole, muscular-like
protrusions being seen here and there, as well as similar shaped
depressions. The crown is wide and flattish, and of light foliage. The
fruit is a large, nasty-smelling, apple-shaped drupe.
The timber is white, with apparently little difference between sap and
heart wood, and it is hard and tough, not splitting at all easily.
It is a somewhat slow-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting and
soil-improving tree, said to be termite-proof. It has considerable
resiliency, and stands a certain amount of bending strain.
The timber has not been used for export, nor has it been sawn up for
planks for local use.
_Native Use._—The Yorubas use the timber for making mortars for food.
_Parinarium sp._ Red Mahogany. Abue (Egbado, Yoruba); Dabadogun
(Benin).
It is plentiful in the Benin and the Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
_Chief Characteristics._—It grows into a large tree, but is often seen
as a small tree, suppressed by other quicker-growing trees. The dense,
somewhat spreading crown is a typical feature of the tree. Its large
leaves attract attention, especially compared to the size of the tree.
The bole is often crooked and covered with dark green cortex, with
only a limited amount of fine bark.
It has a hard, red wood, not unlike mahogany, but with a more fibrous
grain. It is durable, especially when left in a wet place. It works up
with a good surface and very pleasing colour, making it thoroughly
worthy of being a substitute for mahogany. Being a shade-bearer, soil-
protecting and soil-improving tree, it should eventually find a place
in the forest plantations. Despite its slow growth, its other
silvicultural qualities are worthy of attention.
It has not yet been exported, not has it been felled for local use.
For the former it appears to deserve a trial.
_Native Use._—It is used for firewood.
_Parinarium robustum_. Sometimes called Mahogany Nuts, Nikko Nuts;
Benin Mahogany. Ugibisaro (Benin); Aiyeni (Egbado); Aiye, Aghaghe,
Aiyeni (Yoruba).
It is found in the Abeokuta and Benin provinces of Nigeria, in the
evergreen forest zone, where it is not very prevalent. It is a large
forest tree, reaching a girth of over 12 feet and a bole length of
about 70 feet. In the dry season, in the distance, the leaves show the
typical dried-up yellow appearance of the Parinariums, especially
being somewhat shiny in appearance. The fruit is not unlike a very
large, very dark green plum, but rather more flattened and not so
round. The inside nut is compressedly spherical, showing five large
eyes or holes out of which seeds germinate.
The sapwood is yellowish-white and somewhat broad in proportion to the
size of the tree, and the hard wood is mahogany-red coloured, but with
more fibrous grain. It planes up with a smooth surface and splits
fairly easily, especially when nailed. It is moderately hard and quite
durable, and is not supposed to be attacked by white ants (termites).
Like most of the Parinariums, the fresh wood smells something like
honey, and the timber tends to darken on exposure to the air, thus
improving in colour.
On the whole it is a shade-bearing tree and not very fast-growing. It
has soil-protecting and soil-improving qualities. Natural regeneration
only appears to be very moderate. Like most of the Parinariums, the
kernels of the fruit are pecked out by various birds. No plantations
have been made of this tree.
Quite by accident, in 1906 some logs obtained from this tree were cut
and exported, and sold in the Liverpool market as Benin mahogany at
4d. per superficial foot. Since then, however, none has been cut.
Amongst the Benin natives the timber is occasionally used for house-
building.
_Parinarium excelsum_. Essago (Benin).
It is found in the Ondo, Benin, Owerri and Calabar provinces of
Nigeria, in the evergreen forest zone, where in certain localities it
is very prevalent.
In appearance it is like the rough-skin plum of Sierra Leone, but a
larger and taller tree. The leaf usually looks dry and grey,
especially underneath. The crown is oval and very dense, with a mass
of large limbs. The bark is covered with white lenticels, which make
it look grey. It usually bears a large crop of fruit each year.
It reaches a girth of over 12 feet and a bole length of about 50. In
proportion to the height, the bole is not so long as in the cases of
many other forest trees. The fruit is more uneven in surface than that
of _P. robustum_, and the surface is also more or less speckled with
little white raised lumps, giving it a roughness to the touch. The
fruit inside is yellowish-white, rather hard and not unpleasant to
taste. Where it is found, especially in the more swampy parts, it is
often almost gregarious in habit. It is an evergreen tree.
The wood when freshly cut smells like honey. The sapwood is yellowish-
white and the heartwood is brown. On the whole it is much harder than
_P. robustum_. Occasionally it appears cross-grained, and does not
plane up with such a smooth finish. It saws less easily, and it is
hard to drive nails into it. It does not split well. It is rather a
heavy wood and does not float.
It is a somewhat slow-growing, shade-bearing tree, which thoroughly
protects the soil and improves it with its leaf fall. Natural
regeneration appears to be none too good. No plantations have been
made of this tree.
It has not been felled for local use, but occasionally it has been
used for firewood, which is of somewhat high calorific power. The
fruit is occasionally useful to temporarily assuage hunger in the
forest.
It was sold as African greenheart at 1s. 6d. to 1s. 9d. a cubic foot
in the Liverpool market in 1906.
_Native Use._—None, and the fruit is not eaten. Elephants eat the
fruit.
_Parinarium polyandrum_ (Benth.) (?). Plum. Ako Idofun (Yoruba).
Smaller fruit than _P. curatellæfolium_ and very hard; similar
flowers, the leaves rough and only slightly grey-green on the under-
surface. Stem reddish-brown with long lenticels, leaves larger and
longer.
It is found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria.
_Native Use._—The tree is used by the natives for building farmhouses.
_Parinarium curatellæfolium_ (Planch.). Abo-Idofun (Yoruba).
A small tree 10 feet in height and 1 foot in diameter, with large
umbelliferous flowers of a white colour. The leaves are rough and
shiny on the upper surface, and with more white underneath than the
_P. polyandrum_.
_Native Use._—The fruit is edible, though not usually eaten. No use as
firewood. The wood is used for building farm-sheds.
_Parinarium Gabunense_. Mahogany Nut. Abere (Yoruba).
Found in the Ondo province.
_Chrysobalanus sp._ Niko Nut. Igata (Yoruba).
Found at Ebuttemetta.
=Leguminosæ (Cæsalpineæ).=
_Cassia Sieberiana_. Cassia. Aridan-toro (Yoruba); Ezzi, Apagban
(Benin).
It is commonly found in Benin, Ibadan and Abeokuta provinces of
Nigeria, more especially in the latter. It is a small tree bearing
large and long racemes of yellow flowers in February, making it very
reminiscent of the laburnum. The tree is leafless at the time, so that
the flowers are all the more conspicuous. The almost rectangular
branching habit of this tree, combined with the rather thin twigs, is
very typical. It yields a hard, red wood, but the sapwood is
yellowish-white. The natives use the fruit medicinally and the timber
for house-building. The pods are usually about a foot long and half an
inch in diameter.
_Cassia tora_. Cassia. Ako Kere (Yoruba).
It is found at Olokemeji, in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria. Its
medicinal use as a remedy for ringworm is not known to the natives of
that locality.
_Cassia fistula_. Cassia. Bembedo (Yoruba).
It is rather an uncommon tree of the Benin province of Nigeria, one
specimen being found in the Idah district; the longer (1 to 2 feet)
and stouter (¾ to 1 inch) pod is most typical of this tree. It is
otherwise much the same size as _Cassia Sieberiana_. The natives use
the fruit medicinally, but look upon the tree as a “great medicine.”
_Cassia podocarpa_ (G. and P.). Cassia. Asunwon (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve.
Shrub with yellow flowers.
_Cassia occidentalis_. Blackwater Plant. Rere (Yoruba).
It is a small shrub-like herb with large upright flowers, which is
usually found growing in waste places at the edge of villages in the
Yoruba country, in the mixed deciduous forest zone. A medicine to cure
blackwater fever is made from this plant, though doctors now say it is
not an infallible cure.
_Ormosia laxiflora_ (Benth.). False Dalbergia. Shedun (Yoruba).
It is found in the Ibadan, Abeokuta, Onitsha and Ogoja provinces of
Nigeria, chiefly at the edge of the dry-zone forest.
It is a small tree, 12 feet high and 18 inches in girth, with almost
brick-red or orange-coloured bark, which is thin and often scarred by
natives. It has a long, thin pod with thin, flat seeds. It reminds one
very much of a small Dalbergia. It stands the annual fires well,
though it gets singed each year. The base of the bole is often
somewhat enlarged with the constant cutting of the bark both of the
stem and the uppermost roots.
The timber is yellowish-red and not very hard, but rough to work up,
being more in the nature of a turner’s than a joiner’s wood. The grain
is often by no means straight, and the wood shows a little figure.
Withstanding the fires so well, it serves, or should serve, as a nurse
for the introduction of more valuable species amongst the dry-zone
trees, especially on the laterite soils. Natural regeneration is good
and it sprouts well from the stump. Root suckers do not appear to be
so prevalent as in many dry-zone species. It is a light-loving
species, which does not protect the soil properly, though the foliage
is comparatively dense for that type of tree. It is slow-growing. No
plantations have been made.
It does not attain sufficient size for export, but it might be tried
for local turnery work. It is useful for local hut-building.
_Native Use._—House-building, and the roots when boiled are used in
medicine as a tonic.
_Afrormosia elata_. African Satinwood, Yellow Satinwood. Ayin (Yoruba);
Anyeran, Anyesan, Ehranobapotineddo (Benin); Egbi (Ibadan); Elo Uta
(Ibo, Owerri).
A very conspicuous tree, with its orange-red trunk near the base,
gradually shading off to yellow higher up, and towards the branches a
light-green colour. Large, irregular-shaped pieces of bark fall off
from time to time, in a similar way to the plane-tree of Europe,
though with its reddish trunk it is not so much like the plane as
_Afzelia Africana_. The root flanges or spurns are very thin and do
not extend beyond about three feet up the stem of the tree. In plate
No. 82 one of these trees, growing near Benin, shows the open, rather
narrow crown with its few main limbs supporting it.
It is commonest in the Benin, but also found in the Ondo, Owerri and
Calabar provinces in the moist evergreen forests. It is also seen in
secondary forests of the same zone.
The timber planes well, but does not split. It saws easily, but takes
nails with difficulty. It is sometimes figured, especially logs from
the base of the tree.
It is pretty easily killed by fire at the roots, though otherwise it
tends to spread with cultivation. The sapwood is almost white and the
heartwood a yellowish-green, when fresh, but a dull yellow when dry.
It is very hard and withstands the attacks of white ants (termites).
Even the sapwood of a young tree had not rotted after six years near
the bank of the Ogba, Benin province. It grows moderately quickly.
The flower is inconspicuous and small, and the pod is also small,
being about 2½ inches long and ½ inch broad, containing two or three
flat seeds. The tree does not bear very heavily, and in consequence
natural regeneration is not very good, though such seeds as actually
form properly seem to germinate well. In youth it bears some shade,
but in middle age seems to be almost a light-demander.
Although when freshly cut the wood does not float, when thoroughly dry
it would not be difficult to float it with a lighter species.
The timber was reported as satinwood and worth 3d. to 1s. per
superficial foot in the Liverpool market in 1906, and that moderate
quantities (of fair length and squares) would be taken.
_Pterocarpus esculentus_ (Schum. and Thon.). Edible-fruited Padouk.
Gbingbindo (Yoruba); Akpanagya, Uruhe (Benin); Nja (Efik).
It is one of the most common waterside trees of all the Southern
Provinces of Nigeria; some of the rivers on the banks of which it is
found are the Ovia, Ogun and Cross River. Belonging to the mixed
deciduous forest zone, it is in the middle reaches of these rivers
where it is most prevalent.
A typical feature of this small tree is the bright, yellow-coloured
flower, which quite brightens up the banks of the rivers at the end of
February or March. Another most peculiar feature is the odd, somewhat
kidney-shaped fruit with its rough surface corrugations, containing
inside a hardish nut about 1 inch in diameter. Either the nuts or the
fruit are often seen floating down the rivers, especially where they
are tidal. The leaves are more typical of the Pterocarps, otherwise
the fruit is most unlike either those of the genus or even of the
family. The bole of the tree is short, smooth and almost silver-grey
in colour, though it is often discoloured with the mud from the
perennial floods of the river. It is usually seen with more than one
stem.
The timber is white and not over-hard. It is not very durable.
The tree is not very fast-growing, but is an evergreen, with a short
period in which nearly all the leaves fall. It serves a most useful
purpose in holding the banks of the streams wherever it is found, and
it is noticeable that its roots appear to extend a long way back and
that it is one of the last trees to be washed out by floods. It
sprouts fairly well from the stump when cut, unless it is almost at
once submerged by the floods, which points to the fact that it should
be cut only at the beginning or towards the end of the dry season.
Natural regeneration appears to be fair, but no plantations have been
tried with this tree.
The nuts have not been examined to see what they contain, though they
are of nutritive value.
For export it does not yield large timber, and for local use it is
rather small, but for local huts it might occasionally be used where
other timber is scarce, as in the dry zone. It makes a fair firewood
in those places. Although the fruit is supposed to be edible, very few
natives have tried it, and apparently it is only used in times of
great scarcity.
[Illustration: FIG. 59.—=Large Ayin (Anogeissus leiocarpus), 10 feet in
girth, Dajopa, Olokemeji Forest Reserve.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 60.—=Oil Palm in bearing, two bunches of fruit in
view, Olokemeji Forest Reserve.=]
To face p. 272.
_Pterocarpus Osun_. African Padouk or Barwood. Osun, Osun dudu
(Yoruba); Ume, Ureben (Benin); Opepe (Ikala, Ijor).
It is found in the Ogoja and Calabar provinces of Nigeria, in the
mixed deciduous forest zone, where it is none too prevalent. A
specimen was found near Ibami, in the Obubra district. It is a small
tree with small yellow flowers and rather small leaves. The branches
are placed close together and the crown is very dark and thick. The
bole is short, rarely exceeding 15 feet in length, and the bark a dark
brown colour. The bole reaches a girth of about 5 feet.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood of a dull-red colour, but in
proportion the sapwood is rather wide. It is moderately hard, fairly
durable, but not termite-proof. It planes well, saws easily, takes
nails; it does not split very well.
It is a somewhat slow-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting and
soil-improving tree. Natural regeneration does not appear to be very
good. It is doubtful if it sprouts from the stump. It has not been cut
for export, nor has it been felled for local use.
On the Cross River the Camwood was sold to the European merchants, at
the rate of 409 billets per ton, for £4 10s., so that with the added
cost of river and ocean freight and sale charges, there was no profit
when it was being sold at £6 10s. per ton in the Liverpool market.
Better prices are always secured if it is shipped in squared logs, 24
inches square and 24 to 30 feet in length.
Apparently it is not the Camwood used by the natives, because plenty
of trees are seen scattered about in the neighbourhood of Obubra
untouched.
_Pterocarpus erinaceus_. African Rosewood. Apepe, Ara (Yoruba); Oyo,
Upeka (Benin).
This tree grows in the dry-zone savannah forests of the Ogoja province
of Nigeria. It is of small size; the flowers, which are yellow, appear
in March. The timber is of little value, the tree not being large
enough to yield a useful timber, but it has been sold as African
Rosewood. It has a beautiful rose-red colour.
_Pterocarpus sp._ So-called Camwood. Osun pupa (Yoruba); Akume (Benin);
also spineless fruited Camwood.
It is found in the Calabar, Ogoja, Benin and Ondo provinces of
Nigeria. On the bank of the Cross River, near the Ossizza factory,
there is a large specimen, standing about 20 feet away from the
water’s edge.
It is not very common, and chiefly found near river banks in the
evergreen forest towards their northern limit. It is a medium-sized
tree, reaching a girth of 9 feet at the most and a height of 70 feet.
The bole length does not exceed 40 feet. The bark is light-brown,
almost yellow-brown, with rough fissures and fibrous surface, more
like an elm, though thinner. The branches are thin and light-coloured.
In flower the tree is a mass of little yellow peaflowers, and numerous
bees swarm round the crown of the tree, indicating its presence.
Again, when the fruit ripens the crown is a mass of yellow-brown
winged fruits all fluttering in the wind. They are always in bunches
near the ends of the twigs. The fruit is round and flat, with no hairs
on it, with a thin papery wing completely surrounding and joined to
it, which makes it rather thicker and stiffer than the other species.
It is not at all typical of the Pterocarpus genus. The seed in the
centre has a rough surface. The trunk usually is not quite straight,
having a slight bend or two in its length. In habit, more like a
Combretum or young elm to look at. The crown is round, almost
spherical, and does not usually occupy more than one-third of the
height of the tree.
The sapwood is white; the heartwood is of a dull purply colour, which
is inclined to stain into the sapwood after the tree is cut down and
exposed to rain. On the whole the colour of the wood is deeper than
that of the other Pterocarpus, but it is said to yield a less fast and
poorer coloured red dye than that of the other species, _P. Osun_. It
is moderately hard. It planes well, and is sometimes cross-grained. It
takes nails easily, but does not split very well, though it saws with
comparative ease.
Although it stands a good deal of shade in its youth, it is apparently
a light-demanding tree with soil-protecting and soil-improving
qualities. It is not very fast-growing. Natural regeneration appears
to be poor, chiefly, perhaps, owing to the fact that the seeds are
quickly eaten by small boring insects soon after they fall to the
ground. It is rather exacting as to soil, and prefers the deep, moist,
sandy loam. Only isolated specimens are seen.
The timber has not been exported yet, and despite the fact that it
does not reach such a large size as _P. Osun_, it deserves a trial.
For local use it should find a place for house construction in a
similar position to which the Osun and others are used by the natives.
It has not been cut or used as a dye root, chiefly owing to its poorer
colour. It is, however, used in house-building.
_Pterocarpus_. Cross River Camwood.
It is found in the Obubra district of the Calabar province of Nigeria.
In habit it is very similar to the other Camwoods.
_Pterocarpus Soyauxii_. Large Fruited Camwood. Arakpa, Ume (Benin);
Ukpa (Efik).
It is found in the Ogoja, Benin, Warri (?), Ondo, Ibadan (?) and
Abeokuta (?) provinces of Nigeria.
It is a common tree in the mixed deciduous forests, reaching a height
of 80 to 100 feet, with a bole length of 50 feet and a girth of 10
feet. The bark is a darker colour than _P. Osun_, but a little
rougher. The leaf is smaller than _P. Osun_, but is unarmed. The most
typical difference in this tree is the fruit, which is the largest of
all, 2½ to 3 inches in diameter, with plenty of prickly thorns in the
centre of each surface. The wood is a much darker red, quite a dull,
almost purple red. The root spurns on the whole extend higher up the
trunk than _P. Osun_ (up to 4 feet). The slash is white, but thin red
latex soon exudes out of it.
The wood is hardish, but the sapwood is very white and soft. The wood
does not make the same kind of stain as _P. Osun_, though apparently
it keeps its colour much better than _P. Osun_. When exposed to light,
_P. Osun_ loses it very quickly and becomes a dull-brown colour. The
grain is open and varies a little in colour, giving it a pleasing
effect. Termites do not attack it. It splits well.
It sprouts from the stump slightly, but such shoots do not attain any
size. Seedlings come up readily from fallen seeds. The seeds are
liable to be eaten by the “ground pig” almost at once. It grows
moderately quickly, but is a light-lover. It has an undivided stem.
Samples were sent to Liverpool in 1916 and sold as African Padauk, and
it was reported that “small quantities sell” satisfactorily. It has
been cut for local use for buildings.
_Native Use._—It is used for making wooden shovels, all out of one
piece. Also in house-building as wall-plates at the top of the mud
walls, also in the Oba’s house for uprights.
_Erythrophlœum sp._ Sasswood. Inyi (Benin).
This tree was determined from material from the Central Circle.
_Erythrophlœum Guineense_. Sasswood, or Sassy Bark, or Ordeal Bark.
Erun obo (Yoruba); Oginyi (Benin); Akpa Etuidiwi (Efik); Arachi (Ibo,
Asaba); Inyi, Ibo (Onitsha, Ibo, Owerri).
It is found in the Ibadan, Abeokuta, Ondo, Benin, Onitsha and Ogoja
provinces of Nigeria in the mixed deciduous forest zone, where it is
often very prevalent, more especially north of Ifon and Alabeta in the
Benin province.
It is a large tree, reaching a girth of over 10 feet and a bole length
of over 30 feet. The crown, however, is large and wide-spreading, but
generally spherical in shape. Comparatively low down, the bole divides
up into three or four main limbs. The trunk is seldom very straight,
usually having a twist in one direction or another. The root spurns
are moderately large, but are rounded in shape. The bark is dark-brown
and thick, scaling off to a slight extent in old age. The fruit is a
pod about 3 inches long and an inch wide, containing six or eight
flattish black beans, black to brown. These burst when ripe, but the
seeds only gradually fall to the ground. The fine pinnate leaves are
close together and open out into dense foliage most typical of the
Leguminoseæ. The upper part of the limbs and trunk is light-brown. The
flowers are minute and not often seen.
The sapwood is dull yellow and the heartwood a dull red-brown. It is
very heavy and hard, but not as hard as red ironwood or the Yoruba
ironwood. It is very durable and quite termite-proof; although
sometimes a little cross-grained, with good tools it can be worked up
to a smooth finish by planing. Holes have to be made in it for nails.
It saws well, but splits only moderately easily. In the saw mill it
was found that the hardness of the wood blunted the saws, which needed
constantly sharpening.
It is a slow-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting, soil-improving
tree. Natural regeneration appears to be good, and it is moderately
resistant to fire. Tends to condense dew in the dry season. It
suppresses most other trees by shade. Amongst the dry-zone vegetation
it clings to the banks of rivers, and is common on the upper banks of
the upper reaches of the Ogun. No plantations have been made with this
tree.
In 1906 sample logs of the sister tree, _E. micranthum_, were exported
and sold in the Liverpool market as a species of oak, so that this
timber deserves a trial as a substitute for teak or oak.
It was cut for the Public Works Department at Onitsha and found very
suitable for decking of bridges. The small bridge over the Nkissi,
near Onitsha, was built entirely with this timber.
_Erythrophlœum micranthum_. Sasswood or Ordeal Bark. Ovinni (Benin);
Erinji (Ijor); Ihi (Ibo, Owerri).
It is found in the Warri, Benin and Calabar provinces of Nigeria.
As a small tree, one of the first to appear when the mangrove swamp
gives way to the evergreen rain forest near the coast. On solid land
it attains a large size, even larger than that of _E. Guineense_. The
pod is a little larger than that of _E. Guineense_, and the bark
smoother. The crown is dense and very large, almost spherical in
shape, and reaching more than one-third down the length of the tree.
The timber is very similar in its qualities to _E. Guineense_, but has
a straighter grain in the larger specimens. It is very durable.
It is a slow-growing, shade-bearing tree, with soil-protecting and
soil-improving qualities. Natural regeneration does not appear to be
very good, though numerous pods are borne on the tree almost every
year. No plantations have yet been made with it.
For local use, it has not been cut in a similar way to _E. Guineense_.
The natives occasionally use this tree for making canoes. In the 1906
timber report from the Liverpool market it was valued as a species of
oak at 1s. 9d. per cubic foot, and was not considered so good as
either red oak, _Lophira procera_, or white oak, _Ostryoderris
impressa_.
_Native Use._—The bark is boiled in water and a beautiful red-coloured
liquid is produced. It is administered as an ordeal trial for
witchcraft, and is not poisonous if given in large doses.
_Brachystegia spicæformis_. Agberigeddi, Ako (Yoruba); Okkwan (Benin);
Etare (Oban, Ekoi); Ungu (Ibo, Owerri); Mpanju, Akpanya, Ikpanya
(Efik).
This tree is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan (?), Ondo, Benin, Warri,
Owerri, Calabar and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria.
It is a rough, scaly-barked tree of huge size (see illustration),
reaching a girth of 30 feet and a height of 150 feet. The crown is
flattish, formed by a few wide-spreading limbs and numerous small
branches. The foliage is moderate for a Leguminous tree. The yellowish
flowers are almost unseen, being placed underneath the leaves. The
dark-brown woody pods burst with a bang not unlike a gunshot, and
release four or five flat black, shiny beans about ½ inch across. The
foliage goes almost black on reaching the ground, killing all the
small plants. A brownish gum exudes from the tree when cut, and this
hardens into a reddish, opaque mass similar to Almeidina, and in fact
is the source of this gutta percha-like substance.
_Timber._—It is a rather hard, light-brown wood with pretty, almost
evenly distributed streaks of darker brown shade in it. It is very
durable. The white sapwood soon rots on exposure to the weather. It is
suitable as a furniture wood.
_Silvicultural Characteristics._—It bears a good deal of shade. It
reproduces almost every year plentiful mature seed; grows fast, but
not so rapidly as the cotton-tree, Ricinodendron and others. It is
sometimes distinctly gregarious, as, for instance, south-west of Benin
City.
_European Use._—It has not been exported, but the P.W.D. have used it
for verandah-posts and planks. It has been much admired for the good
colour of the wood and the streaky grain.
_Native Use._—By the Benin people it is not considered a good wood,
but the gum is sometimes used.
_Daniellia ogea_. Gum Copal. Ogea (Yoruba); Ogea (Benin); Udeni (Ibo,
Owerri); Mpanju, Ikpanya, Akpanya (Efik). Also known as _D. oblonga_
and _Cyanothyrsus ogea_, but now called _D. ogea_.
This tree is found growing in the heavy-rain intermediary forest of
Benin, Ondo country and Mamu Reserve. It is a very fine tree with
straight rounded bole, often reaching a height of 120 feet before the
first branch. The bark is light grey and slightly ringed. The flowers
blue and not very noticeable.
_Timber._—Of no commercial value, as it is soft and rots quickly.
_Uses._—A good gum copal is obtained from it, the best in the ground,
after the tree has rotted. It is used for varnish making; worth 30s.
to 60s. a hundredweight.
_Daniellia Fosteri_. Gum Copal. Oguja or Ogea (Yoruba).
Found near Olokemeji and Ijebu-Ode. It yields a third-quality resin
according to Holland in _The Useful Plants of Nigeria_.
_Daniellia Punchii_ (Kew). Gum Copal. Ajia (Yoruba).
_Daniellia caudata_. Benin Gum Copal. Mogbara, Ashuwole (Yoruba); Ogea
(Benin); Agbara (Ikale.)
It is found in the Ondo, Benin and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria. The
bole is the straightest and most cylindrical of any of the African
forest trees. It often attains a height of over 100 feet before the
first branches are reached. The cylindrical shape is further enhanced
by the few quite concentric rings on the bark, horizontally arranged
round the trunk of the tree. The bark is otherwise quite smooth and of
a silvery-green or light-green colour; for the size of the tree it is
very thin, and the tree may reach a girth of 25 feet, and the bark
then is usually only ½ to ¾ inch thick. The slash is yellowish-white;
the sapwood is white and scarcely distinguishable from the heartwood,
which gradually takes a pinkish tinge when it is dry. The flowers are
blue and not unlike those of the fuchsia, and the tree is easily seen
at the end of the dry season by the bare crown with its blue flowers.
The path later on is covered with these. There are practically no root
spurns, the stem emerging straight away from the ground. The crown is
very flat, and does not usually occupy more than one-fifth of the
total height of the tree. The branches are few and of slight and
almost feathery build. The timber is soft, not durable nor termite-
proof. It saws easily, does not split very well, and considering its
softness it does not plane at all well nor with a very smooth surface.
Natural reproduction by seed appears to be poor, although plenty of
seeds seem to ripen; there is one seed in each pod. It is a light-
loving, deciduous tree, but for eleven months of the year it is
certainly a soil-protecting and soil-improving tree. It demands a
deep, moist and somewhat rich soil, though judging by the various
localities in which it is found it is doubtful if it is really
exacting as to soil.
In 1906 sample logs of this timber were sent to the Liverpool market
and considered to be a species of mahogany, but of no value. Natives
have not used it to any extent for local purposes.
_Piptadenia Africana_. Light African Greenheart. Agboin (Yoruba); Sanga
(New Calabar); Iteruku (Efik); Ebbome (Oban, Ekoi); Ekhimi (Benin).
This is a common tree in the Abeokuta, Ondo, Benin, Warri, Owerri,
Onitsha, Calabar and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria. It is one of the most
prevalent trees in the evergreen forests, but is also found in the
mixed deciduous forests, especially, in both cases, near the edges of
the waterways. It is a very large tree, attaining a height of over 120
feet and a girth of over 12 feet. The bole is often 80 or 90 feet in
length and perfectly straight. The crown is thin, ovally flat, but
wide-spreading. The thick, heavily foliaged and drooping appearance at
the ends of the branches makes the tree a most handsome ornament to a
station. At the root, flanges are comparatively long and
widespreading, reaching often over 6 feet up the stem, having root
spurns quite 12 or 15 feet away from the tree. The stem divides up
into a few large branches which form the crown; the bark is yellow-
brown and smooth, but when the tree is growing in the sunlight it
becomes a much lighter colour and sometimes almost grey. The slash is
yellow, with a light-brown tinge; the flowers are quite inconspicuous
when they appear in January or February, being formed of little narrow
spikes. One of the most conspicuous features of this tree is the thin,
flat pod, which may grow as much as 1 foot long and nearly 1 inch
broad. Six to eight seeds are contained in each pod, and these,
including the wing, are 2 inches in length. The flat seed, which is
found in the centre, is brown and shiny, and is only about one-
sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch in thickness. It has a tiny string-
like attachment to the centre, which distinguishes it from Newtonia on
the one hand and Cylicodiscus on the other. The young green foliage is
also most distinctive and attractive in its freshly salmon-pink
colour, also the greenish tips of the older leaves. The leaves
themselves are bipinnate; there are often twenty to twenty-four pairs
of pinnæ, each of which is about half an inch long.
The sapwood is white and comparatively wide; the heartwood is a pretty
light-brown colour, a little darker when fresh, but still retaining a
good light-brown colour when it is dry. Although at first rather heavy
and hard, it seasons as a comparatively light and scarcely hard wood;
it planes well and saws fairly easily; takes nails moderately well,
but does not split at all easily, especially when fresh; has an open
grain and the pores are comparatively long. It is a durable wood and
is almost termite-proof, especially when it is quite dry. When
moderately dry the logs float in water. It weighs 53 pounds per cubic
foot.
It is a light-loving species which does not protect or improve the
soil, except in so far as it is a leguminous tree and its roots thus
improve the ground. It is a moderately rapidly growing tree which
stands a little shade in its youth. Natural regeneration appears to be
only moderate. It sprouts well from the stump, and stump shoots appear
to be very persistent. It is rather sensitive to fire and is easily
killed by placing rubbish near its roots and then burning the heap. No
plantations have yet been formed for this tree. In the forest the
seeds fall to the ground and are soon eaten by a small boring insect.
It likes a comparatively good soil, but is found on sandy soil which
has great moisture; it does not like flooding, but will stand a
little.
Locally, it is occasionally used as a house-building timber. The bark
is occasionally chipped off for use medicinally. Europeans have cut it
up and used it as verandah-posts, joists and verandah handrails.
However, in an unseasoned state the sapwood was attacked by termites,
and thus it was not entirely satisfactory. The heartwood when quite
dry does not warp and appears to be very durable.
In 1906 sample logs of this timber were sold in the Liverpool market
as “Greenheart” at 2s. 9d. per cubic foot. Since that date no regular
supplies have been sent to the market, so that it has not been
thoroughly tested as to its value as an export timber.
_Isoberlinia Doka_ (Kew).
It is found in the Ogoja, Abeokuta and Owerri provinces of Nigeria.
It is a medium-sized tree with rather large, widespreading pinnate
leaves. It is one of the few trees that are gregarious in habit,
groups from half an acre to an acre in extent being found. The tree is
used for house-building and withstands a certain amount of fire, as it
grows at the edge of the dry-zone forest.
_Berlinia acuminata_. Red Oak. Apado (Abeokuta), Ewon Pala (Ikale),
Adugbin (Ibadan) (Yoruba); Ekpagoi (Benin); Ajia (Ibo, Asaba); Obuba
(New Calabar); Hanabali (Oban, Ekoi).
This is a common tree in all the Southern Provinces of Nigeria.
Although it is found most frequently in the evergreen forest zone, a
small, bush-like variety is also found in the open deciduous forest.
The most conspicuous features of this tree are the large foot-shaped
unripe pods; these stick out, isolated, at right angles to the general
direction of the surface of the ground—this makes them appear all the
more prominent and most odd in appearance. When the pods burst, the
large flat beans are released, and each side of the pod curls up, but
appears speckled white with round dull spots along the middle. The
flowers are white, nearly 2 inches across, with one red streak in the
centre. In the evergreen forest zone these flowers do not seem so
conspicuous, but in the dry zone the tree is covered with blossom,
making it one of the most beautiful. In the heavy forest zone the bole
reaches the length of nearly 80 feet and the girth of over 20. With
its smooth, shiny grey bark, at the first glance it is not unlike a
beech-tree. The root spurns are usually quite small, and do not extend
beyond 2 feet up the stem. The slash is white and of a yellow colour
on the inner edge. The leaves are pinnate, with one odd leaf at the
end, being usually nearly 3 inches long; the total length of the leaf
is often over 1 foot. The freshly ripened beans are almost square in
shape, flat, and nearly a quarter of an inch thick. Each side of the
pod is usually the size of an average man’s foot, and sometimes
larger; it is also not unlike it in shape, but the curve where the
instep should be is very slight. The crown is spherical and very
large, often occupying one-third of the total height of the tree. The
foliage is comparatively dense, and it is not possible to see through
the top of it. The tree loses its leaves for a very short time each
year. In the dry zone it is often not much more than a shrub, or at
most a small tree 35 feet in height.
The sapwood is white and wide. The heartwood is of a deep-red colour,
especially when freshly cut; when dry it still retains a good red
colour, and from this feature it has been termed “red” oak. The timber
saws fairly well, but splits badly; it is somewhat hard to plane it up
to a smooth surface, as it is sometimes cross-grained. The heartwood
is termite-proof; it takes nails only moderately well. It is a
moderately hard and durable wood; it does not warp very much. When the
logs are dry they will float in water. The weight of the timber is 55
pounds per cubic foot.
Considering the prevalence of the tree, natural regeneration is
poor—rodents may account, of course, for many of the beans; it sprouts
well from the stump. In the dry-zone forest region root suckers appear
too. It is a shade-bearing and soil-improving tree; it does not grow
very fast. No plantations have yet been made with this tree, though it
deserves a place in experimental plantations. It demands a good soil,
and the roots go down to a greater depth than many of the other trees.
Locally it is used as a house-building timber, and occasionally the
dried pods are used as firewood.
In 1906 sample logs of this tree were sold in the Liverpool market as
red oak at 2s. per cubic foot. It was not considered as good as Aligna
or as Erumacie. Since that date no further shipments of this timber
have been made. A further testing of the market by small trial
shipments of logs would thoroughly reveal its value as an export
timber.
_Berlinia auriculata_ (Benth.). Red Oak. Ekpagoize (Benin).
Found near the Okwo River in the Siluko sub-district of the Benin
province. It is not quite such a large species as the _B. acuminata_.
_Parkia biglobosa_. African Locust. Aridan Abatta, Irugbo Abatta Iru
(Yoruba); Ubgori, Lakobemi, Enymi (Benin); Inya (New Calabar); Ekok
(Oban, Ekoi).
It is a very common tree in the Calabar, Owerri, Warri, Benin, Ondo
(?) and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
It is a large tree, with wide spreading fruit flanges. It has darker
and heavier foliage and a wider crown than _Parkia filicoidea_. It
often shows up on river banks with its light-red young leaves. It
should be easily distinguished from other similar trees of this family
by its cluster of beans, similar to French beans, when ripe. These are
yellow, and the spice-like scent and the round balls of staminate
flowers of a crushed strawberry colour are not easily forgotten. Often
only the yellow pistil is found lying on the path. It likes a damp to
wet soil, and is usually found growing at the edge of, or actually in,
freshwater swamps.
_Timber._—The wood is hardish, but is said to rot easily, though it
appears to be rather doubtful, and probably only applies to unseasoned
wood.
Natural regeneration by seed is good. The tree stands a good deal of
shade in its younger stages of growth. No other trees will grow under
it, and few can stand any or much of its shade.
_European Use._—It has not so far been used by Europeans for export or
local use.
_Native Use._—The seeds are cooked and eaten to some extent by the
Yorubas and Benin people.
_Parkia filicoidea_. African Locust. Irugba (Yoruba name for fruit);
Igba the tree (Yoruba); Gumui (Mendi); Olibracha (Egba) (Yoruba).
This is a common tree in Abeokuta, Oyo, Benin, and Ogoja provinces of
Nigeria. It is found in the deciduous forests. It reaches a height of
over 60 feet, with a girth of 5 feet. One of the most distinguishing
features of this tree are the very feathery leaves, which appear after
the flowers. The large spherical balls of the red staminate flowers
enliven the tree in the early part of the year; later in the year
masses of pods, each about 9 inches long, hang down from the ends of
the twigs. The base of the bole is often gnarled, partly with the
slight root flanges and by the almost continual cutting of the bark by
the natives. Normally the bark is brown and comparatively smooth. The
bole is short, dividing about 20 feet from the ground into a large
number of small branches. On the whole, as the tree advances in age
the branches tend to become pendulous. The crown, spherical in shape,
is inclined to be irregularly broken up—partly by the different length
of the branches.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood a dull-brown colour; for the
size of the tree the sapwood is wide. It saws indifferently well,
splits badly; it is hard to plane; it is said to be termite-proof. The
wood is hard and tough.
The tree is a light-loving but not soil-improving species, except in
so far as the root globules take up nitrogen and free it for the use
of other plants. Naturally, generation is none too good. Root suckers
appear to some extent; it sprouts most readily from the stump. Perhaps
the lack of young self-sown seedlings is due to the fact that the
seeds are largely used by the natives. In a few places small
plantations have been made with this tree. It is very fire-resisting,
and apparently the fruit-bearing capacity of the tree is not reduced
to any extent by the prevalence of the annual grass-fires in the
localities where it is found. During the whole of its life it is a
slow-growing tree.
The yellow pulp in the pods is eaten by the natives. The bark at the
base of the tree is chipped off and used for making a tonic when
infused with water. The tree is occasionally used locally as a house-
building timber; for this purpose it is used chiefly as uprights in
the main buildings.
The timber has not been tried for export, and it is doubtful whether
its size warrants its use for this purpose.
_Tetrapleura Thonningii_. Angular Pod. Aridan (Yoruba); Igmikkia
(fruit), Ikhememi (tree) (Benin); Osshosha (Ibo, Asaba).
The dark-green feathery foliage on its oval crown is very typical of
this tree, especially when it is found near a roadside in the mixed
forests. It is also often found on river banks at the edge of the dry
zone or in other parts of the mixed forests. The indehiscent pods with
four edges, leaving practically no centre, are most typical of the
tree; they are shiny and have a peculiar medicinal smell. The fruit is
known as Igmikkia, by which name the tree is most usually called by
Europeans, in the Benin country.
The tree is prevalent in the Abeokuta, Ondo, Oyo, Benin, Onitsha,
Owerri, Calabar and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria.
It is a shade-bearer and thoroughly protects the ground all the year
round, except for about two weeks when the leaves fall. Natural
regeneration does not appear to be good, seedlings being rarely found,
and no plantations have been made with it, though if of more value it
might be mixed with teak. The seeds always command a ready sale at a
low price.
The wood is hard, brown, and splits badly. No use has yet been found
for it. It is sometimes cross-grained, the sapwood white.
The natives use the timber for making doors, window-frames and
benches. The seeds are sold in the Yoruba, Benin and Ibo markets; they
are cooked for soup, which acts as a slight aperient or is of other
medicinal value.
_Millettia Thonningii_ (Baker). Ito (Yoruba); Ebakwe (Benin).
It is found in the Benin and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria. It is a
small tree really, reaching a girth of only 4 feet, with a short bole
and a few somewhat slender and drooping branches. The twigs and new
leaves are distinctly of weeping habit. In February, in the mixed
forest, the bare tree shows up with its beautiful clusters of lilac-
coloured, pea-shaped flowers, and later in delicate contrast to the
fresh, light-green leaves. The trunk is usually not quite straight,
being bent about 8 or 10 feet from the ground. The bark is smooth,
thin, and almost of a silvery-grey colour. The branches are very
whippy and difficult to break.
_Timber._—The wide sapwood is white and the narrow heartwood green-
brown when freshly cut. It is very hard, of fine grain and texture,
and planes with a smooth surface. It does not split; is very rough and
flexible.
It is a shade-bearer and grows slowly. The fruit is a small black and
pointed pod which opens when ripe, having about three or four beans
inside. It is easily killed by fire, but sprouts freely from the
stool. It does not crack nor warp.
It has not been exported nor cut for local use, but it should be a
good wood for turnery.
_Native Use._—It is used for knives and axe-handles.
[Illustration: FIG. 61.—=Base of Bilinga (Afzelia Africana), 14 feet in
girth, Dajopa Forest Reserve Olokemeji Reserve.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 62.—=Shea Butter (Butyrospermum Parkii), 7 feet in
girth, near Oniloku Road, Olokemeji Reserve.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 63.—=Afara (Terminalia superba), base of mature tree
over 12 feet in girth, Olokemeji Reserve.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 64.—=Afzelia Africana, 14 feet in girth, showing
bole and usual fork, Ijaiye Range, Dajopa, Olokemeji Forest Reserve.=]
To face p. 284.
_Cynometra Afzelii_. Waterside Cynometra. Akushunmajadin, Alade
(Ikale); Iku (seeds), Aka, Eggi (Yoruba); Ogabezzi, Ogikiomi Upakeka
(Benin).
It is a common tree in the Benin province of Nigeria. On the whole it
is smaller than _C. Mannii_, though it has a similar habit. It grows,
too, in similar localities, though for the most part it is confined to
the evergreen forest zone. It also grows more or less in gregarious
groups. The shade of this species is just as dense, if not denser than
that of the foregoing. The leaf of the Cynometra is distinguishable
from most other leaves because the mid-rib of it is placed towards the
inner or almost straight-sided edge of the leaf. In fact, if two
leaves are held closely together, they almost look as if they were one
which had been cut in half. Benin natives have no use for this tree
except as firewood.
_Cynometra Mannii_. Waterside Cynometra. Ekkun (Yoruba).
It is a common tree on the banks of streams in the Ibadan and Abeokuta
provinces of Nigeria. One of the most characteristic features of this
tree is the pinkish-red colour of the fresh leaves, hanging at the
ends of the drooping branches. In November each year the large,
corrugated, single bean in each almost indehiscent pod is another
curious feature of this tree. The trunk is usually short—in fact,
often divided into three or four separate stems, almost at the base.
Narrow fringes consisting almost entirely of this species are found on
river banks. The dense shade cast by this tree prevents any other
species from growing underneath. The timber is hard and difficult to
split, and apparently it is not attacked by white ants. The tree is a
shade-bearer. Natural reproduction from the seed is good, it being
distributed often by water. It also sprouts from the stump. A few root
shoots also appear. The tree has not been cut for local use nor has it
been used for export. The natives use the wood for making posts and
doors.
_Cylicodiscus Gabunensis_. African Greenheart. Osho, Aja, Iji (Il.),
Ajaigi (Yoruba); Okan (Benin).
_Distribution._—In the Abeokuta, Ondo, Benin, Warri, Owerri, Calabar
provinces of Nigeria.
_Chief Characteristics._—It is a very large tree of the evergreen
forest zone, attaining a height of 200 feet and a girth of 30 feet. It
is armed in its earlier growth up to the pole stage, when all the
brown thorns disappear. Its long, brown pods, up to 3 feet long and 1½
inches wide, opening from one side only, with their long, thin, papery
seeds, are most typical of the tree.
Compared to its size the bark is thin, and in old age it is inclined
to scale off in small pieces. In the distance it looks practically
smooth. This is one of the most gigantic and impressive trees of the
forest, with its enormous bole stretching cylindrically up amongst and
over the other trees, with a large, widespreading, somewhat flatly
shaped spherical crown. The leaves are pinnate, with three of four
pairs of little ovate pinnæ, with one odd one at the end. The flowers
are minute, forming little, thin, knitting-needle-thick spikes of
yellow bloom. These last only a few days, and only once in thirteen
years have I seen the flower. The tree and pod are unmistakable, even
when it is a large one. The numerous brown pods hang down amongst the
foliage and appear to be much longer than those of any other
Leguminous tree. This feature alone distinguishes it from any similar
species. The bole divides up into a few large limbs and many small
branches, making the foliage lighter and thinner than many other
Leguminous trees, but not so thin as that of _Piptadenia Africana_.
The root spurns are very slight and rounded, merging into the bole of
the tree 1 foot to 3 feet above the surface of the ground. At the base
of the bole the bark is sometimes cut off by the natives for “Ju-ju”
purposes, and then an additional swelling appears there.
The sapwood is white and narrow, the heartwood greenish-brown when
fresh, and yellowish-brown after it has lain in the forest for a few
years. It is very hard—in fact, one of the very hardest of African
timbers. Under cover it is very durable. In the open it does not last
so long. It is termite-proof. The sapwood, however, rots in the open,
and the heartwood softens very considerably. It is somewhat fibrous,
but it planes up well, with a smooth surface. It does not take nails,
saws well, and splits moderately well. It has considerable elasticity.
It makes a very hot-burning firewood, but is inclined to crackle and
make sparks.
It is a moderately fast-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting and
soil-improving tree. Natural regeneration appears to be fair, but the
seeds are often eaten by little boring insects, soon after they fall
to the ground. It appears to be rather exacting as to soil, liking a
deep, moist loam sand with good drainage. It is scarcely a fire-
resisting tree, but very storm firm—in fact, one of the safest trees.
In 1906 sample logs of this tree were sold in the Liverpool market as
African Greenheart at 1s. 8d. per cubic foot, and were stated to be
good greenheart. Since then none has been cut or shipped to England.
With the exception of its use for verandah-posts for a public building
in Benin city, it has not been cut or sawn up in planks for local use.
Considering the comparatively large quantity available, it deserves a
fair trial both for export and local use, more especially for heavy
constructional work, such as bridges, piles, uprights.
Amongst the Benis it is sometimes a “Ju-ju” tree, and is said to
impart strength.
_Leptoderris_.
Owerri province of Nigeria. It is a medium-sized tree found growing
near the Imo River, but not very common. It has a hard wood.
_Baphia nitida_ (Afz.). Awenu or Irosun. Borri Borri (Yoruba); Otwa
(Benin); Ubara (Efik).
Is a small tree, which is usually found near villages, being left by
the natives when land is cleared. The white flowers are almost of pea
shape. It has a small leaf, and does not usually get any larger than
about four inches in diameter.
It is found in the Ondo, Abeokuta, Benin and Calabar provinces of
Nigeria.
The real Camwood of commerce.
It is very slow-growing, and is not a hard wood, with dark-red
heartwood of small size in proportion to the size of tree. It forms
late, too. If the stem is wounded, even the sapwood becomes a rich red
colour like the heartwood.
The probable origin of the word “Camwood” is taken from the Timani
name, Cam, of the _Baphia nitida_ tree in Sierra Leone. From another
point of view this is all the more interesting, as the original
exports of Camwood were made from Sierra Leone in the early part of
the nineteenth century, and this name “Cam” brings together the tree
from which the Camwood is obtained and the tree botanically known as
_Baphia nitida_.
_Native Use._—A piece of the wood and a leaf are placed on the ground
where a woman has borne a child, whether it be on a road or in the
house. Not used in Benin as a dyewood.
_Baphia polygalacea_. Walking-stick Camwood. Asana, Ossusu (Yoruba);
Aswen (Benin); Mbomokuku (Efik).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Benin and Calabar provinces of Nigeria.
A small tree of typical Baphia habit, which is common in parts of the
Benin district of the same named province. It has considerable
elasticity, though it dries rather hard and does not give much in that
state. It is a rather slow-growing tree, which lights the shade of the
forest, and is also a soil-protecting and soil-improving tree. Natural
regeneration appears to be good in several places. It sprouts slightly
from the stump, when felled. No plantations have yet been made with
this tree. The walking-sticks have not been exported to England for
trial in the market.
The curiously shaped single root, sticking out almost at right angles
to the stem, makes a good walking-stick; it is curved as well
slightly, too. When the bark is peeled off and the stem partially
charred, it looks very effective.
_Baphia pubescens_. Benin Camwood. Awewi (Lagos) (Yoruba); Ositwa
(Benin).
It is a small tree, 30 feet high and 3 feet in girth, with usually
half the bole sapwood white, and dark-red heartwood, which is hard and
close-grained. The flowers are white, with yellow tips to the two
petals. It is often seen just outside villages, or where two paths
meet.
_Native Use._—It is not used for dye, though apparently the wood is
just as suitable as _B. nitida_.
_Baphia sp._ Camwood. Mogbara (Yoruba, Ikale); Owe, Aswen (Benin).
It has also been determined as _Carpolobia lutea_, and as one of the
Oleaceæ.
It is a shrub with a stem of about 4 feet in height. The fruit is a
small nut containing three small kernels. The wood is very hard.
_Native Use._—The seeds are eaten.
_Macrolobium palisoti_. Ogaba (Benin); Nya (Efik).
It is a common tree of the Abeokuta, Ibadan, Ondo, Warri, Benin,
Owarri and Calabar provinces of Nigeria. It only reaches a girth of
about 2 feet and a height of 20 feet. The leaf has two pairs of pinnæ,
with one end leaflet. The small pod containing two or three flat seeds
is most typical of this tree; the seeds are ¾ inch in diameter and of
a dark-brown colour; the flowers are white; the timber is cross-
grained and rather hard; the sapwood is white and the heartwood of a
dark brown. The tree is a shade-bearer, soil-protecting and improving.
It is usually found amongst the undergrowth in the thicker parts of
the evergreen forest zone. Natural regeneration is usually good. The
wood is used locally in the Yoruba and Benin country for posts; it has
not been sawn up for planks, nor has it been exported to England.
_Macrolobium stipulaceæ_.
It was stated it was found in the Calabar province.
_Nr. Macrolobium sp._ Ogabeszi (Benin).
It is found in the Benin province of Nigeria. It is a small tree of
the evergreen forest zone. The foliage is very dense. The tree has a
short bole of about 15 feet, and the crown is much branched; the pod
is rather larger than _Macrolobium palisoti_. According to the
natives, this is the “Ogaba” of the waterside. The timber has not been
exported to Europe, nor do the natives use this somewhat hard wood to
any extent.
_Dialium Guineense_. Pulley Wood, Velvet Tamarind. Awin (Ib.) (Yoruba);
Ohiorme (Benin); Amoyin (Egba).
It is found in the Ibadan, Abeokuta, Benin, Calabar and Ogoja
provinces of Nigeria. In the mixed deciduous forests it is very
prevalent in certain localities. Of medium size, it rarely exceeds a
girth of 5 feet. Where found, it often comprises over 10 per cent. of
the standing stock of the forest.
The wood is used for small boats in Senegal. It exudes a red-coloured
sap in small quantities.
The fruit, with its flat and round, velvety little pods, is most
typical of this tree. These are of a very dark chocolate colour, and
in the distance appear almost black. The bole is usually silver-grey.
The slash is light-red, and the reddish, latex-like substance exudes
when the bark is cut. The crown is dense and compressed, being mainly
made up of a number of small branches. In proportion the leaves are
small and make a very dense foliage. The rusty-red slashing marks, or
other marks caused by damage to the trunk of the tree, show up most
distinctively, especially against the grey surface of the cortex, are
one of the most distinguishing features of this tree.
The sapwood is white, the heartwood is dull-red, rather larger in
proportion than we should suspect, compared with the size of the tree.
It is hard and tough, and does not split well. It planes up, however,
with a smooth surface, is very durable and termite-proof. It does not
take nails well, but saws fairly easily.
It is a somewhat slow-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting and
soil-improving tree. Natural regeneration appears to be good. It
appears to be a little exacting in regard to soil. It is slightly
fire-resisting, chiefly, perhaps, owing to the fact that few weeds or
grass grow in its shade. No plantations have been made of this tree.
It bears a good crop of fruit almost every year.
It has not been felled for export, nor has the timber been sawn up for
local use. It was formerly used in the Congo for pulley-blocks, for
which purpose it is said to be admirably suited. Amongst the natives
it is sometimes used for house-building.
_Nr. Newtonia_. Boji Albizzia or Giant Pod.
It is rather an uncommon tree of the Boji Hills forest; the enormous
flat, papery pod makes it easily distinguishable from any other tree.
The pod is about 15 inches long and 9 inches wide, with a slight
depression in the middle of one side.
_Pithycolobium altissimum_. Bent Pod or Gambia Pod.
It is a medium-sized tree, found at the edge of swamps near the sea
coast in the evergreen forest zone. It appears to stand a waterlogged
soil.
The pods are used for tanning hides and making ink (Moloney). It has
curious semicircular pods, which are typical of the tree, containing
eight to ten seeds.
_Afzelia sp._ Waterside Ekpagoize. Ekpagoize (Benin).
It is found in the Benin province of Nigeria. It is a medium-sized
tree, reaching a girth of 7 feet and a bole length of 40 feet.
This tree has often been confused botanically with _Berlinia
acuminata_, but it is undoubtedly an Afzelia. The flowers are of a
reddish colour and very pretty; the foliage is not quite so heavy as
that of the other Afzelias; the pod is rather smaller than that of
either _Afzelia Africana_ or _Afzelia cuanzensis_. The wood is a
reddish-brown colour, a little cross-grained, but more durable than
the other Afzelias. It does not split well, and can only be planed
with difficulty; the grain is very coarse and fibrous. Samples of this
timber have been shipped to England and sold as red oak. The natives
scarcely ever use the wood, partly because the tree is not very
prevalent.
_Afzelia cuanzensis_. Bilinga, Red-arilled Afzelia. Aiyo (Yoruba);
Aligna (Benin); Igbin (Brass); Onuru, Oshoshi (Ibo, Owerri); Mbarakun
(Oban, Ekoi).
It is found in the Benin, Ondo, Abeokuta, Calabar, Owerri and Ogoja
provinces of Nigeria.
It is a medium-sized tree, with a pod, which is usually slightly
crumpled or bent, containing about six or eight black nuts, with a red
aril at the base, and each nut is pointed more, and less rounded, than
in _A. Africana_. On the whole it is found more in the deciduous mixed
forest than on the edge or in the dry-zone forest region, where _A.
Africana_ abounds. The bark does not scale oft so much as that of _A.
Africana_. It stands more shade than _A. Africana_. It does not reach
such large dimensions, though logs up to 18 inches square and 24 feet
in length could be obtained.
Up to the present the tree has not been cut to the same extent as _A.
Africana_, though the wood is very similar and apparently just as
durable.
No separate report has been made on the timber as to its value in the
European markets.
_Afzelia bella_. Calabar Afzelia. Aligna (Benin).
It is found in the Calabar province of Nigeria. It is more common in
the Cameroons.
It is a small tree, with large white flowers with a pretty, reddish
streak in each petal. The pod is of usual Afzelia size and appears
rather large for the size of the tree. The type specimen stands on the
Calabar Golf Course, between the seventh and eighth holes. It is
apparently uncommon, though more may be found on closer study of the
forests. The fruits appear to have the same qualities as those of
other Afzelias. In Nigeria it has so far not been utilized. The bark
is not so scaly as that of _A. Africana_.
_Afzelia pachyloba_ (_nov. sp._). Forest Afzelia or Yellow Aril. Apa
(Yoruba); Orodo (Benin).
It is a medium-sized tree, with long, pointed nuts with a bright
sulphur-coloured aril instead of the orange-colour of Africana or red
of Cuanzensis. It does not appear to be such a common tree as _A.
Africana_, but much the same number of trees as that of _A.
cuanzensis_.
It is found in the evergreen forests of Ondo, Benin and Abeokuta
provinces of Nigeria.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood is brown. It is very hard,
almost as hard as Lophira, according to the natives. Self-sown
seedlings do not appear in large numbers.
It is used for similar purposes as _A. Africana_. It is a shade-
bearing and soil-improving tree.
No separate report has been made on the timber, and so far it has not
been exported to the English markets.
This may be the tree which yielded the so-called teak in the Benin
forests some years ago, and fetched a price of 5d. per foot
superficial.
The bark scales off in a similar way to _Afzelia Africana_.
_Afzelia bracteata_ (T. Vogel). Benin Bilinga. Ekpagoize (Benin).
It has a red flower, is found in the Benin province, but is apparently
rather rare.
The Benin name indicates that it is the Ekpagoi or Berlinia of the
waterside. It is usually found near or on the bank of a stream. It is
a large tree, which is otherwise similar to the other Afzelias.
The natives have apparently not tried it for building purposes.
_Afzelia Africana_. Yoruba Bilinga. Apa (Yoruba); Olokokima, Aligna
(Benin); Ayibukpo (Efik); Adja, Arachi (Asaba Ibo).
_Trade Name._—Bilinga, similar wood from the French Congo, so named
for some years.
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan, Ondo, Benin, Owerri, Onitsha and
Ogoja provinces of Nigeria.
The round, orange-coloured aril at the base of the black nut is
typical of this tree. It sometimes has a reddish tinge, but it is
always round and completely surrounds the base of the nut, in
contradistinction to _A. cuanzensis_, in which the aril is red and
pointed and much thinner in build.
The spherically-shaped crown with its flattish top is most typical of
this tree. The largish leaves and the paucity of their number make the
foliage open, so that daylight can be seen through it. In the distance
it appears dense.
The sapwood is white, and the heartwood a rich oak-brown colour. It is
one of the most durable West African timbers. It planes well and can
be worked up with a good finish. It does not split well. It is
obtainable in logs up to 30 inches square and 30 feet in length.
Though slow in growth it would average that of many European trees. It
stands a good deal of shade in its youth, but it is really more of a
light lover than a shade-bearer. Self-sown seedlings are few;
apparently rodents eat them. In a similar way it is difficult to make
a plantation, many being eaten or dying in the transplanting. One of
the most successful methods evolved is that of sowing seeds in lines
about 4 feet apart; a large number then come up and provide ample for
a crop on the same land. They are not transplanted. When of middle age
it will stand fire and the shade of the tree keeps the ground moist.
It is a soil-protecting and soil-improving tree; good crops of seeds
are borne almost every year. The flowers are reddish, with white edges
to the petals. The reddish tinge is quite distinctive in this genus,
the white being that of Berlinia.
The bark drops off in large scales in places on the trunk towards
middle and old age, in a similar fashion to the European plane.
However, they do not leave the stem as smooth, though the lighter
patches where the bark falls off brighten the bole up and make it
quite distinctive amongst the other trees.
The timber has been constantly used by the P.W.D. at Onitsha. In the
Liverpool market it was stated that it might be marketable as oak, at
a low figure, in 1906. A similar species was being shipped from Gaboon
in 1914 and fetched a fair price.
_Albizzia fastigiata_ (Oliv.). East Indian Walnut. Ayinre langara,
Ayinre ogo (Eg.) (Yoruba); Uwowe Lugu, Uwowelabafun (Benin); Uyat
(Efik).
It is a large tree, up to 7 feet in girth and of corresponding height.
Fruit narrower than _A. sp._; only half an inch, with four or five
seeds in each. This species has the most durable wood of all the
Albizzias, but is not termite-proof, and has heartwood of a brown
colour and white sapwood. The smallest leaf of all the Albizzias is
met with in this tree, having very fine pinnæ.
Although not indigenous to Africa, it is now found almost everywhere
in all the mixed deciduous forests of the Southern Provinces of
Nigeria. The bark is rather rougher than that of _A. Brownii_. The
basal root spurns are narrower, though they do not project more than 2
feet up the stem. On the whole the foliage is thicker, and the crown
gives the appearance of being a little denser and not so feathery as
that of _A. Brownii_.
The wood planes well, splits fairly easily, takes nails and saws well.
It is what the carpenters would call a wood easy to work. The grain is
of fine texture and has a certain amount of lustre.
It is a fast-growing, light-loving tree, which does not protect the
soil. The leaves, however, form a rich humus, which enriches the soil.
Natural regeneration appears to be good, and with the spread of farms
this tree tends to increase its area of distribution. It will stand a
little shade in its youth. A few plantations have been made with this
tree.
Up to the present the timber has not been exported, but deserves a
trial as an African Walnut, though it is difficult to obtain large-
sized logs. It has occasionally been cut for local use. It is used by
the natives for firewood, and occasionally, when split, for temporary
house-building in the farms.
_Albizzia Brownii_. African Walnut. Ayinre, Ayinre Bona Bona (Yoruba);
Owewe nolemare, Ikpawudu (Benin).
It is a large tree, up to 7 feet in girth, with wide fruit 2 inches
across, containing four or five seeds. There are three or four pairs
of pinnæ to each leaf, which is the largest of all the Albizzia
leaves. The heartwood is more like walnut in colour, though of course
softer and with more open grain. It could no doubt, however, be used
as a substitute for walnut.
It is a common tree in the mixed deciduous forests of the Abeokuta,
Ibadan, Benin, Owerri, and Ogoja provinces, where it is tending to
widen its area of distribution with the spread of cultivation.
The fruit is very papery and almost transparent. It is rather larger
than _Albizzia sp._, Shemusholoshi, but of about the same length. Its
smooth, almost orange-coloured bark in the earlier stages is almost
typical of the tree. As it gets older, a somewhat more corky bark
forms in large scales which can be stripped off. The lop-sided shape
of the pinnæ is very typical of the tree, making the leaves look
almost like those of a true Gum Copal. The main vein is near the
straighter side of the leaf.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood a mahogany brown. It has rather
an open grain, but a good deal of lustre, and is easily worked. It
planes well and takes nails easily. It splits fairly well and saws
quite easily. It is not quite so durable as _A. fastigiata_, but it is
more durable than the other Albizzias, except _A. sp._, Shemusholoshi.
It is not termite-proof. It has considerable tensile strength compared
to the other species, and a certain amount of elasticity.
It is the fastest growing of all the Albizzias and a light-loving
tree. It scarcely protects the soil, but the leaf fall makes a good
humus. It stands a little shade in its youth. Natural regeneration is
very prolific. No plantations have been made with this tree. It
appears to be a little more exacting as to soil than the other
Albizzias, but will grow on almost any soil.
The timber has not been exported, but deserves a trial as a substitute
for walnut. Owing to the fact that there are considerable supplies,
and that it reaches a size to produce logs of the requisite
dimensions, it appears to offer some possibilities as an export wood.
Locally it has often been used for cutting up into planks, and is
liked among the Yorubas for this purpose. In other places it has been
used as a house-building wood, as well as for firewood. It has also
been used for making beams, planks and doors. The roots, leaves and
bark have been used amongst the Yorubas for medicinal purposes.
[Illustration: FIG. 65.—=Khaya Ivoriensis, 14 feet 8 inches in girth,
Ilaro Forest Reserve.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 66.—=Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa), 8 feet in girth,
standing in Ilaro Forest Reserve after forest was cleared.=]
To face p. 294.
_Albizzia sp._ Walnut. Owewe nolemare (Benin); Ayinre (Yoruba);
Semusholoshi (Jebu); Akkihien, also Owewe lagebon (Benin).
According to Mr. H. N. Thompson, Chief Conservator of Forests in
Nigeria, who has seen the fruit of this tree, it is most certainly an
Albizzia.
_Chief Characteristics._—It has been described by a German as not
unlike a solitary-standing pine, with its dark foliage of small
pinnate leaves, which are larger than _Piptadenia Africana_ and yet
smaller than _Cylicodiscus Gabunensis_. In the above description it is
very similar in habit to _Piptadenia Kerstingii_. The dark brown bark,
which is roughish, is light-brown on the upper part of the stem. The
crown is flat, consisting of two or three wide, outspreading branches.
It has the usual flat, papery pod. The leaves are used by the Benin
people for soup.
_Distribution._—It is found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria.
_Timber._—It is fairly close-grained, though not nearly so hard as
either _Piptadenia Africana_ or _Cylicodiscus Gabunensis_.
_Use._—The Yorubas use the bark medicinally as a stomachic, and the
trunk is usually swollen at the base owing to the cortex being removed
so often.
_Albizzia rhombifolia_. Walnut. Ayinre, Ayinre langara, Ayinre ogo
(Yoruba); Owowe (Benin).
It is found in the Ibadan and Benin provinces of Nigeria, in the mixed
deciduous forests, where it is quite prevalent. It is a medium-sized
tree, attaining a girth of about 6 feet and a bole length of 30 feet.
It is commonly seen in old farms, and usually more than one is found
in the same locality. The thin, yellow, spiky flowers are rather
pretty. The fruit is rather smaller than that of the other species.
The sapwood is white, and the heartwood is a light yellow-green. It is
soft and not very durable; it is attacked by white ants (termites).
However, it saws well, planes well, takes nails easily and splits
moderately well. It can be cut into good-sized planks.
Timber, yellowish-green, and yields large planks.
It is a fast-growing, light-loving tree, which scarcely protects the
soil, and only slightly improves it with its leaf fall. Natural
regeneration is good, the seedlings growing up rapidly in any open
place in the mixed deciduous forests.
The timber has not been tried for export, nor has it been used to any
extent for local use. It deserves a further trial both as an export
wood and as a wood for local floor-boards. Its qualities are far from
properly known.
Among the natives it is used as firewood.
_Albizzia sp._ Walnut. Ayinre Ayinre, Ayinretta (Yoruba); Ikpawudu,
Owawelugu (Benin).
It is a large tree, up to 6 feet in girth. It has rather narrower
pinnæ, but of similar round shape to _A. Brownii_.
It is a common tree of the mixed deciduous forests in the Abeokuta,
Ibadan, Ondo, Benin, Onitsha, Owerri and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria.
The root spurns are very small. The bark gets rougher than that of _A.
Brownii_ in old age, the crown is longer and more feathery, and the
leaves appear to be more of a silvery green.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood is of a yellowish-brown colour,
tending to become a light brown when exposed to the air. It is
comparatively soft; is not termite-proof. It is easy to work, planing
and sawing well, and taking nails easily and splitting fairly well. It
is, however, less durable than _A. Brownii_ or _fastigiata_. When
split and dried it is more durable than when cut up in the ordinary
way. The wood hardens very considerably on exposure to the sun.
It is a light-loving, fast-growing tree. It scarcely protects the
soil, but the leaf fall enriches it. Natural regeneration appears to
be good. It tends to spread with the increase of farms, more
especially on the poorer laterite soils. A few plantations have been
made with this tree. The volume of produce per acre is less than in
the case of _A. Brownii_, but apparently greater than any of the
others. It is less rapidly growing than _A. Brownii_, but faster than
the others.
The timber has not been used for export, and it is doubtful if it
would repay the cost. Locally it has been used for planks, but it is
not liked so much as that of _A. Brownii_ or _fastigiata_. By the
local people it is used for firewood, and occasionally for building
temporary houses.
_Anglocalyx ramiflorus_ (Taub). Ekiyawa (Benin).
It is a large tree, attaining a girth of 8 feet, but the trunk is not
over-long in proportion. It is a shade-bearing, soil-protecting and
soil-improving tree. The bark is a dark olive-green and smooth. It is
found in the Benin province of Nigeria. Natural regeneration appears
to be poor. The wood is yellowish-brown and floats when quite dry. The
timber was valued at nothing in 1906 and stated to be a whitewood in
the Liverpool market.
_Native Use._—None.
_Ostryoderris impressa_. White Oak. Awaw or Erumacie (Yoruba); Ori,
Ehrurumesi, Erurunuesi, Awaw, (Usshin) (Benin).
It is a common tree in the Calabar, Ogoja, Benin, Owerri and Abeokuta
provinces of Nigeria. To be seen along the Benin-Siluku Road, as also
in the Badagry district on the Ayobo-Osuke Road.
It is a straight-boled, tall tree, with flattish crown made up of few
straight branches with large pinnate leaves, making it appear flatter
than it really is. The bark is slightly scaly with fine fissures. The
slash is red, exuding a red latex. It reaches a height of 150 feet
with a girth of 12 feet. The white, papery, pointed, flat, lozenge-
shaped fruit, with a small kidney-shaped seed attached to the centre
of the surface of one side, is most typical of the tree. The spurns
are almost non-existent, so that the tree can be felled near the
ground without trouble.
The timber is white in the sap and brown-white in the heartwood, but
not over-hard, very tough and not splitting easily. It is hard to
fell, being very flexible. It planes moderately well. The colour
darkens with age.
It is a light-loving tree after the first few years. It grows
moderately rapidly. It is a soil-improving and covering tree. Natural
regeneration appears poor, though many seeds are usually seen on the
ground. Insects appear to eat them rapidly. No plantations have been
made with this tree, but experiments would show whether it grows well
from seed.
In 1906 a sample log was exported and sold in the Liverpool market as
white oak at 2s. per cubic foot, and it was recommended for shipment
by the brokers.
_Native Use._—It is used as posts for frames on which yams are tied in
the Benin farms. In temporary houses, small trees are trimmed and
squared for the forming of the walls, instead of dried mud.
_Dalbergia saxatilis_. West African Blackwood (?). Awow (Benin).
It is a small tree of the mixed deciduous forest of Benin; it is
occasionally used by the natives for hoe and axe handles.
_Dalbergia sp._ West African Blackwood. Emosobegan, Paran (Yoruba).
Found in the Olokemeji Reserve.
_Dalbergia sp._ North Benin Blackwood.
This is found near Aroko, in the Onitsha province, and near Ishoka, in
the Benin province. It is a small tree with very hard wood. In habit
very similar to _Ormosia laxiflora_, with its orange-coloured bark,
which is rougher than _O. laxiflora_ and not so scaly. The wood is
used for axe and hoe handles by the natives.
_Dalbergia hostilis_ (Benth.). Yoruba Blackwood. Ogan Oga (Yoruba).
This Dalbergia is fairly common in the Olokemeji Reserve, in the
Abeokuta province of Nigeria.
_Copaifera sp._ True Benin Gum Copal.
This tree is found near the Uhi, close to the source of the Ossiomo
River, Benin province. This apparently is rather an uncommon tree. The
Benin natives do not know how to tap the tree for gum, nor how to use
the gum.
_Cf. Copaifera_. Enyenewu. Enyenewu (Yoruba).
Found in the Yoruba country.
_Copaifera sp._ Boji Hills Copaifera.
So far it has not been tapped for the gum, the local people apparently
not knowing its value.
_Bauhinia rufescens_ (Kew).
Found in the Oyo province.
_Bauhinia reticulata_ (D.C.). Dry-zone Bauhinia. Abafe (Yoruba).
This Bauhinia grows in dry, open country. It is a small, spreading
tree bearing white flowers.
_Uses._—The fibrous bark is used for tying, and an infusion from the
leaves is used in coagulating rubber latex. The stem is occasionally
used for making house-posts. It is a fire-resisting tree and shades
the soil.
_Bauhinia Thonningii_ (Schum.).
This is a small shrub-like tree of the upper part of the Benin
province of Nigeria. It is found near Agbede. It has red flowers. The
sap of this tree has sometimes been used for coagulating rubber.
_Physostigma venosum_. Calabar Bean or Ordeal Bean. Eseri (Efik).
It is found growing in the Calabar district. The seed is poisonous;
used in ordeals and medicinally.
The most noticeable feature is the furrow (about ⅛ inch wide and deep)
in the upper side of the bean. None of the closely allied Mimosa
species show this peculiarity.
_Entada scandens_. Sword Bean, Match-box Bean, Mackay Bean. Kakoba,
Akhuro (seed) (Benin).
This large creeper is found in the Benin and Calabar provinces of
Nigeria. It is not very prevalent. The most remarkable features about
it are the stoutness of the stem, which attains a diameter of nearly 1
foot and the total length of over 100 feet, and its immense pod, which
is often over 3 feet in length. The pod is divided into segments, each
nearly 2 inches square, and each containing one large bean, almost a
square in shape, 1½ inches and nearly ¾ inch thick. These beans have
occasionally been used for making match-boxes, for which they are
admirably suited. The outer part of the stem of the creeper is very
rough and almost corrugated, especially near its base; the leaves are
very small, considering the size of the whole creeper. It is
comparatively slow-growing. It grows in the dense evergreen forest,
and when drawn taut over the first branches of one of the large trees
it is not unlike the bole of a small tree itself. When cut, the two
ends part with a bang, like the breaking of a ship’s hawser. The
natives use the smaller parts of the stem for fly-switches, for which
they are very good and durable. The creeper is, however, not
cultivated.
_Entada Soudanica_. Ogurohe (Yoruba).
Found in the Ibadan province.
_Entada Abyssinica_. Unwanwanis (Benin).
It is found in the upper part of the Benin province near Ishoka. It is
a large creeper with rather smaller bean than _E. scandens_. The beans
have been used for making small match-boxes in Europe. The natives
consider the bean a “Ju-ju.”
_Dioclea reflexa_. Ishe, Agbarin (Yoruba).
A climber, found in the Ibadan province.
_Mucuna urens_. Ox-eye Bean. Awipu (Benin).
Found in the Benin and Abeokuta provinces.
_Mucuna sp. Preussii_. Yerepe (Yoruba).
Found in the Olokemeji Reserve and Benin province.
_Acacia pennata_ (Willd.). Acacia. Okwekwe (Benin).
It is found in the upper part of the Benin, Ibadan, Ogoja and Abeokuta
provinces. It is a small, scandent shrub with very sharp thorns, but
which yields one of the strongest fibres for making fishing lines or
native rope. It forms almost impenetrable masses which are very
unpleasant to go through without a matchet.
_Acacia Sieberiana_. African Rosewood. Sie (Yoruba).
This is a somewhat uncommon Acacia of the Oyo province of Nigeria.
Being of medium size, its very handsome racemes of yellow flowers show
up to great advantage. The bark is rough, the bole short, and usually
divided 8 or 10 feet from the ground. The sapwood is white and the
heartwood a rose-pink colour, which makes it not unlike the typical
rosewood of commerce. The heartwood is comparatively wide, and it is
very hard, durable and termite-proof. It saws well and splits
moderately easily, but does not take nails at all well. Reproduction
by seed is apparently poor; it sprouts fairly well from the stump. It
is a light-loving species, but being of the leguminous family it is a
soil-improving tree. The wood has not yet been exported, but locally
it has occasionally been used for house-building, the forked stem
being much appreciated by the natives.
_Acacia Farnesiana_ (Willd.). Farnesian Acacia. Bonni (Yoruba).
It is found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria. It is a small tree
growing up to 6 feet in girth. It has a small pod containing eight
seeds inside. The inside of the pod is white and the seed is brown.
The flower is yellow, and is used by girls in decorating their ears.
Usually found in towns, where it is planted. The seeds are sold in the
market.
The timber is dark-red, surrounded by a narrow white sapwood. It is
hard, like ebony. The bark is very much fissured and peels off in
large scales.
The seeds of this tree and Jagiri are used with water for scraping the
leather for making the fells smooth. Sold at Itaku and Shapon markets.
_Acacia campylacantha_. Confectioner’s Gum or African Catechu. Ede
(Yoruba).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Oyo, Borgu, Niger, and Nassarawa
provinces of Nigeria.
It is a very common tree, growing almost everywhere in groups. The
stem is of a whitish to slight yellow colour, almost reminding one of
the larch, but the whole tree is armed with short, sharp thorns. It
reaches a girth of nearly 4 feet and a height of over 50 feet. The
slash is light-brown, and a pale, yellowish-pink gum exudes from it.
The tree usually forks about 20 or 30 feet from the ground, the other
branches being rather crooked in shape. In February or March a mass of
small yellow flowers appear, and in the autumn small pods cover the
tree. The sapwood is white, and the heartwood varies from a dull red-
brown to a rich, almost rosy red. In the latter case it is exceedingly
pretty wood. The wood is moderately hard; it splits and planes badly,
saws fairly well, and only takes nails indifferently. The wood dries
rather harder and is more durable than when freshly cut and than would
be expected. It is said to be termite-proof. A reddish colouring
matter exudes from the heartwood, but this feature is typical of the
cutch which is obtained from a similar tree in India.
Natural regeneration by seed appears to be good, hosts of young trees
being found near the older ones. In fact, in localities of low
rainfall it is tending to spread and fill up all vacant spaces after
the annual grass-fires have burnt all the vegetation. It is a light-
loving tree which does not protect the soil. The leaves are not unlike
conifer needles, and enrich the soil to a certain extent, more
especially as the tree is deciduous.
As a timber it has not been cut for export, but certainly the better-
coloured wood, and that which has been more slowly grown, deserve a
trial.
So far, the greatest use of this tree has been the production of the
pink-coloured transparent gum which is one of the best of the
confectioner’s gums in Great Britain. Very large quantities are
exported every year from the Northern Provinces. Large round tears or
lumps form on the stem of the tree when it is cut. Locally the tree is
used for house-building, but it is not considered a durable wood.
=Leguminosæ (Mimoseæ).=
_Acacia ataxacantha_. Benin Rope Acacia. Ewon (Yoruba); Okwenkwen
(Benin).
A common creeper of the mixed deciduous zone. It is found in the
Abeokuta, Oyo, Ibadan, Ondo, Benin, Warri, Onitsha, Owerri, Calabar
and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria.
It is usually found growing in large impenetrable masses 3 to 4 feet
high. It is armed throughout with short but very sharp, bent prickles.
It often grows up in waste places where the bush has been cleared in
the mixed deciduous forest zone.
Both the Yorubas and Benis use the inside fibres of this creeper for
making a very strong kind of rope—in fact, it is the strongest of all
native-made ropes. It does not get so stiff or harsh as that made of
Eso from the _Firmania Barteri_.
_Distemonanthus Benthamianus_ (?) (Baill.). Alinyan (Benin).
Found in the Benin province.
_Erythrina suberifera_ (Kew). Attagbo (Yoruba).
It is a moderately common tree of the Abeokuta province of Nigeria.
Its most distinguishing feature is the size of the leaf, which is
similar to the tulip-tree. It reaches a much larger size than _E.
Senegalensis_ and has a girth of over 6 feet. The bark is a dark duck-
egg-green colour, with a few white, shallow longitudinal fissures. The
prickles on the stem are more scattered and much larger than those of
_E. Senegalensis_. The slash is white and the bark thin when compared
to the size of the tree. The wood is white and soft, and not durable.
It cuts and saws easily, but does not plane well. It is a light-loving
tree which does not protect the soil. It has not been cut for local
use, nor for export. As a soft whitewood for interior use it ought to
find a local market.
=Leguminosæ (Papilionaceæ).=
_Erythrina Senegalensis_ (D.C.). Coral-flower. Ologun she-she (Yoruba);
Esanigbakhehe, Ohehe (Benin).
It is a common tree in the upper part of the Onitsha, Benin, Ondo,
Ibadan and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria. One of the most typical
features of this small tree are the small, pink, coral-like flowers
which appear in February. The tree is armed with a few thin but very
sharp thorns; the foliage is slight and open. On suckers or stool-
shoots the leaf is much larger and almost lyre-shaped. It is usually
found in waste places or in open clearings in the mixed deciduous
forest. It yields a soft wood which is not durable. It is sometimes
used for making fences.
_Tephrosia Ansellii_ (Hook). Boro (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria.
_Tephrosia Vogelii_ (H. K. F.). Fish-poison. Were, Igun, Laye Igu
(Yoruba).
This small shrub is apparently indigenous to Africa, but is usually
seen planted in the fields of the Abeokuta, Oyo, Benin, Owerri and
Ogoja provinces of Nigeria. It is not unlike a large upright vetch,
but with a strong, green stem, almost woody in growth. It reaches a
height of about 3 feet and flowers very profusely, and bears a large
number of pods, not unlike those of the runner bean. The plant is cut
down and placed in the water where it is desired to catch all the
fish, chiefly in stagnant pools of rivers or ponds. The effect of the
poison from it blinds and stupefies the fish so that they are easily
caught. Under the Game Preservation Ordinance, its use has been
prohibited, but with its widespread cultivation and general utility it
has been found very difficult to eradicate the custom or the plant.
Incidentally it is a very good green manuring crop for agricultural
land. However, most natives are unaware of this fact, and it is
usually only planted for the purpose of using it as a fish-poison.
_Burkea_.
A species of Burkea was found near the Oyan River in the Oyo province
of Nigeria.
_Lonchocarpus sericeus_. African Wisteria. Ipapo, Apapo (Yoruba).
This tree is found in the Olokemeji, Ibadan, Ilesha and Calabar
districts. It is a medium-sized tree, which bears lilac-coloured
flowers. As the flowers appear before the leaves in the dry season, it
is then very ornamental, and is in fact one of the prettiest flowering
trees. The wood is very hard and the heartwood green when freshly cut.
_Timber._—This is not of much service.
_Uses._—Hoe-handles are made from the branches, and the bark is used
in medicine.
_Lonchocarpus sp._ Mamu Lonchocarpus.
Found in the Mamu Forest.
_Lonchocarpus cyanescens_. Yoruba Indigo. Elu or Ela (Yoruba).
This is one of the intermediate forest climbing shrubs, but has been
cultivated throughout the country.
_Uses._—The well-known Yoruba blue dye is made from the leaves. The
stem is sometimes used for house-building posts. It is a shade-
bearing, soil-improving tree. Natural regeneration appears to be poor.
_Cæsalpina Bonducella_. Shayo (Yoruba).
The bean of this creeper is used in games amongst the Yoruba boys.
_Mundulia suberosa_ (Benth.). Lakuta (Yoruba); Ugbehen (Benin).
It is rather an uncommon tree, found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the
Abeokuta province of Nigeria. It is a small tree, a part of which is
used for killing fish.
_Indigofera hirsuta_. Indigo. Epa ile (Yoruba).
It is found in the Mamu Reserve of the Ibadan province of Nigeria.
_Indigofera stenophylla_. Indigo. Aro Boro (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria.
_Pentaclethra macrophylla_. The Oil Bean. Apara (Yoruba); Opagga,
Ukpagga (Benin); Ataka (Ibo, Asaba); Opochala (Ibo, Niger).
It is a large-sized tree, reaching a girth of about 12 feet and a bole
length of 40 feet. The root spurns are very extensive and often reach
4 or 5 feet up the stem, thus quite breaking up the base of the bole.
The bark at first is a light yellow-brown, darkening in old age to a
deep brown, and scaling off somewhat.
_Chief Characteristics._—It has dense foliage and a heavy, branched
crown, and very flat pods about 1 foot long and up to 2½ inches broad,
containing seven or eight large, flat brown beans about 1 inch in
diameter and ¼ inch thick. The pods open with a loud report not unlike
the sound of a 12-bore gun.
_Distribution._—It is found in the Lower Province of Nigeria, near the
watercourses outside Abeokuta, Jebu, Ode, Benin, Onitsha, Owerri,
Calabar and Ogoja.
_Silvicultural Qualities._—The tree grows readily from self-sown or
artificially sown beans, as is seen in the Avenue at Benin City, which
was sown at stake in 1904. It bears pods in the twelfth year in the
open, but later in the forest. It is usually very prolific, bearing at
least some pods every year. The bole is not always very straight, and
it has a distinct tendency to form strong side branches, and the crown
is therefore a large oval one. The flowers are little yellow spike,
which are very inconspicuous; they are borne on the old wood rather on
the underside of the twig, in November or December and later. The tree
stands dense shade, and it thoroughly covers the ground and prevents
the growth of weeds.
It has a tendency to branch comparatively low down, when growing as an
avenue tree, and thus does not grow so tall. This, however, has an
advantage that the large pods have not so far to fall to the ground,
and thus are not so dangerous to passers-by. The oil-beans have been
collected and sold in England in small quantities.
The sapwood is of a dirty white colour and the heartwood of a dark
brown, forming comparatively early in the life of a tree. The wood is
very hard, but sometimes rather soft-grained, rather fibrous in
texture, and the pores are somewhat wide and deep. It does not plane
well, splits with difficulty; holes have to be made before nails can
be put into it, and it saws none too easily. It is very durable and
termite-proof. Considering its hard wood and comparatively early
production of seed, and the huge pods, it is by no means a slow-
growing tree. It reaches a height of 9 to 12 feet in twelve years. The
pod is the stoutest and largest, but not the longest, of all African
timber trees. The beans are collected in boxes and sold to the
factories at 6d. to 9d. each. To be made quite safe for eating they
have to be boiled nearly twelve hours, the outer husk of the bean
being rather hard, though not very thick. The future will alone show
whether this tree will prove of greater value for timber or oil
production.
_Uses._—The timber has been shipped to Europe and sold as greenheart
at 1s. 6d. to 1s. 9d. per cubic foot. Locally, in the Benin City
district and elsewhere, it is used for making mortars for beating yams
and other food. The beans are eaten by the natives in most parts,
though they are not considered a delicacy. The empty pods are used
where firewood is scarce, as they burn well. It is, and has been, very
extensively used as a shade-tree for public roads in the Owerri
district, as well as in Afikpo and Benin. Some people object to the
falling pods, but it is an excellent shade-tree, especially in the dry
season, as it is an evergreen tree. It is a soil-protector, and would
do for underplanting or interplanting teak.
_Pterogopodium_. Agba, Pink Mahogany. Asokale, Asu Kole (Ikale); Asre
(Yoruba) (Egbado); Agba (Benin).
The scattering of the white flowers on the path or roadway is an
indication of the presence of the tree, quite apart from the wonderful
bole, exceeding nearly all others in cylindrical shape.
_Chief Characteristics._—It is a very large forest tree, with clear
bole of 90 feet and open crown formed with two or three large,
upspreading limbs, flatly oval on the top. It is quite reminiscent of
an old elm in the shape of the crown. The single-seeded winged fruit
is most typical, no other species of Leguminoseæ having a similar seed
except the nearly related _Pterolobium_ (?). The bark is comparatively
thin, silvery-grey in colour, with a few more or less well-defined
ridges running horizontally round the trunk here and there. These are
most typical, and it is the only tree which shows them. In some places
they amount to small nodules of bark.
This tree is found commonly in the Benin and Ondo provinces of
Nigeria, where it is prevalent, and in the northern part of the Benin
province, and seen in almost gregarious patches in the secondary
forest. The slash is yellowish-white, and in the younger trees a dirty
pinkish sap exudes, but later on, especially from deep cuts, the gum
copal forms and gradually hardens into solid lumps of various size.
_Silvicultural Peculiarities._—It loves a deep soil with plenty of
moisture, which may even be flooded or partially waterlogged during
the rainy season. A chalky or limy soil seems to suit it best. It is a
fast-growing, light-loving tree, though it stands a little shade in
its youth. The light, feathery foliage does not shade the ground,
though when in falls it enriches it. The root spurns are most slight,
extending only from a few inches to 1 foot above the surface of the
ground; in fact, sometimes the trunk appears to come straight out of
the ground, like a round log on end. Natural regeneration is none too
good, but this is chiefly due to lack of light in the mixed forests.
No plantations have yet been made with this tree.
It has not been exported, but it deserves a trial as a furniture-wood
for drawing tables and office equipment generally. It is sawn up into
planks and boards at Koko Town, and contains a gum which makes the
saws stick a little. It makes a good, soft wood for table tops, of a
pinkish colour and clear, close grain. The gum is sold.
_Native Use._—It has been used for canoe making in the Ondo province.
The gum is used for an illuminant, and was at one time used entirely
for this purpose. In 1906 logs of this timber were sold in Liverpool
market as a kind of mahogany of light colour.
_Prosopis oblonga_. Yoruba Charcoal Wood.
It is found in the Ibadan and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria, and may yet
be found in the Onitsha and northern part of the Benin provinces. On
the whole, it is not common, and is seen singly. Two typical specimens
of this tree stand in the Olokemeji Reserve Arboretum. It has small,
pinnate leaves, very much like tamarind, but they are almost silvery-
grey and hang down, instead of being green and rigid, as the tamarind.
The twigs and branches are very slight, compared to the thick ones of
the tamarind. The bark of the trunk is grey, too, with thin cortex,
which becomes slightly fissured in old age. The trunk is straight and
tall, compared to tamarind. The crown is longish and thin, with a few
small branches. It is somewhat feathery in habit and is delicate in
build compared to most dry-zone trees. It is one of the most typical
of dry-zone trees. The seed is small, about the size of apple-pips,
contained in a papery pod, from 1 inch to 1½ inches long. It stands
the annual grass-fires comparatively well, despite the fact that the
bark is none too thick.
_Timber._—Hard, white wood, termite-proof and very durable. The bark
is thin but rough, and small pieces can be pulled off with the
fingers. It is a deciduous tree, though it does not lose its leaves
for a long period. It is a light-loving tree, which does not protect
the soil, though the leaves (few as they are) make a good leaf-mould.
It is slow-growing, and does not reach a girth exceeding 5 feet.
Natural regeneration appears to be poor, but further observations on
this point may disclose more. No plantations have been made with this
tree, though, with its desirable qualities, some experiments seem to
be indicated. It does not sprout well from the stump, nor do any root
shoots appear before or after it is cut down.
It has not been exported, and has only been used occasionally locally.
_Use._—The timber has been used for sleepers in Togo, where it has
proved the most durable of all timbers for that purpose. In the Yoruba
country it has been used for making charcoal of the best kind for
iron-smelting.
_Detarium Senegalense_. Hard Mahogany. Ogwega (Benin).
This is none too prevalent a tree of the Benin and Ogoja provinces,
where it is found in the mixed forests. It reaches a girth of over 12
feet and a bole length of over 40 feet, but in proportion to its
height, the crown usually occupies more than half of it. The crown is
usually widespreading and spherical in shape. The fruit is like a
mango in form, but after the surface begins to decay, the fibres,
instead of being fine and all coming out from the central nut, as in
the mango, spread out vein-shaped all round the nut, starting more or
less as thick veins at the base, and then subdividing into thinner
ones, spreading round the nut in an irregular manner. The decaying
fruit has a most unpleasant, not to say distinguishing, smell.
However, this is more than compensated for by the pleasant taste of it
when served as stewed fruit.
The sapwood is whitish-yellow, and the heartwood brown-red. It is
hard, with somewhat fibrous grain, yet planes up with a good surface.
Takes nails, but does not split well. It is durable, and supposed to
be termite-proof, except for the sapwood, which the white ants often
destroy. It saws moderately easily. In older trees the wood sometimes
shows a little figure.
It is a somewhat slow-growing tree and a shade-bearer, with soil-
protecting and soil-improving qualities. In fact, in most cases it is
only found on comparatively rich soil, and in this respect appears to
be more exacting than many other trees. Natural regeneration does not
appear to be very good, but this may be due to the fact that animals
eat the seeds. No plantations have been made of this tree.
In 1906 samples of this timber were sold in the Liverpool market as
mahogany at 2¾d. per superficial foot, 3s. per cubic foot. It was
reported to be of very hard texture, a dirty brown colour, and only
one log sold. Since that date, however, none has been exported. It has
not been felled for local use. The fruit can be stewed, and makes a
nice addition to the other African fruits.
_Native Use._—The shell of the nut is used for making prayer-beads and
strung on a wire.
_Ormosia laxiflora_. Shedun (Yoruba).
Found in the Olokemeji Reserve and Ibadan province.
_Paradaniellia Oliveri_. Ilorin Balsam, African Balsam of Copaivi,
Balsam. Iya (Yoruba); Osia (Benin); Ozia (Ishan); Ozaba (Ibo Asaba).
Found in the dry zone of the Southern Provinces of Nigeria. A common
tree, growing to a height of 40 or 50 feet.
_Use._—Balsam of Copaiba.
_Xylia Evansii_. Bentpod.
It is found in the Ogoja province of Nigeria in the mixed deciduous
forest zone, but it is by no means a very common tree.
A medium-sized tree, with the curious bent-shaped pod typical of the
Xylia, found in the Obubra and Ikom districts of Nigeria, on the left
bank of the Cross River. It has a hard, red wood, which splits well.
The sapwood is white, but not very wide in an average-sized tree.
It is a slow-growing, shade-bearing tree, which thoroughly protects
the soil and improves it with its leaves decaying year after year.
The natives have not used the tree, nor has it been felled for local
use by Europeans. It has also not been tried for export.
=Pandanaceæ.=
_Pandanus candelabrum_. Screw Pine. Ebbo (Benin).
In some rivers of the Abeokuta, Ondo, Benin, Warri, Onitsha, Owerri
and Calabar provinces of Nigeria it is a common watershrub or small
tree. Often it is seen only a tangled mass of long prickly leaves,
armed with spikes all down each side and half floating in and above
the surface of the water. Sometimes, again, it is seen as a tree with
two or three more or less complete whorls of branches on the uppermost
part of the stem and a mass of drooping leaves from the crown. The
white stem is supported by several soft, corky-looking aerial roots.
It seldom exceeds 2 feet in girth and 30 feet in height. The white
flower is very conspicuous, with its cone-like shape, which becomes
more pronounced as the fruit begins to ripen and turns green. The
scent is very pungent and overpowering. The trees form almost
impenetrable thickets at the edge of the more sluggishly flowing
rivers. These often impede navigation and have to be cut away.
The stem is very porous when dry, and cannot be said to yield timber,
though the cork-like material might serve for a light substitute for
it.
Natural regeneration appears to be very good.
The fibre has not been exported in any quantity, but it is very tough,
and apparently very durable and of moderate length (average 3 feet).
_Native Use._—When dried the leaves are used for making mats for
wrapping goods as well as for sleeping-mats. In the Benin and Jekri
country, long (2 feet) thin receptacles are made which are used for
salt, which is sold in these bags in the market. The bag keeps the
salt dry. It is sometimes planted near villages in damp places for the
purpose of obtaining the mat material locally, where it is not found
naturally in the swamps.
=Humeriaceæ.=
_Aubrya Gabunensis_. Brass Mahogany-bark Tree.
This is a very large forest tree of the Brass district, with a bark
very similar to that of mahogany, but to which it bears no
relationship.
[Illustration: FIG. 67.—=Khaya Senegalensis, 1910, on bank of Ogun
River, near Iporin, Oyo Province.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 68.—=Locust Tree (Parkia filicoidea), in bearing,
Oyo District, 1910.=]
To face p. 308.
The trees are sometimes cut down by the natives and used for large
dug-out canoes. The timber is termite-proof, and the natives say that
canoes made from this timber are very durable, though rather heavy,
and liable to become waterlogged when filled with water. It is of a
dull reddish-brown colour and has rather a coarse grain.
=Rutaceæ.=
_Zanthoxylum Senegalense_. Dry-zone African Satinwood. Ata, Odan
(Yoruba); Ughahan (Benin).
It is found in the Ibadan, Abeokuta, Benin, Onitsha and Ogoja
provinces of Nigeria, at the edge of the mixed deciduous zone and the
lower part of the dry-zone forest region. It is only a medium-sized
tree, attaining a girth of about 4 feet and a height of about 50 feet.
The bole always remains armed with short, woody protrusions, each
having a black thorn at the apex. In the upper part of the bole and
the branches there are only thorns. The pinnate leaf has usually three
pairs of pinnæ and one end-leaf. All the leaves are broader and about
only half as long as those of _Z. macrophyllum_. On the whole, this
makes the foliage appear thicker, and, in fact, gives greater shade
than _Z. macrophyllum_. In proportion the bole is shorter and the
crown larger and more spread out than in the case of _Z.
macrophyllum_. The bole has a greater tendency to divide lower down
into three subsidiary stems, thus spoiling the length of it for
timber. The bunches of small, black seeds are smaller than those of
_Z. macrophyllum_, and if anything the seeds are also smaller too.
The timber is very similar to that of _Z. macrophyllum_, the sapwood
and heartwood being the same colour, except that the heartwood is
often of a little darker shade, and bears a greater proportion to the
diameter of the tree than in the case of _Z. macrophyllum_. On the
whole it is harder, and more often shows a little figure. Although it
does not reach such a large size, in many ways it is superior, the
grain being rather finer, and showing more sheen, and if anything it
works up to a finer texture when planed. It is just as durable and
termite-proof. It is a light-loving tree, but will stand a certain
amount of lateral shade. Owing to the prevalence of grass-fires, it is
slower-growing than _Z. macrophyllum_, but if anything it shades the
ground better, and considering where it usually stands, it is a slight
soil-improving tree. Natural regeneration is fair. No plantations have
been made with this tree. Samples of this timber have not yet been
exported, though, as it is a sister tree to the West Indian Satinwood,
it ought to command a similar price. It has not been felled for local
use. The natives occasionally cut it for house-building timber, but it
is not at all popular, owing to its being armed with spikes.
_Zanthoxylum macrophyllum_ (Oliver). True Benin Satinwood. Atagbo
(Yoruba); Ughahan, Okor (Benin).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ondo, Benin and Calabar provinces of
Nigeria, in the mixed deciduous forest zone, where it is very
prevalent, especially in old farms.
_Chief Characteristics._—It has a very large leaf, up to 6 feet long,
with forty pairs of leaflets, each rather smaller than those of _Z.
Senegalense_. There are no thorns on the branches, but many on the
stem, which is thoroughly armed until old age, when most of the woody
spikes drop off. It bears a large bunch of small, black, spherical-
shaped seeds. It is a common tree in abandoned farms of the mixed
deciduous forest zone. The thorns are more sharply pointed than _Z.
Senegalense_ and not so woody at first, but later form a thorn at the
top of each wooden protrusion. One specimen found in the Olokemeji
Reserve had very few wooden protrusions, each armed with a thorn, but
there were larger leaves than _Z. macrophyllum_, though in all not
quite so long. In old age the stem is almost smooth, and may reach a
girth of nearly 6 feet and a length of over 30 feet. The crown is
slender and broken up with three or four main branches. The base of
the bole in old age is spotted with yellow lenticels.
It is a light-loving, quick-growing tree, which does not protect the
ground, and only to a certain extent acts with its leaves as a soil-
improving tree. Natural regeneration is very good, and on the whole,
at the edge of the evergreen and mixed deciduous forest zone, with the
increase of farms it is tending to spread in greater numbers than
before, and in some places groups of them are found, whereas in the
original forest only isolated specimens are obtained. No plantations
have been made with this tree.
The sapwood is light-yellow and the heartwood of a darker yellow
shade. In quickly grown trees it is not very large, but in the older
trees comprises more than two-thirds of the diameter of the tree. The
timber is hard, fine-grained, planing up smooth in texture. It does
not take nails well, nor split well, saws, however, cleanly, and
occasionally shows a little figure.
In 1906 samples of this timber were sold in the Liverpool market as
Sabicu at 2s. to 2s. 6d. per foot, and reported of a very hard nature.
Since then, however, none has been cut or exported. Locally it has not
been used in any form. It should be noted, however, that this is a
sister tree of the West Indian Satinwood, and considering that it
grows to a larger size than that one, the timber should demand a still
higher price.
_Use._—In the Benin country the timber is used for making door-plates
before putting dried clay on the top, and also used for doors.
_Zanthoxylum sp. n._ Dwarf Satinwood. Boji.
_Chief Characteristics._—The fruit is a mass of red berries very
similar to the Mountain Ash of Europe, but a small tree armed with a
few scattered spines of short length, but not very woody, more in the
nature of thorns. It attains a girth of 10 inches and a height of 15
to 20 feet.
_Distribution._—It was only found on the summit of the Boji Hills from
an elevation of 4,500 to 5,000 feet, where other vegetation gave out
and only grass grew otherwise.
It has a very hard, yellow wood of the usual satiny nature. It made
very good firewood on the mountain top.
_Zanthoxylum sp._ (Kew). _Pterocarpus sp._ African Satinwood. Urueben
(Benin).
It is found in the Benin and Ondo provinces of Nigeria.
It is a common tree near the banks of rivers in the evergreen forest.
It is of medium-size, reaching a girth of about 7 feet; the bole is
long (40 feet); the root buttresses reach up the bole about 3 feet.
The stalk has a few prickles, especially when it is small, but they
disappear in old age. The leaf is smaller than _P. osun_, but much the
same as Akume, _Pterocarpus sp._ The habit is typical of a Pterocarpus
and not of Zanthoxylum. The bark is quite smooth and always unarmed.
The fruit is ovoid and flat, with the seed at one end, rather
different in this respect to Pterocarpus, and without the prickles on
it. The slash is white, and soon red drops of latex-like fluid exude
from the tree. The branches are upspreading and the crown is large,
though narrow, the bole being about two-thirds of the total height.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood is yellow when young and dark-
red, like _P. osun_, when old. It is hard, but splits well. Termites
attack it. It is cross-grained and stands a little bending; otherwise
it is brittle, when bent far.
It is slow-growing and a light-lover. It likes a good soil which is
moist and has depth. It does not sprout from the stool. Seed
reproduction is good, and the seedlings are found in the neighbourhood
of old trees. It is a deciduous tree for three months in the year (dry
season).
It has not been cut for local use or exported to Europe. It is used
for making shovels for mud-puddling in the building of Benin houses;
also for pegs in the walls of a chief’s house.
_Toddalia sp._ Oie (Yoruba).
A climbing shrub common in Tropical West Africa. The fertile stamens
are equal in number to the petals. Leaves digitate.
_Uses._—Condiments and medicine.
_Ægle Barteri_. Calabash Orange. Shange, Bale (Yoruba).
This is a small tree growing near the villages, cultivated for its
shade and for medicinal purposes. The fruit looks like an orange, but
the shell is hard and it is not edible.
_Clausena Anisata_ (Oliv.). Alapari, Obuko (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria.
=Simarubaceæ.=
_Irvingia Barteri_. Dika Nut, Wild Mango. Oro, Auro (Yoruba); Ogwi
(tree), Okherli (seed) (Benin).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ondo, Benin, Warri, Onitsha, Owerri,
Calabar and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria.
With its smooth, shining, small dark-green leaves it is quite
distinguishable from other forest trees. The very spherical shape of
the crown and the short bole are also most typical of the tree. It is
often found near river banks or in damp localities. Wherever found, it
is usually preserved by the natives, though not actually cultivated or
tended.
The flower is inconspicuous, but the fruit is like a small mango,
becoming quite yellow when ripe, though much harder and of a much
sharper flavour.
The wood is hard and durable; the sapwood is yellowish-white and the
heartwood yellow. It is impervious to white ants.
The tree is a shade-bearer, especially in youth, but grows very
slowly. Those planted near Leopardstown, Calabar, were only 6 to 8
feet high after ten years’ growth. It is true they received little or
no attention and occasionally the grass was burnt near them.
No regular plantations have been made, though one plot was planted in
the Mamu Reserve in 1910. Further experiments in cultivation, and
especially pruning and tending to see how early the tree will bear
fruit, are worth undertaking. A method to increase the size of the
fruit, and with it the size of the kernel, might be discovered and
thus make it a profitable tree to grow in plantations.
Reported on by the Imperial Institute in 1904, and kernels worth £14 a
ton then in London.
_Native Use._—House-building. The fruit is eaten, and then the nut is
cracked and the kernel beaten up and served as soup. Fruit or nuts or
both are sold in the markets of Benin and Yorubaland.
_Irvingia Smithii_. Benin Dika Nut (?). Akwekwe (Benin).
It is found occasionally in the Benin province of Nigeria. It is a
tree with similar growth to _Irvingia Barteri_, but reaches a larger
size, up to 12 feet. The bole length is also greater, 40 feet. The
fruit is larger than _Irvingia Barteri_, but of the same shape. It is
rather uncommon in the evergreen forest. The crown is smaller and
occupies only the upper third of the stem. The branches are larger,
too, and of lesser number in proportion than _Irvingia Barteri_.
The wood is yellow in the sapwood and brown in the heartwood, and
hard. It is hard to split. The heartwood is very small, being only
about 1 foot out of a diameter of 4 feet. Termites do not attack the
wood.
It is a shade-bearer and grows slowly. It does not sprout from the
stool, but reproduction by seed is good. The duikas eat the fruit.
It has not been cut for local use nor exported to Europe.
It is used, by tying four seeds together like Ogwega, for a game. The
fruit is not eaten because it is not sweet.
_Irvingia sp._ Pwekupweku (Benin).
It is a common tree in the Benin province of Nigeria. It is a large
tree, reaching a girth of 15 feet and very tall. The fruit is yellow,
and large as an African mango, but with a very much sweeter smell and
sweet taste. The branches are flattish, and so the crown is wide, with
a long bole and shallow crown. It has a long, lanceolate leaf with
insignificant veins. The wood is hard, with white sapwood and brown
heartwood. It grows on good soil, which is moist and deep in the
evergreen forests. It is a shade-bearer and grows moderately fast.
_Native Use._—The fruit is used for killing rats after it has been
cooked and mixed with palm oil chop. It is then given to them, and
they at once fall down dead.
=Simarubaceæ= (Planch).
_Hannoa undulata_. Whitewood. Igigun (Egba); Igbo (Lagos); Orisi
(Igbado, Yoruba).
It is found in the Calabar, Owerri, Benin, Warri, Ondo, Ibadan and
Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
It is a very large tree, reaching a girth of 12 feet and a bole length
of about 50 feet, which grows up very readily in old farms or
clearings in the evergreen forest and lower parts of the mixed
forests. It has a large, broad leaf, which is deciduous for about a
month in the year. The flower, which is white in colour, is in the
form of racemes (?). The bark is green, with grey streaks up and down,
and the slash is white with yellow markings; it smells sweet, too. The
fruit is oblong and black, more like a plum. The spurns are very
slight.
The wood is very soft and white all through. It dries without warping,
but if not cut properly is liable to be attacked by small borers of
the furniture kind. It planes with a smooth surface. It is very light,
more so even than Musanga wood. The grain is fine, though such pores
as there are, are long. It splits well and adzes well too. It shrinks
considerably in drying, but this might be obviated by girdling and
drying very gradually in shade when cut green.
It is a very quick-growing tree, almost as fast as Ricinodendron. It
is a light-lover, and is rather intolerant of shade, except in its
youth. It grows best from seed reproduction, as the power from the
stool is very slight and soon dies back.
It was sampled in 1912 at Degema, but has not been exported to Europe.
A trial as a wood for making pulpwood seems indicated. It is split up
into flat pieces for doors and mantelpieces, also for making the walls
of temporary houses, each piece being set upright to the other, with
any round edge on the outside.
=Burseraceæ.=
_Pachylobus edulis_. Native Pear (Ohan), Incense Tree, Elemi Gum.
Ibagho (Yoruba); Onumu (Benin); Eben (Efik).
It is found in all the Southern Provinces of Nigeria, chiefly as a
planted tree in the neighbourhood of villages, and on the sides of the
roads leading to them, being more prevalent in the Benin and Oban than
the other districts. It is a medium-sized tree, reaching a girth of
about 7 feet and a height of about 70 feet.
The gum, which exudes when the tree is cut with a matchet, smells very
much like incense when burnt, and is of a white colour. It is always
planted in the villages, partly for shade, chiefly for food,
especially in the Oban country.
The fruit is first of all a grey, and then a purple colour, and a very
cylindrical plum shape, in all about 2½ inches long and rather more
than 1 inch in diameter. It is very much like turpentine to taste,
especially when not quite ripe, and in the centre of the fruit there
is an oblong nut rather more than 1 inch in length, more or less
round, with four ribbed edges, all culminating at the apex. The leaves
are large, consisting of four to six pairs of pinnæ, which are shiny
and dark-green on the upper surface, and almost silver-grey
underneath. The trunk is often very much cut about and chipped, and
little pieces of the white gum are often seen in the old scars. It
usually bears fruit heavily every year.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood is of a faint pink colour. It
is not very hard, but more like mahogany in texture and character.
Owing to its irregular growth and branching habit, it is often rather
knotty and cross-grained.
It is a shade-bearing, somewhat slow-growing tree, which only
partially protects the soil, but on the whole improves it with its
fall of leaves. Natural regeneration appears to be rare, chiefly
perhaps owing to the fact that the natives pick the fruit even before
it is quite ripe, and take it away to eat in their houses. It is
usually planted by the natives as a transplanted seedling, about 3
feet high. Considering the poor flavour of the fruit, it is rather
surprising that it is so widely planted and comparatively speaking so
much tended by the natives in certain districts. It is moderately
fire-resisting and dew-collecting, especially in the dry seasons, the
ground in the vicinity of the trees often being quite damp with the
condensed dew falling off the leaves.
It has not been felled for export or for local use. The tree, however,
provides grateful shade in the more open parts of the country, in the
neighbourhood of villages.
The gum has not been collected for export, but is considered of value.
However, no tapping experiments have been tried.
_Native Use._—The fruit is called a pear, and is liked by most
natives, who eat it raw. It is sometimes sold in the markets at five
for one penny.
_Canarium Schweinfurthii_. Pink Mahogany, Bastard Mahogany. (Sometimes
sold as Gaboon Mahogany or African Elemi. Anikantuhu, Ako, Ibagbo
(Yoruba); Onumukyukyu (Benin); also known as Ikwapbo. (The Benin name
means Kyukyu or bird, Onumu or Incense-tree.)
_Chief Characteristics._—Evenly striated bark of orange to light-
yellow colour, turning grey on exposure to full rays of the sun. The
seed is small and similar to that of _Pachylobus edulis_, but much
smaller.
_Distribution._—A few in the Western, more in the Central west and
south of Benin, and most common in the Eastern Circle, especially
north of Calabar, in the mixed deciduous forest zone, and to lesser
extent in the evergreen forest zone.
It is a large forest tree, with a girth of over 12 feet and a bole
length of about 90 feet. Being more or less preserved by the natives
when found in the forests, in clearing for their farms, it is often
now seen on the roadsides. The slash is white, and as the roots beside
the road are often cut by the natives, the yellowish-white gum exudes,
forming a small white layer on the surface of the root. This has a
most pleasant smell, and is not unpleasant to taste. It is closely
allied to, if not much the same character as, the “Balsam of Tolu.”
The leaf is comparatively small, with three or four pairs of pinnæ,
and growing more or less in tufts, this being reminiscent of the
Mahogany family. The root spurns are very slight, and in this respect
it is more like the European Ash, and usually there are one or two
main roots which spread out, down the slightly enlarged bole at the
base. Otherwise the tree is one of the most cylindrical in shape,
falling away with the increasing height less than almost any other. It
is a deciduous tree. The pores are very fine and rather longer than in
the ordinary mahogany, and the wood is not so sheeny.
The sapwood is white, and in fast-grown trees often 6 inches through.
The heartwood is of a delicately pink mahogany colour, darkening to a
light-brown mahogany on exposure to the air and sunlight. It is not
very hard, and splits fairly well. It planes up with a smooth surface.
It saws well and also takes nails fairly well. It has very
considerable elasticity. It is lighter than most kinds of mahogany.
The logs will float as soon as at all dry.
In youth it stands a good deal of shade, but later on it is on the
whole a light-demanding tree. It is a fairly quick-growing tree, but
tends to become very slow when left alone in the open. It needs a rich
soil, but is also found on poorer land. It needs more moisture than
many others. Although not a soil-protecting tree, the leaves yield a
fair amount of humus in their annual fall. Natural regeneration is
fair, but it is rather susceptible to fire, and much of it is thus
killed. No plantations have been made of this tree.
In 1906 a sample was sold in the Liverpool market as Gaboon Mahogany
at 1s. 6d. per cubic foot full measure, and in 1907 sample logs of
this tree were exported to the Liverpool market, where they were sold
as light Benin Mahogany at 2d. per superficial foot. Since then none
has been felled.
The natives occasionally cut the tree for planks, and use the wood for
making canoes, chiefly owing to its lightness and elasticity.
_Canarium sp._ Rough-barked Canarium. Ekugbi, Ekugbo (Yoruba);
Onumukyukyu (Benin).
_Chief Characteristics._—A large tree, with larger fissures than _C.
Schweinfurthii_, about 6 inches apart; the bark is inclined to scale
off in between. The leaves are a little larger, but the gum is very
similar and used for similar purposes.
_Distribution._—It was found in the Olokemeji Forest Reserve.
It is deciduous for about three weeks in the year, chiefly November,
but otherwise it is a soil-protecting and soil-improving tree.
The tree has not been felled for export or for local use. Nor do the
natives appear to have used it for any purpose.
_Canarium Mansfeldii_. Gaboon Mahogany.
This species is found on the banks of the Upper Cross River.
_Canarium sp._ Oyife (Yoruba).
Found in the Yoruba country.
_Canarium sp._, syn. _Schweinfurthii_. Incense Tree. Anikantuku
(Yoruba); Onumukyukyu (Benin).
Found in the Ilaro district and Benin.
=Meliaceæ.=
_Carapa procera_. Scented Mahogany Cedar, Crab Wood, Touloucouna Oil.
Efu Iya, Abo-oganwo (Yoruba); Ibbegogo (Benin).
It is a common tree, found in the Calabar, Ogoja, Owerri, Warri,
Benin, Ondo and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
It is a small tree, growing to a girth of about 6 feet. The pinnæ and
the whole leaf are both much larger than the mahogany leaf, even
including that of _grandifolia_. It often grows with a divided bole,
two small stems shooting upwards from about 3 feet from the ground.
The leaves grow in very distinct tufts on the edge of the branches.
The bark is smooth and a light-green colour, with a few vertical
uprights when the tree is old. The fruit is a large, roughly round,
woody drupe. The covering shell dehisces into eight parts, releasing
about twenty hard, brown, round-cornered, almost square nuts. The
seeds are eaten by porcupines. It is found in the freshwater swamps in
the evergreen forest and in damp places of the mixed deciduous forest.
The timber is pink when freshly cut, and the heartwood has the red-
brown typical of the Mahogany family. The small size of the timber
rather militates against its reaching the high value of mahogany.
The tree is a shade-bearer in its younger stages of growth, and even
when older it still stands a considerable amount of shade. Self-sown
seedlings are not often seen. Perhaps this is due to so many of the
seeds being eaten by animals. The stump scarcely sprouts after it has
been freshly cut. Considering the size of the tree, a very fair number
of nuts ripen each year.
No use has been made of the seeds, though they yield a similar oil to
that of the Crab Oil Tree of South America.
In 1906 a sample of the timber was sold in the Liverpool market as
Mahogany Cedar, scented, at 2½d. and 3½d. per superficial foot.
_Native Use._—The bark is used by pregnant Yoruba women and for sores
and as a cough mixture. It is used underneath palm leaves as a roofing
material in the Benin country.
_Khaya grandifolia_, later _grandis_ (Stapf.). Big-leaf Mahogany, Benin
Mahogany. Akor, Oganwo (Yoruba); Gadeau, Ogwangu (Benin); Odala (Ibo
Asaba); Digiten (Brass); Dirinshi, Diki (Ibo Owerri); Asamogo (Ibibio);
Upono (Efik); Obon (?) (Oban, Ekoi).
It is found in the Ondo, Benin and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria, at the
edge of the mixed deciduous forest zone, where it is very prevalent in
some places, such as at the edge of the Ifon Owo-Akure Road.
_Chief Characteristics._—It is a large tree of the mixed forests. It
attains a girth of 14 feet and a corresponding height. It is, however,
taller in proportion than _K. Punchii_. It has long, upward-tending
root flanges, though not so large as those of _K. Ivoriensis_ or the
Coast Mahogany. The crown is open compared to the other Khayas, except
_K. Senegalensis_. It has conspicuously large pinnate leaves, with
three or four pairs of leaflets quite 10 inches in length, each
leaflet being 4 inches long. The stem is smoother than _K. Punchii_,
and in that respect more like _K. anthoteka_. The leaves of this
species are the most shiny of all; in fact, the others appear dull
beside them. The bole, on the whole, is cleaner than _K. Punchii_ and
longer, though it forks or divides into a head in the characteristic
Mahogany way. The shininess of the leaves is one of the greatest
characteristics of this tree. The capsule is somewhat larger than _K.
Punchii_. It is also a little thicker, and the tip is not so long or
sharp. It opens out into five segments, as a rule, but sometimes there
may be only four. The seeds themselves are a little oblong in shape
and not quite so square as in _K. Punchii_, although they are just as
thin and flat.
The timber is the typical Benin Mahogany, with somewhat long pores,
first of all rather pink, then a rich mahogany-brown colour.
Occasionally the sapwood is very wide in proportion to the size of the
tree, but this is more in the case of very quickly grown trees. It
sometimes shows very rich figure of a “roey” nature as well as
“fiddleback,” more especially in the root buttresses. Here, owing to
the storms to which the tree is exposed, the fibres of these
buttresses become fractured and compressed, thus giving a broken and
mottled appearance to the grain after it has been cut up lengthways.
In this species the wood of the “curls” often shows a rather bolder
roe than in the case of those obtained from _K. Punchii_ or
_Ivoriensis_.
On the whole this is the most quickly growing of all the Khayas. In
its youth it stands a certain amount of shade, and, in fact, always,
but it would appear to demand a good deal of light for its full and
quick development. It is a thoroughly soil-protecting and soil-
improving tree. The leaves make a rich humus. Natural regeneration is
good, and, in fact, appears to be much better than in the case of the
other Khayas. It sprouts from the stump a little. It appears to be
somewhat exacting as to soil, preferring somewhat deep, rich and moist
sites. In plantations it has already found a place. It has also been
planted, mixed with other species of Khaya, in the small nurseries,
plantations and lines of trees made by the timber-lease holders. It
does not seem to be attacked so severely by the leading-shoot borer as
in the case of _K. Punchii_. Owing to the fact that the seeds usually
fall on more open ground, it is not eaten so quickly by the little
boring insects.
The timber is being constantly exported and mixed up with the other
species of Khaya. Being lighter, it floats higher on the water than
the other species, more especially Entandrophragma. It has
occasionally been used by the natives for making canoes, as also for
sawing up into planks.
_Khaya Punchii_. Uhi Mahogany, Benin Mahogany. Oganwo (Yoruba); Ogwangu
(Benin); Eggi (Ibo Asaba).
This tree does not attain such a large size as either _K. grandis_ or
_K. Ivoriensis_, but it often exceeds a girth of 12 feet and a bole
length of 70 feet. The bottom log of a tree is often found to show
figured wood. This is perhaps owing to the bark being constantly
removed, and to the succeeding occlusion of the wounds following at
different times, according to when the bark is removed.
_Chief Characteristics._—It has a comparatively small leaf, with five
or six pairs of leaflets. It has slight root spurns, or protuberances,
or even in some cases none at all. It is generally particularly rough
at the base, owing to the bark having been continually removed by the
local people. Higher up, the stem is covered with brown-coloured bark,
which is slightly pitted. The leaves are in tufts, though to a lesser
extent than either _K. grandis_ or _Ivoriensis_. The large masses of
small white flowers remind one of lilac. It is of the same white
colour. It flowers in February, when it is also in new leaf. Compared
with _K. grandis_ it usually has a shorter and somewhat more curved
bole.
_Distribution._—It is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan and Benin
provinces of Nigeria.
The capsule is of medium size, splitting open into five segments which
remain attached at the base. On the whole it is rather thinner than
_K. grandis_ or _Ivoriensis_, but does not come to such a sharp point
as either of those two.
The timber is very similar in grain and texture to the other Khayas,
but if anything it is a little heavier and a little closer texture
then either _grandis_ or _Ivoriensis_, especially in those districts
where it grows in the mixed deciduous forests, and where the base of
the trunk is burnt with an occasional grass-fire.
Although not quite so fast-growing as the other Khayas, it is a fast-
growing tree with soil-protecting and soil-improving qualities.
Natural regeneration is fair, though the little thin, flat seeds are
very soon attacked by a little boring insect when they fall to the
ground. However, when rapidly gathered after having fallen, they
retain their germinative capacity for a greater length of time than in
the case of the Entandrophragmas. On the whole, if the locality is not
too dry or fires too prevalent, this tree tends to widen its area of
distribution with the spread of farms. The leading-shoot borer attacks
this tree in its younger stages perhaps even more than the other
Khayas, more especially when it is planted pure. In this connection it
should be noted that this Khaya, as well as the others, is not
gregarious in habit, being always found singly, though varying much in
number per square mile. This factor rather indicates that pure
plantations should not be made, or at any rate that it should only be
planted in small groups mixed with other species, also in small
groups, from a quarter to one acre in extent. In leased timber areas
it has been planted mixed with other species. On the whole, it has not
been exported so much as the other Khayas. It has been sold as Niger
Mahogany.
_Value._—3d. to 6d. per superficial foot from Sapoba, in the Benin
province. The natives occasionally cut it for sawing into planks.
[Illustration: FIG. 69.—=Mature Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa) and Teak,
one year old, Mamu Forest Reserve, Ibadan Forest, in 1915.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 70.—=Large full-grown Iroko Tree (Chlorophora
excelsa) standing near Ibadan, Jebu Ode Road, Mamu Forest Reserve, in
May 1910. Same tree as Fig. 69.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 71.—=Untouched Forest on Summit of Ado Rock, Oyo
Province, 1910.=]
To face p. 320.
_Khaya anthotheca?_. White-barked Mahogany or White Mahogany, King of
the Timber. Funfun (Yoruba); Ogwangu Nufwa, Ogigedu (Benin).
Many specimens of this tree are found in the mixed forests on the
banks of the Ovia River in the Ifon district of the Benin province,
and also isolated trees near the banks of the Owena River in the Ondo
province.
The chief characteristic of this tree is the speckled white bark,
which gives the stem generally a light, almost white or grey colour.
The white patches in the bark occur irregularly scattered all round
the bole, being chiefly confined to the lower half of it. In young
trees the four very strong lateral roots show up prominently above the
ground, leading away from the tree more or less at right angles and
remaining above the surface of the ground for two or three feet. This
feature to some extent persists even in old age, but then it is not so
pronounced, as these roots tend to form more or less stout buttresses
similar to the others, but coming out more abruptly and forming a more
shelf-like protuberance from the stem.
The timber is supposed to be lighter, and of a lighter colour than
that of the other Khayas. However, it appears to be only rather more
of a pinkish-brown when freshly cut, taking on the typical mahogany-
brown once it is exposed to the air. So far, it has always been sold
mixed up with the other species cut in the same area, and realizes
similar prices. It may perhaps have even helped towards the scoring of
the higher average price of 6d. per superficial foot which was
obtained from one area where this species is found.
_Khaya n. sp._ Mahogany. Ogwangu (Benin).
This was found in the Benin province of Nigeria. In the wood, it shows
a considerable difference to the other Khayas, being a much lighter
red-brown colour and of more open texture.
_Khaya Ivoriensis_. Coast Mahogany. Obi, Oganwo, Akpakor (Yoruba).
This species is supposed to be that from which most of the coastal
mahogany is obtained, more especially in the more low-lying regions.
The wood is of a richer and darker colour and somewhat heavier than
that of the other species. The most typical feature, though, is the
very sheeny nature of the wood and the very considerable size of the
medullary rays, which, however, are not conspicuous, as in the wood
from Nigeria.
_Khaya Senegalensis_. Dry-zone Mahogany. Oganwo (Yoruba); Ogwangu
(Benin).
_Chief Characteristics._—The tree has an open crown with a few
upspreading branches, and apparently much less foliage than its
“confrères.” The leaves are small, very grey, specially on the under-
surface, giving them almost the character of Eucalyptus leaves. The
bole is shorter than the other Khayas, with a slightly scaly bark and
only a small thickening of the base and no root buttresses at all. The
bark is darker than _Khaya Punchii_, though the scales are often grey.
The capsule is almost frequently four-sectioned, though this is not an
absolute rule, as other Khayas have been found bearing capsules
dividing into three, four and five sections. It does not exude gum so
readily as _Khaya Punchii_, and the gum is of a redder colour.
Illustration No. 67 shows the lower part of the bole of a tree 10 feet
in girth.
_Distribution._—It grows on the banks of the Ogun River above the
Iseyin-Oyo Road, Ibadan province, Akure, Benin and Ogoja provinces of
Nigeria. It is found as one of the most prevalent trees near Obudu and
in the Onitsha province north of Ogrugu.
_Timber._—It is of redder brown colour than either _Khaya Punchii_ or
grandis, and has a greater sheen. The texture of wood is a little
closer, and, owing to the annual grass-fires burning the stem, is
slightly figured. Logs could not be cut much more than 20 feet in
length, owing to the bole not always being straight, though the large
branches would make small ones and curls.
_Silvicultural Qualities._—It stands a great deal of drought, though
in its drier area of distribution it is usually to be found near river
banks. The seed keeps a high percentage of germination for some months
after being picked. It demands more light than either of the other
Khayas, and grows freely from the beginning. It has also a greater
tendency to branch than the other Khayas, but this may be due to its
being attacked more by the leading-shoot borer than the other species,
as more of these insects are found in the open than in the mixed
forests. It is almost gregarious, as groups of trees are usually found
together.
_Khaya sp._ Orro (Yoruba); Geduloha (Benin).
This tree is found in the Ilaro district of the Abeokuta province.
There appears to be some doubt as to whether this is really a distinct
species, but the fact remains that the wood is very much darker and of
rather a duller colour than most of the other Khayas. It shows also a
very rich, wide roe, and in this respect the wood is more valuable
than that of many other species. It is somewhat similar to the best
counter-top wood obtained from the Entandrophragmas. It does not
appear to be a very common tree, but it attains a girth of over 12
feet, and the bole is straighter and considerably taller than most of
the Khayas.
_Pseudocedrela Kotschyii_. Dry-zone Cedar. Hard Cedar Mahogany. Emi
gbegeri (Yoruba, Ibadan).
It is found in groups and isolated specimens in the Ibadan province of
Nigeria, in the dry-zone forest and at the edge of the mixed deciduous
areas, more especially in the Olokemeji Forest. With its somewhat
regularly fissured bark, showing a criss-cross pattern, it is
distinguishable from the other dry-zone trees. The silvery pinnate
leaves in tufts and the charred base of the stem, combined with the
grey trunk, all help to identify it. The little mahogany-like capsule,
covered with silvery hairs when unripe, is another feature. When these
burst open, leaving the empty capsule on the tree for a time, there is
no doubt about its being of the Mahogany family. In the distance the
grey, almost silvery-coloured bark makes it stand out as compared to
others such as Dwarf Ironwood or the Shea Butter Tree. Reaching a
girth of about 6 feet and a bole length of 25 feet, it is one of the
largest dry-zone trees.
The sapwood is pinkish-red, when fresh, and the heartwood a rich red-
brown, darkening slightly on exposure to the light. It is harder than
mahogany and heavier. The grain is closer and on the whole finer, but
with a similar sheen. It often shows a little figure. It saws well,
planes smoothly, takes nails, and has a good appearance in the plank.
It is said to be termite-proof. It is considerably stronger than
mahogany.
Somewhat slow-growing, even from naturally growing root suckers, it is
a light-loving tree, giving scarcely enough shade to protect the soil.
In its youth it is a soil-improving tree. Natural regeneration is
poor, root suckers being the strongest form of reproduction. It
sprouts slightly from the stump, but not sufficiently for reproduction
of a crop. A fair crop of seeds is found each year, but usually, owing
to grass-fires, much of this is destroyed. Plantations are being made,
but natural growth has been encouraged in places, and gives further
promise of better growth.
It has not been exported, but it is occasionally felled for local use.
It is one of the most valuable trees of the dry zone.
_Entandrophragma utilis_. Short-capsuled Mahogany, Sapeli or Heavy
Mahogany. Ijebbo, Jebu, Ashuwole, Papala (Yoruba); Ogipogo, Ubilesan
Onamakyuku, Plekkogo (Benin); Eplekgo (Jekri); Edem (Efik); Atori
(Oban, Ekoi).
This tree is found in the evergreen and mixed forests of the Ondo,
Benin, Calabar and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria. It is one of the most
common mahoganies of the forest, and reaches the largest girth of any
of the African trees. The biggest of all showed a girth of 56 feet,
measured above the top of the buttresses, and one which showed 437
rings of growth had a girth of 52 feet, measured at 20 feet above the
ground. This one, too, yielded 15 logs of various sizes.
The leaves are rather smaller and show the ribs rather more
prominently than in _E. cylindrica_, but the growth, which is in
tufts, is similar. It is deciduous for about three weeks in the year,
in November, when inconspicuous flowers first appear and then the
leaves. The capsule is about 3 inches long and nearly 1 inch in
diameter. It is of the usual pentagonal shape, and there are five
seeds, placed one over the other on each side of the central
pentagonal core. The seeds are nearly square in shape, with a rounded
back about an eighth of an inch thick. The wings are four times the
length of the seed, making each about 2½ inches long. The seeds lose
their germinative power in about three weeks, and are always attacked
by a small boring insect.
The bole has comparatively slight root spurns, which terminate at
about a maximum height of 20 feet from the ground. It is very
straight, and may attain a height of 90 feet. The stem is, however,
much more pitted than that of _E. cylindrica_. The bark is of a green
to grey colour, very reminiscent at times of a beech-tree, especially
at a distance. The crown is flatly spherical, being composed of a few
very large limbs. The slash is white and brown; the sapwood is white
and the heartwood of a red-brown colour, with a very strong cedar-wood
scent when freshly cut. Even when the wood is seasoned and freshly
planed, this scent is very noticeable. It saws and splits easily,
planes up moderately, and takes nails fairly easily. It is not
termite-proof, but the most common attack is by a lymexylon, if the
logs are left lying unsquared in the forests. Many figured logs have
been obtained from this species of tree. In the younger stages, the
sapwood is comparatively wide. Natural regeneration is very good in
some places. The tree grows very rapidly indeed. In its youth it
stands a certain amount of shade, but later on it is a light-loving
tree. It is a soil-protecting and soil-improving tree. Isolated trees
have been planted and small plantations made in various parts of the
country. Planted under proper conditions and with favourable seasons,
an average growth of 6 feet in height may be expected. The young trees
are occasionally attacked by the leading-shoot borer, but this is not
very serious, particularly if a suitable mixture with other trees has
been formed.
This timber has been one of the main export products of the Sapeli and
South Benin forests. The chief market for this wood was, previous to
the war, in Hamburg. However, from Hamburg, the markets of Copenhagen,
Sweden, Finland, Russia and Austria were also supplied. Being almost
half as heavy again as Khaya Mahogany, it costs more in proportion to
bring over to Europe. Owing to the better and larger size of the logs
which can be obtained from these huge trees, there was in these
markets a greater demand for this timber for counter-tops than for
Khaya timber. This to some extent counterbalanced the disadvantage of
the extra weight. This timber was also considered of a duller colour
and more liable to split than the Khaya wood. However, as many of the
trees from which the largest logs have been obtained are mature, and
over-mature, it is natural that the wood cannot be in a prime
condition.
The timber is very popular amongst the local people for the making of
canoes and for house-building.
_Entandrophragma cylindrica_. Heavy Mahogany or Cedar Mahogany. Jebu,
Oro, Issisi, Alepo, Alopa (Yoruba); Ikwabobo, Agiekpogo (Benin); Atore
(Efik).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Oyo, Ondo, Benin, Calabar and Ogoja
provinces of Nigeria. It is one of the common mahogany-trees of the
evergreen and mixed deciduous forest zone. It is the tallest of all
African trees, the bole alone often attaining a height exceeding 100
feet. It is also one of the straightest and most cylindrical trees in
Africa. The root spurns are very slight compared to the size of the
tree, and do not extend usually more than 10 feet up the stem. The
bark is smooth and not unlike the beech; in old age, however, it
becomes slightly pitted and the bark scales off in places. The crown
is deeper and more spherical than in the case of _Entandrophragma
utilis_. The ends of the branches are most conspicuous, with their
most pronounced tufts of leaves. The leaf is often about 4 inches
long, but in young shoots may attain a length of nearly 3 feet, with
over thirty pairs of pinnæ. The slash is white, with small, yellow,
stone-like granules in it. The bark is thick.
The capsule is nearly 6 inches long and an inch in diameter. It is
similar in shape to that of _Entandrophragma utilis_, and opens in a
similar way. The seeds are rather larger and the wings considerably
longer. It is deciduous for about a week in November, when the
flowers, which are of a light-greenish colour, appear, and then the
leaves.
The sapwood is white and comparatively wide, except in very old trees.
The wood, when freshly cut, smells slightly like a red herring, and in
colour is not unlike the flesh of kippered herring.
The heartwood is of a red-brown colour, rather dulling on exposure to
the air and becoming a dark-brown colour. The pores are very long,
much more so than either in the _E. utilis_ or the Khaya genus. The
timber splits well, saws easily, and takes nails moderately well. It
is not always easy to plane it down to a smooth surface. It has a
distinct tendency to warp unless properly seasoned. It is not termite-
proof, but the attacks of the white ants are slow. The sapwood is more
commonly attacked by a lymexylon. For interior work it is very
durable; sometimes it has a very pretty, dull-brown wavy sheen.
Natural regeneration is good in many places. Isolated trees have been
planted and small plantations made in different parts of the country.
The growth on the whole is even more rapid than in the case of _E.
utilis_. In favourable localities it will exceed an annual height
growth of 7 feet. Although it will stand a considerable amount of
shade in its youth, it is more of a light-loving tree in old age. It
is a soil-protecting and soil-improving tree.
This is one of the chief mahoganies exported from the Benin and Sapeli
forests, but it does not attain such an average high price as that of
the Khaya genus. However, from all accounts it appears that the
majority of figured logs have been obtained from this species; this
compensates to some extent the disadvantage of this being the heaviest
wood of all the mahoganies. It often floats just level with the water,
and has sometimes been known to sink. In pre-war days it used to fetch
4d. per superficial foot, and the best market for it was in Hamburg;
but, as also in the case of _E. utilis_, the wood was supplied to the
markets in Austria, Russia, etc. It is common to make three logs each
30 feet long from the bole. Both this tree and _E. utilis_ yield some
of the best curls which are obtained from the mahogany.
The local people used to be very fond of using this tree for making
canoes, and I have seen a canoe over 80 feet long and having a draught
of over 6 feet. It has also been largely used in house-building.
_Lovoa Klaineana_. African Walnut. Abuwe (Yoruba); Ikwahobo, or usually
known amongst the timber men and forest officers as Anamomilla in
Benin, Apobo (Jekri, Ijor).
It is one of the most prevalent trees on the banks of the Ogba stream
in the Benin province, and it is also found in the Ondo, Abeokuta,
Owerri and Calabar provinces of Nigeria.
This tree grows to a large size, reaching a girth of over 12 feet and
a bole length of over 60 feet. The root spurns are slight compared to
Mahogany, extending only from 4 to 6 feet up the stem.
_Chief Characteristics._—The small, almost quadrangular-shaped
capsule, which splits open with four sides and centre square in
section with only eight seeds, two placed on each face, is about the
size of a little finger. At its base the bole is not entirely circular
in shape, but tends to form four distinct narrow small buttresses,
giving it almost a quadrangular shape. The bark is a dark brown
colour, which gets rougher with old age and scales off to a small
extent. Compared to the size of the tree it is not very thick. In the
younger trees it is quite smooth and more of a yellow-brown colour.
The leaves are pinnate, with three or four pairs of pinnæ. The four-
sided capsule is a most typical feature of this tree, and
distinguishes it from Entandrophragma. The leaves are of a dark
colour.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood is a good walnut-brown,
sometimes with very striking dark-brown or black streaks in it. The
sapwood is comparatively narrow and the heartwood forms comparatively
early in the life of the tree. The wood is only moderately hard; it
planes well, and takes nails; it saws easily, and splits moderately
well. It is, however, attacked by termites, but not when used for
interior work. It shrinks but little and does not warp very much. The
grain is rather finer than that of the ordinary mahogany, but the
pores are often much longer. It has a pleasant lustre, but tends to
darken a little with age, especially when not exposed to the brightest
light. The tree is a moderately fast-growing, shade-bearing species,
with soil-protecting and soil-improving qualities. Natural
regeneration appears to be moderate. It sprouts slightly from the
stump. Seed years are none too frequent. The seeds themselves are soon
eaten by boring insects when they lie on the ground; even when picked
up they soon lose their germinative capacity, and should be planted
within a month of being gathered, as they are so liable to get dry.
The tree is a little exacting in regard to soil, apparently demanding
plenty of moisture, depth and a good deal of humus. No plantations
have been made with this tree, but a great number of isolated trees
have been planted by timber-lease holders in their areas.
In 1906 samples of this timber were sold in the Liverpool market as
African Walnut at 1d. per superficial foot. Since then, however, the
qualities of this timber have become better known, and it now finds a
ready sale at rates varying from 2d. to 5d. per superficial foot.
Although it is a mahogany by family, it is usual to sell it as African
Walnut, as the colour and texture of the wood are very similar to
walnut.
_Native Use._—In the Benin province it has been used for canoe-making.
_Guarea Thompsonii_. Cedar Mahogany, Cedar or Close-grained Mahogany.
Sidu (Yoruba); Obobonikwi (Benin); Akpaku (Ibo Asaba).
It is a large forest tree of the evergreen forest zone, attaining a
girth of 12 feet, which is most commonly found in the Benin district
of Nigeria.
_Chief Characteristics._—The trunk is dark-brown with smoothish bark,
which has a tendency to scale off a little. The pinnate leaves are
shiny and form very distinctive tufts at the ends of the branches,
though not quite so much as in Entandrophragma.
The fruit, which is quite soft, is a dehiscent capsule, of a dark
brown colour; when ripe, three black seeds covered with red pulp are
released. The seeds are ellipsoid in shape and smaller than those of
_G. sp._, Obobonufwa. The seed is nearly half an inch long and covered
with white streaks following round its narrowest circumference. The
crown is very thick and dense compared with _G. sp._, Obobonufwa. The
bole length is shorter, and the shape of it is not so regular nor so
round as that of _G. sp._, Obobonufwa. The crown is flatly spherical
in shape, reaching fully a third of the total height of the tree. The
flowers are yellow and borne in long spikes about 1 foot in length.
The sapwood is white and the heart of a mahogany-brown colour, with a
slightish red tinge when freshly cut, which rapidly goes a light brown
colour, though not such a light brown as in the case of _G. sp._,
Obobonufwa. It has a strong cedar scent when freshly cut, and even the
old wood retains this scent when planed up afresh. The grain is fine,
though a little fibrous. The pores are long and open. It has, however,
a nice sheen, giving a better appearance than that of _G. sp._,
Obobonufwa. It planes easily, but does not split very well. It takes
nails fairly easily and saws without difficulty. It is not termite-
proof. It has considerable tensile strength and elasticity. In
proportion the heartwood is very large and forms comparatively early
in the life of the tree. It has a closer grain than any of the
mahogany of the Benin district.
The tree is a fast-growing one, at first shade-bearing, and later a
more light-demanding species, with soil-improving and soil-protecting
qualities. Natural regeneration appears to be fair, though the seeds
are eaten by insects, and they do not appear to keep their generative
capacity for a great length of time. It appears to be rather exacting
as to soil, liking one with a fair degree of moisture, mineral content
and of considerable depth. No plantations have yet been made of this
tree, but isolated specimens have been planted by the timber-lease
holders. It bears good crops of seed every few years.
Owing to the comparative shortage of mahogany trees on some areas,
this tree is now felled as a timber for export, and is sold as Scented
Mahogany at 3d. to 6d. per superficial foot. Locally it has been cut
for planks.
_Guarea sp._ Cedar Mahogany, Scented Mahogany. Sida, Sendar, Odogbo,
Akokogbo (Yoruba); Obobonufwa (Benin); Akpaku (Ibo Asaba).
It is a large forest tree of the evergreen zone, attaining a girth of
over 12 feet, which is most commonly met with in the Benin district of
Nigeria.
_Chief Characteristics._—The bole is covered with smooth grey bark,
which peels off very gradually in large pieces more like a plane; it
is sometimes relieved by patches of yellow or red lichens. It has
tufts of pinnate leaves at the end of the branches.
The fruit is a greyish-brown coloured, dehiscent capsule, which
contains three large seeds covered with orange-coloured flesh. The
seed is black, and wider and thicker than the _G. Thompsonii_, though
the length is about the same; this makes it flatly ovate. The seed is
covered with white streaks in the same way as _Guarea Thompsonii_. The
root spurns are narrow and extend further up the stem than in the case
of _G. Thompsonii_, though in the younger trees the stem is very
cylindrical. The silvery-coloured bark is most typical of this tree,
thus distinguishing it most clearly from _G. Thompsonii_. It is very
similar in appearance to _Sideroxylon Aylmeri_ of Sierra Leone, so
that indeed it may be a species of Sideroxylon, or even the same.
It is found in the Ondo, Abeokuta and Benin provinces of Nigeria.
The sapwood is white and narrow and the heartwood light-brown, rapidly
darkening to a more mahogany brown. When freshly cut it has a strong
cedar scent, which goes off to a certain extent when it is dry, but on
planing the wood up again there is always a slight cedar scent. It is
closer grained than _G. Thompsonii_, but it has not so much sheen. On
the whole the colour is poorer. It is not considered quite so durable
as _G. Thompsonii_, nor is it termite-proof. It planes well and saws
easily, splits moderately well, and takes nails without difficulty. It
is of a very light colour for mahogany. It has a good, mellow texture.
It is at first slightly shade-bearing, but later a light-demanding
tree. It grows comparatively rapidly. It thoroughly protects the soil
and enriches it with its leaf fall. Natural regeneration appears to be
only moderate, perhaps owing to the fact that the seeds soon lose
their germinative capacity or are eaten by animals. It appears to be
somewhat exacting as to soil, liking one with considerable depth,
mineral content and a fair degree of moisture.
In 1906 sample logs of this timber were considered of a lower value
than mahogany, and were sold as Scented Mahogany at 3½d. to 3¾d. per
superficial foot. Since that date the timber has been regularly
shipped from the Benin district and sold as Scented Mahogany, and it
is usually worth from 2½d. to 6d. per superficial foot. Owing to the
comparative scarcity of large girth mahoganies (_Khaya sp._) in some
localities, it is being felled in increasingly large quantities.
_Trichilia Heudelottii_. Rere, Ako Irere, Asana (Yoruba); Ovallo
(Benin).
It is found in the Abeokuta and Benin provinces of Nigeria.
It has a smaller leaf than _Trichilia sp._, and is rather a smaller
tree than _T. Prieuriana_. The heartwood is brown-red and very hard;
the sapwood is white.
It is a slow-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting and soil-
improving tree of the mixed forest zone.
Occasionally it is used as a house-building timber, when there is
nothing else available.
_Trichilia sp._ Iseko (Yoruba); Ogiovalo (Benin).
It has a larger leaf than _T. Heudelotii_. It is found in the
Abeokuta, Ondo and Benin provinces of Nigeria. The heartwood is
brownish-red and the sapwood is white. It reaches rather a larger size
than _T. Heudelotii_, attaining a bole length of about 15 feet and a
girth of 5 feet. The seeds are very similar to those of _P.
Prieuriana_. It is termite-proof.
It is a somewhat slow-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting and
soil-improving tree. Natural regeneration appears to be slight. It
apparently demands a good soil, and is found in the mixed deciduous
forest.
It has not yet been tried as an export timber, but it might be useful
as a hard mahogany, both for export and for local use.
Amongst the natives it is occasionally used as a house-building
timber, the tree having a fork at a convenient distance from the
ground.
_Trichilia Prieuriana_. Awe, Eriagbo (Yoruba); Igogo (Benin); Somabari
(Oban, Ekoi).
_Chief Characteristics._—It is a dark-foliaged tree, usually found
dominated in the mixed forest, with thin, scaly bark and thin, long
leaves, with four or five pairs of pinnæ. The seeds are reminiscent of
Guarea.
_Distribution._—It is found in the mixed deciduous forests of the
Abeokuta, Ibadan and Benin provinces of Nigeria.
_Timber._—It has a hard, red heartwood of close grain and white
sapwood; it does not shrink nor warp to any extent.
It is a slow-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting and soil-
improving tree. Natural regeneration appears to be poor, perhaps owing
to the fact that the seeds decay very rapidly when lying in the
ground.
In the dry season the dew condenses very readily on this tree, and
thus makes the ground very moist underneath.
It does not reach really export timber size. It has not been used
either for export or locally. However, for smaller constructional work
it deserves a trial.
_Turræa Vogelii_. Asha omode (Yoruba); Ovioza (Benin).
It is rather an uncommon tree of the Benin province of Nigeria. It is
quite small, only attaining a girth of about 2 feet. It usually stands
in the shade as part of the undergrowth of the evergreen forest.
The natives have no particular use for it.
_Turræa heterophylla_.
This tree is found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria. It is a small
tree which has been specially noticed in the Ilaro Forest Reserve. The
Yorubas do not have any special use for this species of Meliaceæ. It
is considerably harder than either mahogany or cedar mahogany.
_Ekebergia Senegalensis_ (Juss.).
It is a medium-sized tree found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria.
It is distinguished by its white flowers, and is found growing in the
Olokemeji Arboretum. The leaves are large for Meliaceæ, but the
position of the flower-stalk and the bark are typical of this family.
The natives have not used the wood thus far. It would make rather an
ornamental shrub-like tree in a garden.
_Melia Azedarach_. Bead Tree or Persian Lilac. Eke Oyinbo (Yoruba).
A tree found growing plentifully. It is of medium size, bearing a very
ornamental flower. It yields timber, gum, oil and medicaments, and is
also used in the preparation of liquors. The fruit is poisonous.
_? Mahogany_. Onyemo (Benin).
This tree is somewhat uncommon in the Benin province of Nigeria. It is
closely allied to the African Walnut. It is apparently a mahogany, so
far as the texture of the timber is concerned, and the grain is very
similar too. It is a medium-sized tree with a bark less pitted than
that of the Entandrophragmas and with a more greenish tinge. The slash
is white, the sapwood whitish-yellow and the heartwood light-brown,
becoming darker on exposure to the air. It has occasionally been cut
in Benin and used as mahogany.
=Polygalaceæ.=
_Carpolobia lutea_ (Don). Oshunshun (Yoruba).
It is found in the Abeokuta and Benin provinces of Nigeria. A shrub-
like tree.
_Polygala arenaria_. Okuturupu (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria.
=Dichapetalaceæ.=
_Chailletia floribunda_ (Planch). Kukumarugbo (Yoruba).
This is a small tree of the mixed deciduous forest zone. It is a
shade-bearing and soil-protecting tree.
The timber is hard and durable. Locally it has not been used to any
extent, though it might find a place in temporary buildings as
verandah-posts or window-frames. The timber is said to be termite-
proof. The flowers are very conspicuous and quite enliven the forest
with their bright colours.
=Euphorbiaceæ.=
_Ricinodendron Africanus_. African Wood Oil Nut. Erimado, Ekku (Ib.);
Funfun Puttuputtu (Yoruba); Okkwen, Okwen-seva (Benin).
It is a large or more often medium-sized tree with smooth grey bark,
rather thin branches in more or less whorls, and open crown. The fruit
has two lobes, with one seed in each lobe. The leaf is digitate, with
a varying number of digits, from three to five. The leaves are rather
smaller and much thinner and finer in texture than those of _R.
Rautenii_. The root spurns are smaller, and do not appear much more
than 1 foot to 2 feet above the ground, nor do the roots themselves
usually extend above the ground. It reaches a girth of about 8 feet.
[Illustration: FIG. 72.—=Forest on banks of Oshun River, looking
downstream, Oshun Forest Reserve.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 73.—=Large Arere Tree (Triplochiton Nigericum),
already girdled and dead.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 74.—=Forest on banks of Oshun River, looking
upstream, Oshun Forest Reserve, Jebu Ode District.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 75.—=Ride between Compartments C and D, Mamu Forest
Reserve, Funtumia seedlings on either side, six to eight years old.=]
To face p. 332.
The timber is a little more closely grained than that of _R.
Rautenii_, but otherwise very similar. On the whole the bole has a
less good shape, tapering rather more in proportion to its height. The
timber length of the tree does not usually exceed 25 feet. Natural
regeneration is very good, though this tree does not bear seed so
heavily as the sister species. It sprouts well from the stump, but the
stump does not last. In its youth it will stand a little shade, but is
really a light-loving tree, with soil-protecting, soil-improving
qualities. It is not quite so rapid a growing tree as _R. Rautenii_,
even though it is one of the quickest growing trees. It appears to
like a moist, comparatively rich soil.
In 1906 samples of this timber were sold in the Liverpool market as a
species of mahogany. It is, however, probable that these were logs
from a different kind of tree, as the wood is too dull a brown colour
to be really like mahogany. Locally it has not been sawn up for
planks, but deserves a trial as a box-making and pattern-making wood.
_Native Use._—It is felled indiscriminately with _R. Rautenii_ and
used for a similar purpose.
_Ricinodendron Rautenii_. Yoruba Coffin Wood. Ekku, Puttuputtu
(Yoruba); Okwen-seva, Okkwen nebo (Benin).
A large tree, up to 12 feet in girth, with stout branches and roughly
fissured bark reminding one of oak. The fruit is slightly three-lobed,
containing three seeds. The leaf is digitate, with the number of
digits varying from five to seven. The leaves are larger and thicker
and with a rougher surface than those of _R. Africanus_. The crown is
thicker, more widespread, and roughly spherical in shape. The roots
usually come out of the ground near the base of the tree and form
rough root spurns, extending 3 or 4 feet up the bole of the tree. The
bole reaches a length of 30 feet.
It is one of the commonest trees in the moist secondary forests and at
the edge of the mixed deciduous forests in Benin, Abeokuta, Calabar.
The timber of this tree was described as a “species of mahogany” and
suitable for the Liverpool market in 1906.
_Native Use._—By the Yorubas it is cut down and sawn up into planks
for making coffins. Mostly medium-sized trees are used for this
purpose. None of the natives apparently know how to use the nuts.
_Ricinodendron sp._ Species of Mahogany. Okwen seni (Benin).
The African oil-nut, with four nuts in each fruit, appears to be the
same, but this larger number of nuts is the specially distinguishing
feature, and has been given a distinct name by the Benin people. It
is, however, rather doubtful if it is really a different species from
_R. Rautenii_.
_Native Use._—It is used in much the same way as the other two
species.
_Uapaca Heudelotii_. Mahogany. Yeye (Yoruba); Oyen (Benin); Ile (Bonny
and New Calabar).
It is found in the Owerri and Yoruba provinces of Nigeria. With its
slightly curved trunk and large mass of widespreading aerial roots,
extending almost to a quarter up the height of the tree, it is
distinguishable from other trees of this zone. Usually found growing
near water, or in regions that are flooded periodically. It sends out
fresh red-coloured aerial roots. The leaves are somewhat shiny and
give a greyish appearance in the distance. The bark is finely fissured
and dark brown. Often covered with moss at the base. It attains a
girth of about 10 feet and a bole length of about 25 feet.
It is a somewhat slow-growing, shade-bearing tree. It protects the
soil and enriches it with the fall of its leaves. Its mass of aerial
roots tends to moderate the speed of the flooded river and holds the
banks up, preventing corrosion, and in many cases tends to help the
formation of higher and more solid banks, owing to the deposit of sand
between and near the network of aerial roots.
The timber is very similar to mahogany in grain, though a little
harder. It has considerable elasticity. It is finely fibrous, and does
not plane up with such a smooth finish, nor does it split well. It is
termite-resisting and moderately tough. It saws with difficulty. The
sapwood is stained with reddish colouring matter, and the heartwood is
a dull red-brown. The pores in the timber are longer, and resemble
mahogany in this respect; though, being fibrous to the touch, the
difference is shown.
The timber has not been exported, nor has it been sawn up for local
use. Occasionally it is used by the natives for house-building, and
some of the crooked roots and branches are used as ribs for boats and
building up canoes.
_Uapaca Guineensis_ (Muell. Arg.). False Mahogany. Abo Emido, also
known as Yeye and Yere (Yoruba); Onye (Benin).
_Chief Characteristics._—Large aerial roots supporting the bole at a
height of 8 to 10 feet from the ground. When cut, the slash is red;
the sapwood is whitish, tinged with the red colouring matter of the
heartwood, which is a dull red.
_Distribution._—Banks of the Ogun, Olokemeji Forest Reserve.
In most respects the timber is similar to that of Heudelottii. On the
whole, however, this species is a little harder than the other.
This tree is somewhat slow-growing and stands less shade than the
Heudelotii. It is of the greatest value, with its aerial roots, in
protecting and increasing the height and stability of the river banks
at the edge of the dry forest zone. It is one of the few trees that
are not washed out of the banks in the flood season, and even when
they do fall over into the river they remain attached to the bank and
lessen the force of the current. Natural regeneration is none too
good.
The timber has not been exported, nor has it been felled locally for
conversion into planks. Occasionally the natives use the smaller trees
for house-building. They also consider the places in the rivers
immediately near or overhung by one of these trees as the best
localities for fishing.
_Bridelia micrantha_. Yoruba Ironwood. Ira Odan, Asa Gidi (Yoruba).
It is found in the Ibadan and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
It is a small tree or shrub up to 8 feet high, with a large alternate
leaf. The bark tends to be fibrous and can be stripped off in a
similar way to the other Bridelias.
The timber is very hard, moderately durable, and said to be termite-
proof. Its small size and somewhat crooked nature hinders its more
extensive use.
It is occasionally of use for house-poles in temporary buildings, and
makes good firewood, giving intense heat. The leaves yield a rich
humus and improve the soil.
_Native Use._—The bark is mixed with Hausa salts and then drunk with
lime and water as an aperient.
_Bridelia Zenkeri_, syn. _atroviridis_. Yoruba Ironwood. Asha, Asha
ragha (Yoruba); Oviaruza, Assivi, Ogangan (Benin).
It is a comparatively common tree of the Abeokuta, Oyo, Benin and
Owerri provinces of Nigeria. The roughly fissured bark, scaling off in
criss-cross fashion, in papery or fibrous layers, is most typical of
the tree. The bole is short, seldom reaching a greater length than 15
feet. It is usually forked about this height and then spreads out,
rather reminiscently of the elm. It yields the hardest wood of all the
African trees, except perhaps Okuta (the stone).
It is occasionally used for house-building by the natives.
_Bridelia stenocarpa_. Benin Ironwood. Arasha, Asha, Aroro Ashasha
(Ondo), Aiveygbo (Eg.) (Yoruba); Assivi (Benin).
This tree is found in the Benin and Calabar provinces of Nigeria,
where it is somewhat prevalent, but found always singly in the forest.
In habit it is not at all unlike the wych elm. The leaf is of similar
size and shape, the bark peels off in fibrous layers, but is otherwise
fissured in lattice-work fashion. For the size of the tree the bark is
comparatively thin; the slash is light-brown, sometimes a whitish-
grey. The sapwood is white and the heartwood is dark-brown and very
hard. It saws well, but is almost impossible to split, and it will not
take nails. It has a short bole of about 20 feet, is deciduous for a
few days in the year, but is otherwise a soil-protecting and soil-
improving tree. Samples were at one time on the way to be exported,
but were sunk by accident, the wood, of course, being much heavier
than water.
The natives occasionally use it for house-building.
_Excœcaria sp._ Orupa (Yoruba).
It is a small tree, up to 18 inches in girth, with smooth, yellowish-
red bark, and has maple-like seeds in pairs joined at the base. The
stem gives a greyer impression than that of _Ormosia laxiflora_, and
it is also much smoother.
_Distribution._—It is found in the dry-zone forest of the Ibadan,
Abeokuta and Onitsha provinces of Nigeria.
_Timber._—Not very hard and of a yellowish colour.
_Native Use._—The bark and roots are used medicinally. It is sold in
the Lagos medicine market.
_Antidesma venosum_. Aroro (Yoruba).
It is a small tree, about 9 feet high. Found in the Olokemeji Reserve.
_Antidesma sp._ Ogbamaton (Benin).
Found in the Benin province.
_Tragia Manniana_. Esisi (Yoruba); Ogangan (Benin).
Found in the Ondo and Benin provinces.
_Microdesmis puberula_ (Hook.). The Benin Apata Wood. Apata (Yoruba);
Ehranpata, Esanpata, Omomeran (Benin).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan and Benin provinces of Nigeria.
It is a small tree with hard wood of a brown colour. It reaches about
15 feet high with a girth of about 12 inches.
On the whole this is a slow-growing, soil-protecting and soil-
improving shrub. It serves a useful purpose in the undergrowth and is
of local value as well.
_Native Use._—The wood is used for making the musical instrument known
to the Benin as Apata, a kind of harp-shaped frame made of wire, but
much smaller.
_Microdesmis sp._ Essunsun, Ubelluname, Ubellunowe (Benin); Njorgora
(Oban, Ekoi); Akiti (Ibo Owerri).
It is a common tree of the Benin, Ondo, Ogoja and Calabar provinces of
Nigeria. A medium-sized tree of about 6 feet in girth, attaining a
bole length of about 40 feet. Its small, pretty five-petalled flowers
fall off the tree and cover the path or neighbouring bushes; their
scent is very pleasant and is reminiscent of honey and flowers.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood light red brown, rather hard,
of close grain and close texture; it planes moderately well, but it is
rather hard to saw and does not split. It is durable under cover, but
does not last when exposed to the weather. It hardens very
considerably when exposed to the air. The timber was used for
verandah-posts in the Calabar district, but did not prove very
suitable, as a large borer often attacked it. The timber is not
absolutely termite-proof. The natives occasionally use the wood for
house-posts.
_Phyllanthus reticulatus_. Iranje (Yoruba).
Found in the Olokemeji Reserve.
_Phyllanthus sp._ Awe, Erigaba (Yoruba); Eghogho (Benin).
Found in the Olokemeji Reserve.
_Cyclostemon_. Oyen (Benin). This may be the same as _Uapaca
Heudelotii_.
It is a medium-sized tree of the Abeokuta and Benin provinces of
Nigeria. It has aerial roots and likes a damp, moist soil. It has red
flowers which come out in February. It yields a hard, reddish wood,
which is rather fibrous.
_Manniophyton Africanum_. Ebumen (Benin).
This is a small creeper similar to that known as Okwe by the Benis.
_Manniophyton sp._ Okwe (Benin).
This is a long creeper found in the Benin and Ogoja provinces of
Nigeria.
The nut of this creeper is most commonly seen in the cooked state in
the markets, when it appears like a dark-coloured marble. The soft
shell can be cracked between the fingers, and the hardish white nut is
seen inside, being about 1 inch in diameter and very meaty. A few of
these almost take the place of a meal. Thus far the plant has not been
cultivated, the natives only picking the fruit as they find it in the
forest. The fruit is four-cornered and contains one nut.
_Palissya cordata_. Ipa (Yoruba); Unwonwen (Benin); Abo Asha (Ibadan).
It is found in the Benin forest. A medium-sized tree, which might be
examined with a view to being a source of dyeing material.
_Macaranga Barteri_. Arasa (Yoruba).
A small tree or shrub found in Tropical West Africa.
_Claoxylon Barteri_ (Hook.). Itakun, Okare (Yoruba).
It has small flowers. Found near Ipetu.
=Anacardiaceæ.=
_Spondias lutea_. Non-indigenous Hog Plum or Yellow Plum. Iyeye, Akika
Aka (Yoruba); Ogikan or Ogege (Benin); Nsukakara (Efik).
Although indigenous to India, it has become very widespread in its
area of distribution in Africa, where it is found, partly planted or
as a “garden escape,” in all the Southern Provinces of Nigeria. It is
a medium-sized tree, reaching a girth of about 5 feet and a height of
about 50 feet. The very evenly and comparatively deeply fissured bark,
in comparison to the size of the tree, is the most typical feature of
it. A very open crown, and few straight upward- and outward-tending
branches, with very slight side branches and twigs also distinguish
this tree from many of the forest trees. The little yellow fruit,
about 1 inch long and ¾ inch in diameter, is very much like an
elongated Mirabel plum. It is between an eighth and a quarter of an
inch of yellow flesh when the nut or stone is reached inside. The
leaves are thin and pinnate, with ten to twelve pairs of pinnæ on each
leaf. Sometimes the bark is rough and almost prickly. The branches and
cortex in smaller trees are more or less covered with little nodules
which sometimes develop into small thorns. The fruit is sweet, but
rather sharp to the taste, almost tart. It is, however, refreshing in
the hot weather whilst on the march.
The timber is whitish-yellow, not very hard, although it is scarcely
attacked by white ants, chiefly perhaps owing to the fact that any
green piece of wood with some bark on it will grow when lying on the
ground. It planes well, splits easily, and takes nails.
It is a rapid-growing, light-loving tree which does not thoroughly
protect the soil nor enrich it very much with its foliage. Natural
regeneration is poor. It is most readily propagated by means of
cuttings, which may even be about 6 inches in diameter and quite as
long as posts. With the spread of farms and other buildings it tends
to become more widely distributed over the country. It demands a moist
soil with a fair amount of depth.
The timber does not show such qualities as to justify its export, but
occasionally the larger trees might be sawn up for planks for local
use. It is very useful for making live fences, which grow fast and do
not cast much shade. In fruit the tree also looks very pretty.
_Native Use._—The tree is used for live fences for gardens and farms.
The fruit is eaten, but not to an enormous extent, as it is said to
form tartar on the teeth. Amongst the Yorubas, parts of the roots and
branches are used for axe and hoe handles.
_Spondias sp._ Ekika Aja (Yoruba).
This tree may be the same as _Pseudospondias microcarpa_, but it has
only been determined from a specimen obtained from the Oshun Reserve.
This is somewhat further south and in a moister region than the
_Pseudospondias microcarpa_.
_Pseudospondias microcarpa_. Okika (Yoruba).
It is a somewhat rare tree in the Abeokuta and Ibadan provinces of
Nigeria. Apparently there is a small-fruited tree of this species in
the Olokemeji Reserve. The tree itself attains a larger size than _S.
lutea_, reaching a girth of 8 feet and a bole of 20 feet. The growth
is less free and the bark is much darker and more fissured than _S.
lutea_. It has not been felled for export; the natives have no
particular use either for the wood or the fruit.
_Anacardium Occidentale_. Non-indigenous Cashew Nut. Kaju (Yoruba).
This tree has become a garden escape on the Ekoi plains near Lagos,
where it forms dense thickets. It is not indigenous to West Africa.
The tree bears well, and the Brazilians resident in Lagos make a jam
out of the fruit. The nuts are roasted and regularly sold in the
market, to Europeans chiefly. The branches of the tree are sometimes
lopped off and cut into short pieces for firewood. It is usually of
very sprawling habit, with a short bole only 3 or 4 feet long. It is
not found in the forest proper.
_Botanical name unknown_. Blacksmith’s Charcoal Wood. Akkun (Yoruba);
Azimommon, Onyenu (Benin).
It is found in the Benin and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria, Obagie
Reserve and Oyon River.
It is a large tree, with large leaves and compact crown. It has a very
small, berry-like fruit; found growing on moist soil in the evergreen
forest, sometimes found in the fringing forest of river banks of a dry
zone.
_Timber._—The timber is very hard, grey in colour and perhaps
flexible. The bark is rough and finely fissured. It is inclined to
peel off. The slash is pink. The wood is very fibrous, and in the
cross-cut section the pieces between the fibres look like very small
pinholes. The wood when freshly cut has a sweet, rather pleasant
smell.
_European Use._—It has not, so far, been sold for export or local use.
_Native Use._—The stems of the small trees are used for axe-handles,
and this tree is esteemed by the blacksmith for making charcoal. It is
also cut into planks.
_Anacardia sp._ Rat Poison Mango. Akkum (Yoruba); Pweku Pweku, Azemome
(Benin).
The Benin native name means literally “Rat-kill, rat-kill,” but I have
never been able to discover exactly how the poison is used. It is
rather a rare tree of the Benin forest of the Benin province. It
reaches a height of about 80 feet and a girth of 9 feet. It bears a
large fruit about the size and shape of a good mango. This is
certainly one of the best fruits of the native trees. It has a much
sweeter scent than that of the mango, and the taste is also much
sweeter. From experiments made it is not poisonous to chickens, goats
nor sheep, but none of them, except the chickens, took it at all
willingly. The fruit is said to be very poisonous to man, but its
delicious flavour tempts the tasting of it. Certainly, in very small
quantities it is not poisonous, and it would be interesting to know in
what quantities it is so. The slash is yellowish-white. The sapwood is
white and the heartwood of a dull brown colour. It is a hard and heavy
wood. It saws with difficulty. It is a shade-bearing and soil-
protecting tree. The natural reproduction appears to be poor.
The timber has not been used locally, nor has it been sampled for
export.
=Celastraceæ.=
_Gymnosporia Senegalensis_. Shepolo-hun (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria.
=Icacinaceæ.=
_Pyrenacantha sp. nov._ Abara (Yoruba).
It is found in the Epe Colony of Lagos, Nigeria.
=Sapindaceæ.=
_Lecaniodiscus cupanoides_. Akika. Aka-Ishin (Yoruba); Utan-tan
(Benin).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan, Ondo, Warri, Ogoja and Calabar
provinces of Nigeria. It is a small, shrub-like tree, reaching a girth
of about 1 foot and a height of 15 feet. The leaves are very small,
the timber extremely hard and cross-grained. The wood is used by the
natives for rafters, hoe-handles and sometimes mortar-pestles; the
root is said to have medicinal properties.
_Blighia sapida_. Akee or Akee Apple. Ishin Ishin-oka (Yoruba); Ukpi
nufwa (Benin).
It is found in the Southern Provinces of Nigeria. It has an edible
aril, which is yellow in colour. It is cooked before being consumed.
It is a very ornamental tree, and bears fruit when quite young, which,
being orange-coloured, looks very pretty amongst the green foliage.
The fruit is more or less triangular in shape, and when ripe splits
open up to the base, releasing three black nuts with a yellow aril.
The fruit is orange-coloured with a pink flush. It is a medium-sized
tree, reaching a girth of about 6 feet and a height of about 60 feet.
The bark is smooth and grey in colour and comparatively thin. The
crown is oval in shape and much more open than is the case with
_Phialodiscus sp._ It has a moderately large pinnate leaf with two
pairs of pinnæ. The flowers are small and comparatively inconspicuous.
It is found chiefly in the mixed deciduous forest zone. It is most
frequently seen in the neighbourhood of villages, where it has
probably been planted.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood brown, moderately hard, durable
and termite-proof. It planes well, though occasionally it is cross-
grained. The wood is of fine texture and has a certain amount of
sheen. It saws well, but does not split easily. It takes nails only
moderately well. It tends to darken a little on exposure to the air.
This tree is moderately fast-growing, at first shade-bearing and
subsequently light-demanding. It is also a soil-protecting and soil-
improving tree. It appears to like comparatively rich soil, though it
may also be seen on poor ground, where it does not thrive. Natural
regeneration is not good, chiefly owing to the fact that many animals
eat the seeds, besides human beings. It will bear fruit in the fifth
year, more especially from stump shoots. It sprouts well from the
stump and stands a great deal of pruning.
The timber has not been cut for export, and only occasionally has it
been sawn up for local use. It is, however, worthy of further
attention as a local building timber. As an ornamental tree it is
worthy of a place in a large garden. With its open crown it is a
comparatively clean tree, and does not harbour flies and insects.
_Native Use._—In places of timber scarcity it is occasionally used for
house-poles. The aril of the fruit is eaten after being cooked, but
apparently this custom is much more prevalent in the West Indies
amongst the descendants of the African slaves. In many parts of
Nigeria it is quite unknown as an edible fruit.
_Phialodiscus sp.?_. Bush Akee. Awewe, Ishin Oko, Isinko (Yoruba); Ukpi
nikwi (Benin).
Identified from a specimen in the Forestry Arboretum, Calabar.
_Chief Characteristics._—The capsule splits into three and allows
three black seeds to escape, with small yellow aril round the base.
The whole fruit and the individual seeds are much smaller than
_Blighia sapida_, though, as the Benin name indicates, this is so
similar that it is called the black variety of Ukpi. The fruit is
triangular in shape, otherwise very much the same size as African Oak,
_Oldfieldia Africana_.
Found in the Calabar, Owerri, Benin, Ondo and Abeokuta provinces of
Nigeria.
_Blighia sp._ Ishin Oko, Oko Ishin (Yoruba); Ukpi nikwi (Benin).
_Distribution._—Ibadan, Abeokuta, Jebu Ode, Benin, Owerri and Calabar
provinces of Nigeria. Probably same as _Phialodiscus sp._
_Chief Characteristics._—The very insignificant white flower-spikes,
hidden away amongst the leaves, but attracting numerous bees in
February and March, characterize this variety. It is a medium-sized
tree, with light-green foliage, thin, lanceolate leaves, a thin grey
bark, smooth and close and oval-shaped crown, through which one cannot
see. The capsule is dehiscent, with three black seeds with yellow
arils, smaller than _Blighia sapida_, but otherwise quite similar in
shape, except that the capsule is more triangular than that of _B.
sapida_, and shorter also and of a dark brown colour. It is not unlike
the fruit of the real African Oak, _Oldfieldia Africana_, except that
this is quite spherical in shape.
_Timber._—White sapwood and light-brown heartwood, which is moderately
hard. It does not plane well, and is sometimes cross-grained; the
texture of the wood is fine, but is a little fibrous. It saws easily,
but does not split well. The bole being very cylindrical in shape,
comparatively long, even-widthed planks can be cut out of it.
It is a somewhat slow-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting and
soil-improving tree. Natural regeneration does not appear to be good.
It is somewhat exacting as to soil, and does not thrive in a moist
sand. It is somewhat fire-resisting. In the dry season a good deal of
dew is condensed on the leaves, but not so much as in other genera,
such as Anona.
The timber has not been cut for export, nor has it been sawn up for
local use. It deserves, however, further trial as a local building
timber. A specimen, from which the tree was determined, stands in the
forest region of Calabar.
_Use._—Native implements of various kinds.
[Illustration: FIG. 76.—=Path in Iwoye Forest, Western Circle, showing
parts of four Mahogany Trees in the picture.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 77.—=Mature Cocoanut Grove near stream in the middle
of Idanre Town, 1910.=]
To face p. 342.
_Deinbollia pinnata_. Oju Agbigbo (Yoruba); Ebegogogbo (Benin).
It is a small, shrub-like tree found in the Abeokuta and Benin
provinces. The small orange-brown-coloured seeds are of similar shape
to, though smaller than, _Blighia sapida_; they are, however, more
elliptical. The stem of the tree, if found with the proper crook in
it, is used for making hoe-handles. The leaf is pinnate. This tree
only attains a small size, and is found as undergrowth in the mixed
deciduous forest zone.
_Cupania akeesia_. Small Ukpi nufwa. Ishin-jeje, Ishin-gege (Yoruba);
Ukpi nufwa (Benin).
This is a small, shrub-like tree, common in the Abeokuta and Benin
provinces of Nigeria.
=Rhamnaceæ.=
_Zizyphus mucronata_ (Willd.). Walking-stick Wood. Ekanesie adie
(Yoruba).
This is a shrub-like tree of the dry-zone forest, but does not bear
such a nice fruit as that of _Z. jujuba_.
=Tiliaceæ.=
_Glyphea Grewioides_ (Hook.). Atori (Yoruba); Uwenyriotan, Uwemriotan
(Benin).
It is a small tree, not much more than a large shrub, with small
leaves, and very common in the undergrowth of the evergreen forest. It
is not a hard wood.
It is found in the Benin, Calabar, Abeokuta, Ondo and Ibadan provinces
of Nigeria. It is usually found as one of the smaller trees forming
the undergrowth in the evergreen forest. It yields a strong, hard wood
near the junction of the roots with the stem, though otherwise it is
soft.
It is a shade-bearer, and usually grows in a moist place. Reproduction
by seed, judging by the amount of self-grown seedlings found, must be
good. It thoroughly protects the soil and enriches it. It thus serves
a useful purpose in the undergrowth of evergreen forests.
_Native Use._—It is used as a “Ju-ju” whip in Benin and for walking-
sticks. Small stump shoots can also be used for yam supports and for
making hoe-handles.
_Cistanthera sp._ False Hill Mahogany. Oro, Apata (?) (Yoruba); Abolo
(?) (Benin).
It is found in the Abeokuta and Benin (?) provinces of Nigeria. It is
a very common tree on the hill-sides of the Olokemeji Reserve, and to
a lesser extent in the Ilaro Reserve. It is a medium-sized tree,
reaching a growth of 8 feet and the bole length of about 40 feet. The
bark is very curious, with occasional very small, long and narrow
fissures and tiny pits scattered more or less a foot apart up and down
the stem. It is almost gregarious in habit.
The timber is a red-brown colour with a white sapwood. It is very
similar to mahogany and could probably be sold as such. It is
moderately durable. A tree which fell down in the Olokemeji Reserve
during 1910 was not absolutely unsound in 1915.
It is apparently a slight shade-bearer and rather slow grower.
Reproduction by seed is evidently rather doubtful, as few or no self-
sown seedlings are found in the neighbouring forest. It has not been
cut for local use, nor for export, though sample logs should be tried
on the Liverpool market to test its value.
The natives use the roots for medicinal purposes, but they do not use
the timber.
_Grewia carpinifolia_. Itakum Okere (Yoruba).
Olokemeji.
_Grewia tetragastris_. Ora-Igho (Yoruba).
It is a shrub, reaching a height of about 5 feet, of the mixed
deciduous forest in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria (Olokemeji
Reserve).
_Triumfetta rhomboidea_. Boko pupa, Akobolobolo, Ilasa omodo (Yoruba);
Nesuwa (Benin).
_Triumfetta cordifolia_. Esura (Yoruba).
_Triumfetta sp._ Apiko (Yoruba).
_Corchorus acutangulus_. Abo-jaga (Yoruba).
_Corchorus olitorius_. Eyo, Ganbe (Yoruba).
These are common plants in the Ogoja and Abeokuta provinces of
Nigeria.
They yield long-stapled fibre worth about £27 a ton. Owing to the fact
that they grow wild and are not cultivated by the natives, the
difficulty is to be able to collect sufficient quantities in one
locality to pay for the cost of retting, baling, etc., to make the
fibre production a paying proposition.
=Malvaceæ.=
_Hibiscus esculentus_ (F.). Okra or Achro (fruit).
In most provinces of Nigeria.
_Hibiscus Grewioides_.
Yoruba country (?).
_Hibiscus quinquilobus_ (G. Don). Onegozi (Benin).
Benin.
_Sida carpinifolia_ (Linn.). Oshopotu Dudu (Yoruba).
It is found in Abeokuta province of Nigeria, and is used by the local
people for making fibre.
_Urena lobata_. Bolobolo Fibre. Bolobolo (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria.
It is a comparatively well-known fibre-plant, but has not, however,
been cultivated, the natives having many other profitable crops to
grow.
=Bombacaceæ.=
_Eriodendron Orientale_. White Silk-Cotton Tree, Blind Wood or Kapok,
Cotton Tree. Araba, Eggun (Yoruba); Okha (Benin); Ukum (Efik); Akbo
(Ibo, Asaba); Shakka (Brass).
It is a common tree in all the Southern Provinces of Nigeria, though
it is not found in the most northerly part of the drier ones. With the
exception of a few scented mahoganies, this is the largest African
forest tree. Its huge root buttresses reach up over 20 feet from the
ground. Its giant limbs, as thick as an ordinary tree-trunk, stretch
out almost 100 feet from, and are supported on, the great column of
the bole, often itself over 100 feet high. Large muscular-like
protrusions join up the limbs with the trunk and the latter with the
root buttresses, giving the tree a peculiar look. The flowers are
white, with yellow stamens. The fruit is a soft, oblong, dehiscent
capsule, opening when ripe and releasing black seeds about twice the
size of B.B. shot. Attached to this seed is a ball of white fluff.
This last is known commercially as Kapok. At the time of the bursting
of the capsule of this tree the whole air near by appears filled with
white flakes, and the ground later is white as if after a fall of
snow. It is almost the quickest growing of all the African forest
trees. It grows in the evergreen forest as well as in the mixed
deciduous forest.
The timber is white and soft and inclined to have little yellow
streaks. When dry it is brittle, though very fibrous to cut when fresh
by either axe or saw. It soon rots when exposed to the weather.
Natural regeneration by seed is good, especially on the banks of
rivers. It tends to extend its area of distribution with the clearing
of the heavy forest area in making farms. It is a light-demanding
tree.
In Germany, before the war, African Kapok found a ready sale at about
9d. per pound. Samples of Kapok were sent to England and were valued
at less than those of the East Indian variety.
The timber has been used as a “blind” wood for furniture, and had a
regular market at Hamburg before the war. It has been tested in
England for pulp-making, but the fibre is stated to be too short, and
so it is of no use for this purpose.
_Native Use._—The Kapok is used for stuffing pillows, for which 1s.
apiece is charged. Large oblong pieces of the root buttresses are used
as native doors and as drying slabs for fresh dyed clothes. Whenever
timber fails it is used for fishing canoes (the cheapest kind).
_Eriodendron anfractuosum_. Cotton Tree, similar to Orientale. Araba
Eggun (Yoruba); Okha (Benin); Shakka (Brass).
Was determined from Western Province material, but it is doubtful
whether it is a different species from that found in other parts of
Nigeria.
_Bombax reflexum_. Red-flowering Cotton Tree. Ponpola, Lauro (Ibadan,
Yoruba); Obokha (Benin); Onihokha, Benin (when in flower); Titiro
(Egbado).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ondo, Benin, Owerri and Ogoja provinces
of Nigeria, where it is often seen in the mixed forests and in
clearings in the evergreen forest zone.
_Chief Characteristics._—It has a larger leaf and thorns than the
other Buonopozense (?) (Onikokha of Benin). The most typical feature
is the very thick, tulip-like red flower of this tree. This falls to
the ground, and is seen on roadways and pathways, indicating the
presence of this tree. In February or March, when the flowers appear,
the tree is bare, so that the bright-red flowers make it all the more
striking. The tree is smaller than the _Eriodendron Orientale_,
attaining a girth of about 12 feet and a bole length of 50 feet. The
root spurns are much slighter, in most cases scarcely amounting to
small buttresses. The cortex is more soft and spongy than _E.
Orientale_.
The timber is white, very soft, not quite so tough nor fibrous as _E.
Orientale_, but rather more porous. It planes more easily, dries
rather better, splits with less difficulty than _E. Orientale_, and
saws with less trouble.
It is a very fast-growing, light-loving tree, which does not protect
or enrich the soil very much with its leaf fall. Natural regeneration
appears to be fair, though, considering the enormous number of flowers
almost each year, it is surprising that the tree does not spread more
rapidly in new clearings in the forest.
The timber has not been tried for export nor for local use.
The bark, roots and leaves are used amongst the Yorubas for medicinal
purposes. The bush deer eat the flowers, when they fall: the Benin
native says if he does not call the tree Onihokha, the deer will not
come and eat it.
_Bombax sp.?_, _Bombax buonopozense?_. Ponponla (Ibadan, Yoruba);
Obokha, Onihokha (Benin).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan, Ogoja and Benin provinces of
Nigeria, in the mixed forests, where it is not very common.
_Chief Characteristics._—Compared to _Bombax reflexum_ it has a
smaller leaf, smaller thorns, but not so many on the stem. It has a
similar red flower, opening, however, much more widely. It reaches
about the same size as the Bombax.
The timber appears to be very similar in most ways to _B. reflexum_.
It has not been felled for export, nor has it been used for planks for
local use. Occasionally the leaves are used for medicinal purposes.
There appears to be some doubt as to whether this is really a separate
species from that of _B. reflexum_. It is, however, sufficiently
different to be considered quite a distinct variety, though perhaps
not actually a different species.
_Adansonia digitata_. Monkey Bread, Baobab. Ose (Yoruba); Usi (Benin).
It is a moderately common tree in the Onitsha and Abeokuta provinces
of Nigeria. Isolated specimens are also found elsewhere. The most
typical feature of this tree is the huge thick trunk, tapering up into
the branches, out of all proportion to the length of these and the
twigs. These are much thicker than the branches and twigs of other
trees. The green, elongated spherical-shaped fruits hang by a stalk,
giving the tree the appearance of one decorated for a Christmas
festival. The leaves are truly digitate and not unlike those of the
cotton-tree, though they are thicker and darker in colour. The bark is
very thick, spongy and fibrous, and of a light-grey colour. The bark,
seeds and roots are used medicinally. The fruit is eaten in time of
scarcity.
The fibre is used in England for paper-making.
=Sterculiaceæ.=
_Sterculia Rhinopetala_. False Chestnut. Ekko Okpon, Orodu or Orodo
(Yoruba); Enwiwan (Benin); Otutu (Jebu); Awraw (Egbado).
It has a smooth, light-green bark, which remains soft, but is whitish
with age. The wood is white and soft, and apparently there is no
difference in the heartwood. It has a small seed with a wing on each
side of it. For external work it is not durable, but when seasoned for
internal fittings, such as doors or ceilings, it is more useful.
It is common in the Oyo, Benin, Calabar and Abeokuta provinces. It is
found in the mixed deciduous forests, especially in the Mamu and Ilaro
Forest Reserves. Also, wherever it is found there is a comparatively
large number, though it is not gregarious in habit.
It was stated to be of no commercial value in the Liverpool market in
1906, but in a subsequent report it was said to be worth 1s. to 1s.
6d. a cubic foot, as walnut, though there must have been some mistake
in the name.
_Native Use._—The mushrooms which grow on its stem after it is cut
down are used for soup. These are known as Epweperu.
_Sterculia tomentosa_. Okagbo (Yoruba); Ukpiwenwan (Benin).
This tree is found in the Abeokuta and Benin provinces. It reaches a
height of from 40 to 50 feet. The fruit is ripe in December and
January; it is kidney-shaped and covered with a dense collection of
very fine reddish hairs. It grows in clusters.
_Sterculia sp._ Iwu (Yoruba).
It is found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria and is a medium-sized
tree which yields a white wood which is none too hard nor soft.
_Sterculia tragacantha_. African Tragacanth. Owun, Omunu, Omar, Ogidu
(?) (Yoruba); Oporipor, Iporipor, Okoko (Benin).
_Chief Characteristics._—It shows a brown slash when cut. The bark is
very fibrous and the white sapwood is full of large open pits, which
gives the wood the appearance of being entirely fibrous. It yields a
pink-coloured gum, which hardens after a few days. It bears large
oval-shaped leaves, which tend to be bunched at the end of the twigs.
The pods are less than half the size of _Sterculia cordifolia_ and are
covered with light-brown velvety hairs on the outside. These pods
open, making each appear coracle-shaped, with eight to ten small brown
seeds attached to the bottom rib of the pod. The foliage looks almost
grey-white from underneath. The bole of the younger trees is greyish-
white and usually for 30 to 40 feet free of branches. It reaches a
girth of about 8 feet. The wood is white and softish, planes easily
and works up to a neat finish. Silviculturally, the tree stands
between the light-lovers on one hand and the shade-bearers on the
other, although it is usually seen growing comparatively free from
other than natural shade. It does, in fact, stand a considerable
amount of shade in the younger stages of growth as well as later, when
it may be overgrown by larger growing trees. It is usually found in
groups at the edge of the forest.
It sprouts again from the stump, but almost each year large crops of
seeds are borne on the tree, and this would seem to be the chief
method of reproduction.
The tree has not been cut for local use, nor has it been exported. The
Yorubas and Benis use the smaller trees as poles for house-building,
but it is not considered a good wood.
_Sterculia cordifolia_. Heart-shaped-leaved Sterculia. Okporoporo,
(Akure); Ogugu, Ogungun or Ogrugru, Oburuburu (Yoruba); Idogoho, Okoko,
Okokwo (Benin); Dikir (Efik); Ibitoto (Bembi).
_Distribution._—It is found in the Jebu Ode, Abeokuta, Ibadan, Benin,
Onitsha, Owerri, and Calabar provinces of Nigeria. It is one of the
most common trees in the mixed deciduous forests.
_Chief Characteristics._—The large heart-shaped leaves and the curious
twist to the lower part of the stem, which makes the root
protuberances quite angular. It is never quite straight and forms a
heavy oval crown.
The very large, oval, soft, almost fleshy, dehiscent pod, with its
large winged seeds, is most typical of this tree. The crown is
supported by three or four large limbs with comparatively few side
branches. The foliage is very dense, though even in a tall tree the
individual heart-shaped leaves show up quite distinctly. It is almost
gregarious in habit, usually groups of four or five being found in one
place. It is nearly always found on the banks of small streams which
may dry up in the dry season. It is a shade-bearer, though moderately
quick in growth. The wood is cross-grained, and emits rather an
unpleasant smell when cut. The sapwood and the heartwood are both
white, with a reddish tinge through it. It is soft, but becomes much
harder when dry. It sprouts from the stump when cut down. Reproduction
by seed is moderate. It has not been used locally, nor has it been
exported. The natives in the Benin and Yoruba countries use the butt
of medium-sized trees, especially those with a fork, for house-
building. It is not attacked by white ants.
_Sterculia_ nr. _oblonga_. Opepe (?) (Yoruba); Orodo (Benin).
It is a common tree of the Benin province of Nigeria, found in the
evergreen forest.
It is a question whether this species is the one with a very hard,
leathery, half-dehiscent pod, showing about ten orange-coloured oblong
seeds inside it. These seeds have sometimes been termed Okoko by the
Benis, but they are, no doubt, not obtained from the fruit of
_Sterculia cordifolia_. These seeds also are not winged, and are
comparatively fleshy and soft compared to the dry, rather hard, large
winged seeds of _Sterculia cordifolia_.
_Sterculia cinerea_. Tartar Tree. Lakole (Yoruba); Ururata (Benin).
It is rather an uncommon tree of the Benin province of Nigeria. It is
found at the edge of the mixed deciduous forest with the dry-zone area
of vegetation.
_Firmania Barteri_. Rope Tree. Eso or Esho (Yoruba); Akoko, Nihau (?)
(Benin).
It is a large tree with duck-egg-green bark and an uneven buttressed
base, with a bole length of 30 or 40 feet and a girth up to 12 feet.
_Distribution._—It is one of the most prevalent trees in the Olokemeji
Reserve in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria, and found all through the
mixed forests of the Western Circle and also in the Obubra division of
the Calabar province, but it has so far not been found in the Benin
province.
_Use._—A fibre, worth £14 to £20 a ton, is made from the bark of young
trees attaining 3 inches in diameter.
A most conspicuous tree in October and November, as it is covered with
small red flowers and is leafless at the time. It has a papery fruit
with a small round seed attached to the base. These fruits are also
most conspicuous in February and March, making the tree look as it
were covered with red flowers for a second time. The large, poplar-
shaped leaves with comparatively long stalks often tremble in the
slightest breeze in a similar way to the aspen. The wood is soft,
white and fibrous, with no distinguishing colour between sapwood and
heartwood. It splits comparatively easily, though, once it is dry,
with difficulty. It is easy to plane, though difficult to obtain a
smooth surface owing to the grain often being twisted. The light seeds
almost float in the air, the result being that they are spread
everywhere, and thus come up chiefly in the open spaces and at the
edges of rides and roads, almost to the detriment of any other
species. It is one of the fastest growing of all the African trees,
and being a light-lover as well, rapidly covers all the available
ground. In fact, in the mixed deciduous forests it tends to gain in
its area of distribution year by year. In an enumeration in the
Olokemeji Reserve, instead of finding a few thousand trees, as in the
case of most species, hundreds of thousands of this one were found.
The branches of the young tree grow more or less in whorls at right
angles to the trunk, and, combined with the comparatively large
leaves, thoroughly cover the ground near by. Stump sprouts grow after
a tree has been felled, though natural reproduction by seed is by far
the most prevalent method. It has not been felled for local use nor
has it been exported. The Hausas living in Nigeria cut down the small
trees (saplings 1 to 2 inches in diameter), peel off the bark, dry it,
and spin it into rope, which is used for tying loads of Cola or other
produce. When freshly made it is soft and pliable, but when it is dry
the fibre becomes very harsh and rather difficult to tie.
The wood is used for floats for fishing on the Niger.
_Heritiera sp?_. Oviegikwe (Benin).
It is found in the Benin and Ondo (?) provinces of Nigeria.
The tree is large, reaching a girth of about 12 feet. The seed is
papery and full of air, so that when trodden upon it collapses. The
leaf is of medium size, more or less pinnate. The timber is white and
soft; termites attack it. It has not been exported or used for local
buildings.
_Native Use._—The leaf is used medicinally, and the timber is used for
making drums (the frame) by hollowing out the trunk of a tree. It is
also used as walls for a temporary house (when dried or not); for this
purpose it is split in pieces.
_Heritiera sp.?_. Igoso (Benin).
It is an uncommon tree of the Benin province of Nigeria. It is found
in the evergreen and mixed deciduous forests. The fruit is
considerably smaller than Oviegikwe.
The natives apparently have no use for this tree. However, timber
obtained from trees of this genus has proved so useful and durable
that a trial of the wood of this species seems advisable.
_Triplochiton Johnsonii_ (Ch. Wright). African Maple, Bush Maple. Arere
(Yoruba); Obechi (Benin).
This is one of the common trees of the Abeokuta, Ondo and Benin
provinces of Nigeria; it is found in the mixed deciduous forest zone,
more especially in the moister regions of these forests. Like _T.
Nigericum_, it is one of the largest of all the forest trees, reaching
a height of over 120 feet and a girth of 25 feet. The leaf has five
lobes, and is thus distinguishable from _T. Nigericum_, which has
seven. The bole is long and clean and most cylindrical in shape; the
buttresses, as a rule, do not reach such a great height as in the case
of _T. Nigericum_. On the whole the bark is smoother and, especially
in the younger specimens, almost shiny. The flowers and fruit are very
similar to _T. Nigericum_.
The timber is white, both heartwood and sapwood, and shows a
considerable amount of elasticity; rather liable to warp when
seasoned. It works up well and takes a satiny sheen. The grain is
comparatively fine—in fact, a little finer than that of _T.
Nigericum_; the pores are long and very narrow; it works up well with
a plane, takes nails easily, does not split well; it saws with great
ease; it is not termite-proof. If freshly cut and placed under cover,
it suffers most severely from the attacks of a very small weevil which
reduces the wood to a fine powder; it is noticeable that when the
timber is entirely dry the surface hardens very considerably and it is
less liable and almost immune from attack. When thoroughly dry the
wood weighs 35 pounds per cubic foot.
It is a very rapid-growing, at first slightly shade-bearing and of
recent years an eminently light-loving tree. It has soil-protecting
and soil-improving qualities. Natural regeneration appears to be very
good. Self-sown seedlings show a height-growth of over 6 feet per
year. It likes a moist soil, which need not be very rich, but it must
have considerable depth. It is rather liable to be blown by the wind
or sometimes broken, if in an exposed locality.
Locally it has been used for boxes and other articles, which have
proved quite durable; it has been used as inside planking and other
interior work, and so long as it is carefully seasoned it does not
warp very badly; it is probable that it is one of those timbers that
would yield better results by kiln drying. In the Central Circle it
has been sawn up as planks for a considerable time, but they have been
attacked to a great extent by a small weevil. The local people use the
bark for making roofs and the wood for doors for their houses.
In 1906 sample logs of this timber were sold in the Liverpool market
as Satinwood, but were not considered equal to Anyeran (_Afrormosia
elata_). Since that date no more trial shipments have been made, so it
remains to be seen whether under the altered conditions and the
pressing demands for timber in Europe a market cannot now be found for
the vast quantities of this timber from Nigeria and other West African
countries.
_Triplochiton Nigericum_. Soft Satinwood. Arere (Yoruba); Kpa (Efik).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ondo, Owerri and Calabar provinces of
Nigeria; it is a common tree of the mixed deciduous forests. One of
the distinguishing features of this tree are the maple-like leaves.
This species has seven lobes to the leaf; the leaf itself is softer
and almost velvety compared to the true maple leaf. The lobes
themselves are not quite so sharply pointed and the leaf stalk is
considerably thicker. The fruit also is very much like that of the
maple, but is a quadruple samara instead of being only a double one.
The tree is one of the largest of the whole forest, reaching a height
under favourable conditions of nearly 150 feet; the bole alone may
reach a height of 90 feet with a girth of over 20 feet. The trunk is
very cylindrical in shape, showing a well formed figure, but not so
good as either that of Agba or Gum Copal. It is only broken up by the
root buttresses, which often reach 10 to 12 feet from the ground
before they merge into the stem; the bark is grey, sometimes almost
white and almost smooth; in old age, shallow fissures sometimes form.
The slash is greenish-white, and a little watery sap moistens the cut
after a short interval. The crown is ovally spherical and occupies
over one-third of the height of the tree. The flowers are mottled pink
and white.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood is the same colour, with no
great distinction between them except the greater dryness of the
heartwood. The timber is soft and not durable, and is not termite-
proof; it does not split very well, saws easily, and planes fairly
well and takes nails comparatively well; does not plane up to a very
smooth surface.
It is a very rapid-growing, at first shade-bearing, and during the
last few years a light-loving tree; it has soil-protecting and soil-
improving qualities. It is deciduous for a short time each year;
flowers in February or March, and the seeds are borne towards the end
of the rainy season. Natural regeneration is very good; it sprouts
very strongly from the stump. It is really somewhat exacting as to
soil, liking a moist soil of good depth and with plenty of drainage;
it will not stand in waterlogged ground, though an occasional flood
does not hurt it. Plantations have been made with this tree, and the
growth thus far has been very rapid; self-sown seedlings, however,
show greater development in the same period of time.
Locally, the root flanges are used for making doors and occasionally
the tree has been cut for planks; it is said that the timber is not
supposed to be quite so durable as that of _T. Johnsonii_, but in
reality there is very little difference between them.
_Triplochiton n. sp._ Bush Maple. Obechi (Benin).
This tree was found in 1906 in the forest near the Anwai, not far from
Onitsha Olona, in the Asaba district of the Benin province, and is
very similar in habit and growth to the other two species.
_Buettneria_. Obechi (Benin).
Benin.
_Pterygota_. Poroporo (Yoruba).
It is found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria. It is not very
prevalent in the mixed forests of the Olokemeji Reserve, and is a
large tree, 8 to 10 feet in girth. The wood is said by the natives to
be durable.
_Cola cauliflora_ (F.). Cola Mahogany. Isienwe (Benin).
It is common in the Benin province of Nigeria, in the mixed deciduous
forest zone, where it is not very prevalent. It is a medium-sized
tree, reaching a girth of 6 feet.
The seed is a small nut. The leaves are very dark and are
comparatively large. The bole reaches a length of about 20 feet.
The sapwood is whitish and the heartwood of a red-brown, similar to
mahogany. The texture is, however, not quite so fine and a little more
fibrous. It planes fairly well and takes nails fairly easily, but it
does not split well. It is durable and is said to be termite-proof. It
is a somewhat slow-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting and soil-
improving tree. Natural regeneration is only moderate, and it sprouts
slightly from the stump. It is somewhat exacting as to soil, and is
usually found in a loamy sand, with plenty of moisture and depth.
It was valued at 2d. to 2½d. a superficial foot as mahogany of fair
character in the Liverpool market in 1906. But since then no more has
been felled or exported.
The natives use it as firewood in the Benin country. It has not been
felled for local use.
_Cola laurifolia_. Laurel-leaved Cola. Foma (Yoruba).
It is an uncommon tree, found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta
province of Nigeria. A small tree with small flowers.
_Cola acuminata_ (Beauv.). Common Cola. Obi Abata (Yoruba); Eve
(Benin).
It is a common tree of the Calabar, Ogoge, Owerri, Warri, Benin, Ondo,
Ibadan and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
It is the ordinary Cola of the Benin villages, but it is also found in
the forest. In other parts of the country it has been planted along
the sides of the roads leading into Egbado, Jebu, Ode, Ondo, Ikale and
Ilesha villages.
Always standing in the shade and with a heavy evergreen foliage, the
cream-coloured flowers with a pink streak on each petal show up very
clearly when the tree comes into bloom in February or March. According
to the native ideas, the tree must never be pruned, nor, in fact,
should it be cut either partially or wholly under any circumstances.
However, in passing to and from their farms, boys and young men often
chip the trunk of the tree with a matchet. This, they say, has the
effect of making it produce more fruit; otherwise the tree always
looks very dirty, and often the trunk and the branches are covered
with epiphytic ferns or orchids. Occasionally, once a year or once in
two or three years, the branches of the trees standing nearest to a
Cola are cut away and the ground immediately surrounding a Cola tree
is cleared of undergrowth. The crop of fruit borne varies very much
from year to year. One year a native may make a pound or so from his
Cola tree, whereas in another he perhaps makes very little.
[Illustration: FIG. 78.—=Osse River, looking downstream, edge of the
Pool, Ifon District.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 79.—=Mixed Forest near Osse, looking upstream, Ifon
District.=]
To face p. 354.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood a dull whitish-yellow. It is
moderately hard, very close grained and of fine texture, with a dull
lustre; is moderately durable, but is liable to be attacked by a very
small furniture borer. It is termite-proof. It planes well, does not
split easily, takes nails and saws well. It is apparently an excellent
wood for carving. It does not shrink nor warp very much. It is more
durable for interior work than for outside, where it is liable to get
soft and to crumble away. It is sometimes brittle; it does not burn
well.
_Native Use._—The fruit is eaten and is used as an article of export
both to the Northern Provinces and also to the Continent. The wood is
used for making “Ju-jus” (Esu—the Devil) (Images of the King);
otherwise it is not cut in the Benin country.
_Cola Afzelii_. Monkey Cola Tree. Obidu, Obiedun, Ebidun (Yoruba);
Awohebitan (Benin).
The brilliant red fruits, about twelve joined together in a spherical
bunch, are usually quite a feature of the small tree. The leaves are
digitate, but joined at the base, so in reality only a single leaf. It
is a much-branched tree with yellowish-grey bark. The crown is much
divided, and sometimes the branches almost appear as if in large
whorls.
It is found in the Oyo, Abeokuta, Ondo, Benin, Owerri, Calabar and
Ogoja provinces of Nigeria.
The wood is white and softish and not durable. It is most common at
the edge of the evergreen forest. It attains a girth of about 6 feet
and a bole length of about 15 feet. It is a light-lover, though it
stands a considerable amount of shade in its youth.
_Native Use._—The wood is used for the stock of a cross-bow in the
Benin country, and the seeds are eaten at any time.
_Cola sp._ Obiedum (Yoruba); Ewoha (Benin).
This is a comparatively common tree of the Benin, Abeokuta and Ondo
provinces of Nigeria. It is the original Cola of the forest; a medium-
sized tree with the typical Cola foliage, found growing singly. It
does not appear to bear very heavily, and apparently in some places
the local people utilize the fruit, while in others they say it is of
no value. It appears to be a whiter and softer Cola than that of the
other species, and it does not seem to have such a strong flavour.
The timber is hard and white; it is a shade-bearing and soil-
protecting tree. Natural regeneration appears to be poor.
The wood is occasionally used by the local fetish-maker for certain
types of fetish in the Benin country. It is considered the most
suitable and, in fact, the only wood for this purpose. Although the
ordinary Cola which is planted may not be cut, this species is not
immune, but it is certainly considered most proper if only the image-
maker cuts it.
_Dombeya Buettneri_. Ewe ofo (Yoruba).
It is found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria, especially in the
Olokemeji Forest Reserve. It is a small, shrub-like tree, varying from
7 to 15 feet in height. The bark is fibrous. In 1908 samples of the
fibre were submitted to the Imperial Institute for valuation. Owing to
its being rather harsh, woody and weak, it was stated to be worth from
£7 to £8 a ton.
=Ochnaceæ.=
_Ochna multiflora_. Canoe Tree. Uruk (Efik); Tei tei (Ijor); Tei tei
(Brass); Elili (Ibo Owerri).
It is found in the Owerri, Warri and Ondo (?) provinces of Nigeria. It
is one of the prevalent trees in the evergreen and brackish swamp
forest zone. The tree reaches a girth of 15 feet and a bole length of
about 60 feet. It has a large digitate leaf, making the foliage of the
tree very heavy and dense. The bark is thick and fissured
longitudinally. The crown is long and egg-shaped. The fruit is large,
roughly spherical in shape, but ribbed in five places on the surface.
It is a shade-bearer, and reproduction is chiefly by seed. The wood is
reddish-brown and moderately hard. This is one of the most favourite
trees for canoe-making amongst the Brass people. Having a straight
grain, the log opens out well into a canoe once it has been hollowed
out in the centre.
_Ochna sp._ Sama (?), Duma name.
It is found near Obudu, in the Ogoja province of Nigeria. It is a
small tree of the open deciduous forest, growing at an altitude of
about 1,500 feet. The flowers are umbellate and of a pretty red
colour. It is a light-lover and grows at the edge of the forest.
The natives apparently have no use for either the wood or other parts
of the tree.
_Lophira procera_. Red Ironwood, African Oak, Red Oak. Ela, Ekki
(Yoruba); Eba, Ebba (Benin); Eleba (Jekri); Kuru (Brass); Okikopom
(Ibibio); Enwan, Umpenek (Efik); Okut Okot (Oban, Ekoi); Kuru (Ibo
Owerri); Okut (Kwa).
_Chief Characteristics._—It is a very large tree, up to 6 feet in
diameter, with orange-coloured bark, when in the shade of the
evergreen forest where it is found, but this soon becomes quite grey
when exposed to the sun. The flowers are white, with five petals, and
are very fragrant, smelling like musk, covering the ground and
scenting the forest in November and December. In October and November
the tree is very conspicuous with its brilliant new red foliage, which
almost appears like flowers in the distance. On the banks of the
Calabar River, above the town of the same name, this is seen to
advantage. The fruit is winged, but with one wing twice as long as the
other and also broader; the seed is sharply pointed and almost conical
in section, and not so meaty as that of _L. alata_. The crown is
spherical, but open; the branches are very twisted and reminiscent of
oak. The trunk reaches a length of 90 feet and is almost perfectly
cylindrical in shape, with only the slightest indication of spurns at
the base.
_Distribution._—It is found in the Abeokuta, Jebu, Ode, Benin, Owerri,
Ogoja (?) and Calabar provinces of Nigeria. It is one of the commonest
trees in the very moist parts of the evergreen forest zone.
_Timber._—The sapwood is whitish red, but the heartwood is of a dull
red colour with large, long, open pores, partially filled with
siliceous salts. This often gives the wood an almost speckled
appearance. In a tree of 12 feet girth, the sapwood is usually only 3
or 4 inches thick, making it a very full-wooded tree and thus reducing
the amount of wood wasted in squaring the logs. It planes well, with a
smooth, shiny surface. Strong shoots often come up from the stump,
though owing to the natural seed distribution being good, this latter
is the chief means of reproduction. It is a light-lover, with a
natural tendency to grow straight up. It is a slow-growing tree, and
the leaves, nearly a foot long and almost tongue-shaped, are very
large for such a hard-wooded tree. Even when planted 16 feet apart it
grows up straight, with only three or four perpendicular branches or
even only a fork in the stem. It resists white ants, and the teredo
worm does not bore into logs when lying in the water. It is almost
gregarious in habit, usually groups being found in one locality, or,
as in the moister regions, it is next to mahogany the commonest tree
found in the forest. It will withstand floods—in fact, there is an
island several square miles in extent in the Oshun River covered with
only this species of tree. It is also found again on the upper edge of
the mangrove forest where the first solid land begins.
The seeds have not been tested as to the proportion of oil contained
in them, but no doubt they contain a similar quantity, in proportion
to the size, as those of _L. alata_.
In 1906 samples of this timber in the round were sent to the Liverpool
market, where it was valued as red oak at 2s. to 3s. per cubic foot.
It was also stated to be worth shipping in good lengths. Owing to its
weight and the hardness of the wood, and thus the extra cost of
squaring logs, little or none has been shipped to Liverpool since this
report was made. Locally it has been used for piles for wharves and
bridges, decking for bridges, wall-plates for bungalows, and
occasionally as verandah-posts. It can be floated with Musanga logs or
those of _Hannoa undulata_. Canoes made of this wood are of the most
durable kind, so that perhaps it might be tried for boat-building.
The people of Benin use the wood for making pestles for their Fufu
mortars, and occasionally it is used as wall-plates. Amongst the Brass
people it is sometimes used for making canoes, and amongst many tribes
for making food-mortars. Near Lagos it is used for house-building.
_Lophira alata_. Niam Fat, Small Red Ironwood, Meni Oil, African Oak.
Ipawhaw, Ponhon, Ipahan (Yoruba); Awigbi, Ugbeberi, Ishan (Benin).
Small or dry-zone Red Ironwood.
It is found in the Ogoja, Owerri, Onitsha, Benin, Ibadan and Abeokuta
provinces of Nigeria.
It is a very common tree in the open deciduous forest of the dry-zone
form of vegetation. Often found in groups, but it anyhow is the most
prevalent tree wherever found. It does not usually grow straight, but
the stem is gnarled and crooked, reaching a girth of about 5 feet. The
tree itself only grows to a height of about 30 feet. In appearance it
looks like a small oak, but the Shea Butter Tree, _Butyrospermum
Parkii_, is still more like it. However, with its reddish-green
tongue-like leaves with wavy edges, it is in reality quite different.
The branches spring out of the stem in a more upward direction than
_B. Parkii_, and are more irregular in growth. The bark is orange-
coloured and almost scaly on the younger trees, though it goes a grey
or black colour when exposed to the light or the annual grass-fires.
The flowers are white, sweet-smelling and much more conspicuous than
on _L. procera_. The seed is placed between two wings, one nearly
three times the width of the other. The smaller wing is more pointed
than the larger; the seed, while being pointed, is stoutly cone-shaped
and rather more than a quarter of an inch in diameter at the base, and
of a light brown colour.
_Timber._—The sapwood is narrow and white in colour and the heartwood
is a dull red. It is very hard and tough, but not so heavy as _L.
procera_. It planes only with a rough surface.
_Silvicultural Characteristics._—This is one of the few trees which
successfully resist the annual grass-fires. Its otherwise prolific
seed-bearing capacity is, however, often very much diminished, if not
completely spoilt, by the flowers being burnt in January and February,
the usual time of the grass-fires. It is a light-lover, but for the
reasons already given is a very slow-growing tree. On the whole,
although the seeds germinate well, stool and root shoots are probably
the chief means of reproduction. The soil under these trees is only
partially protected during the growing, and quite exposed to sun and
wind during the dry season.
_Commercial Value._—Samples of these seeds were sent in 1909 to the
Imperial Institute for valuation, when they were found to be worth
about £10 a ton; 43 per cent. of oil can be obtained from the kernels,
and this is said to be suitable for soap-making and to be worth £25
per ton. Commercial quantities, however, have not yet been exported.
Meni oil was formerly obtained from the seed.
_Native Use._—Amongst the Yorubas the tree is used for house-posts,
especially when the stem is forked about 10 feet above the ground. The
leaves, bark and roots are all sold in the native markets for
medicinal purposes. An infusion of the bark of the roots is supposed
to be a cure for jaundice (yellow fever, according to the natives).
Strangely enough, the seeds are not used as a source of oil.
_Gomphia insculpta_.
Found at Olokemeji.
_Gomphia glaberrima_.
It is a shrub found at Olokemeji.
_Gomphia_ nr. _affinis_.
Found at Ilugbro.
=Guttiferæ.=
_Garcinia conrauana_. False Cola, Bitter Cola. Orugbo (Yoruba); Edun
(Benin); Odji (?) (Brass); Efiori Efrie (Efik); Efrie (Kwa).
It is found in the Calabar, Benin, Ogoja and Abeokuta provinces of
Nigeria.
It is a medium-sized tree with close, spherical-shaped crown. The
branches and leaves are comparatively small. The bole is short and the
branches very persistent. The most typical feature of the tree is the
large apricot-like fruit, of an orange-yellow colour. The bark is
smooth and brown in colour. It is found in the evergreen forest. The
nut is oblong, of a very dark brown colour with small white streaks
all over it. It grows in moist soil.
The timber is very hard and close-grained, with yellow-sapwood and
light-brown heartwood. It is said to be durable and planes with a
smooth surface. It is often found at a considerable elevation—up to
3,000 feet towards the northern part of Calabar province.
It is a shade-bearer, though it is often found growing alone, having
been left isolated when the original forest was cleared to make a
farm. The tree grows very slowly but bears comparatively early, and
trees are often seen quite laden with the yellow fruit.
The timber has not been exported, but has been cut for local use. It
was used by the Public Works Department, Calabar, and proved useful
for wall-plates. The nuts have occasionally been exported, but they
are comparatively valueless compared to the real Cola.
_Native Use._—The nuts are sold in the Yoruba and Calabar markets and
100 to 200 for 3d. in the Benin market. The fruit is also eaten. The
roots are used for chewing-sticks (the best in Benin), and taste like
quinine. The nuts are ground and used medicinally for headache.
_Garcinia Kola_.
A little known species, found in the Eastern Provinces, Uwet. It was
subsequently determined as _Garcinia conrauana_.
_Garcinia Mannii_.
This tree is found in the Western Provinces.
_Uses._—Chew-stick is made from the root.
_Garcinia_, var. nov. _brevipedicellata_.
This tree grows in the Eastern Circle.
_Pentadesma sp.?_. Hardwood, Duika’s Chop Fruit. Ogbia (Yoruba); Ekuso
or Ikujo, Efiari (Benin).
This tree is found in the mixed forests of the Benin province of
Nigeria. One of its chief characteristics is that it has little or no
bark, but the cortex is comparatively thin, and remains of a duck-egg-
green colour even in trees of comparatively large size. It reaches a
girth of about 6 feet and a bole length of about 20 feet. However, it
is usually very much forked comparatively low down, and often the stem
is by no means straight. The root spurns are not very large, but spoil
the shape of the bole at the base.
It is a slow-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting and soil-
improving tree. Natural regeneration is poor, chiefly perhaps because
the Duika eat the fruit; in fact, the Benin name means the chop or
food of Uso or Duika.
In 1906 samples of this timber were sold in the Liverpool market as a
hardwood, which was considered hard and heavy. Since then none has
been shipped, nor has it been felled for local use. Perhaps with the
changed conditions in the demand for timber, both hard and soft, a
further trial would now show whether it was of any value as an export
timber.
_Pentadesma grandifolia_.
_Distribution._—It is found in the Oban Reserve of the Calabar
province of Nigeria.
_Characteristics._—It is a medium-sized tree, with large oblong leaves
having numerous glands and lateral nerves which are about a tenth of
an inch apart. The leaves are larger and the exterior sepal shorter
than in _P. butyraceæ_.
_Silvicultural Qualities._—It grows in the evergreen forest, is a
shade-bearer, and comparatively slow-growing tree.
_Utility._—Although the fruit has not yet been collected, it is
probable that the nuts would contain a similar oil to those of _P.
butyraceæ_.
_Pentadesma butyraceæ_. Butter or Tallow Tree. Okarora, Ossa (Ondo);
Ekuso (Yoruba) (Ikale); Ijeni Udegbu, Agba (west side), Udegbi (Benin);
Orugbo erin (Ondo); Amu Ne (New Calabar); Ikakama Udia Ebian (Efik);
Ikakama Udia Ebian, Igbofia (Ibibio); Ntini Nyok (Kwa).
_Distribution._—It is found in the evergreen forests of the Jebu, Ode,
Benin, Warri, Owerri and Calabar provinces of Nigeria. It is quite
prevalent in its typical locality and very damp, almost swampy,
regions of the forest near small waterways, even comparatively near
the sea.
_Chief Characteristics._—It is a thin, tall tree, with dark bark and
flatly compressed crown consisting of four or five tiers of branches,
very close together in almost true whorls. The foliage is very thick
and the leaves thick and leathery. It exudes a mass of gamboge-like
latex as soon as slashed, and the slash is orange-red. The latex
solidifies on exposure to the air. The large pear-shaped fruit has a
soft rind, which usually is pierced by the fall to the ground, and the
Cola-shaped seeds are embedded in a soft, yellowish-white pulp. The
large sepals at the base of the flower are quite typical, in their
persistency often being found at the base of unripe fruit.
_Timber._—It has yellowish-white sapwood and light-red heartwood of
firm texture, with a certain amount of waviness in it, especially if
the tree has been barked in its earlier years. It is not hard, and is
easy to work; it does not appear to warp or shrink.
_Silvicultural Qualities._—It is a shade-bearer with very persistent
evergreen leaves. It will stand in waterlogged land and grow almost to
perfection. The branches are also very persistent, and it is only when
growing in close proximity to other heavy foliaged trees that the bole
clears itself of branches for two-thirds of its length. The stump
shoots sprout up when the tree is cut down. The more prevalent form of
reproduction is by seed. The mature tree bears quite prolifically
almost every year. The timber has not been felled for export, but the
seeds are worth £8 a ton on account of the oil that they contain,
which is considered suitable for soap-making.
_Pentadesma Nigritana_. Odgebu (west side) (Benin).
_Distribution._—It is found in the Oban Reserve of the Calabar
province of Nigeria.
_Characteristics._—It is a medium-sized tree with black bark on the
branches. The leaves are glabrous coriaceous, 3½ to 4½ inches long and
1 to 1½ inches broad.
_Silvicultural Qualities._—It grows in the evergreen forests, is a
shade-bearer and comparatively slow-growing tree.
_Utility._—The fruit has not yet been collected, but, judging by the
locality in which this tree is found, the seeds would contain similar
quantities of oil to those of _P. butyraceæ_.
_Haronga Madagascariensis_ (Kew). Benin Roof-pole. Itue (Benin).
It is a non-indigenous tree (exotic) which is now found in the
Abeokuta, Ibadan, Ondo, Benin, Warri, Owerri, Ogoja and Calabar
provinces of Nigeria.
It is commonly seen growing up in old farms in the heavier soils of
the evergreen and mixed deciduous forest zones. The slash, which is
brick-red and exudes a yellowish-red latex, is most typical of this
tree. The tree is almost gregarious, forming groups nearly half an
acre in extent; the bark peels very easily, leaving a clean white stem
which hardens very much on exposure to the air. It is a small tree,
attaining a girth of about 2 feet and a height of about 40 feet. The
wood is quite white, with a small pink pith about a quarter of an inch
in diameter; it is a very light wood and most durable when under
cover.
The leaves are of a medium size and rough to the touch. When 2 to 4
inches in diameter the natives cut the trees, clean and strip off the
bark, and use them for rafters in house-building, especially in the
Benin and Yoruba countries.
_Symphonia globulifera_ (Kew). Hog Gum.
It was reported from the Calabar province.
_Allanblackia floribunda_. Orogbo erin (Yoruba); Izeni or Iyockan
(Benin); Atta (Efik); Egba (Ibo, Owerri).
_Distribution._—It is found in the evergreen forests of the Jebu Ode,
Benin, Owerri (?) and Calabar (?) provinces of Nigeria. This tree
usually grows on less moist soil and further away from water than _P.
butyraceæ_, though it likes a moist and deep soil.
_Chief Characteristics._—The long, hard, brown, enlarged sausage-
shaped fruit hanging on a stalk shows, when cut, large seeds scattered
in white pulp, and is thus different in this respect to Pentadesma,
which has dark-brown seeds embedded in a soft, yellowish pulp. The
slash is yellow, but only exudes a little yellow latex at first. The
branches are not so verticillate in form as Pentadesma, but are more
pendulous, especially when the tree is in fruit. They also are further
apart and give the crown a more open appearance. The fruit is three
times the length and the diameter rather more than that of _P.
butyraceæ_.
_Timber._—The sapwood is whitish-yellow and the heartwood yellowish-
red and moderately hard. It is not attacked by white ants; it does not
split easily, but planes with a smooth surface. It is a medium-sized
tree, reaching a height of about 80 feet, with a bole length of 20
feet and a girth of 8 feet.
_Silvicultural Qualities._—It is a shade-bearer and grows
comparatively slowly. Natural reproduction is chiefly by seed, though
fine and succulent stump shoots appear when a tree is cut down.
The timber has not been exported nor has it been used locally; the
natives occasionally cut the bark for medicinal purposes, but
otherwise apparently have no use for the tree.
_Ochrocarpus Africanus?_ sp. of Allanblackia. African Mammee Apple,
Mahogany (Calabar). Igoda (Benin); Ereruku, Edeng Edem (Calabar);
Baulan Bolo (Degema, New Calabar); Okut and Otun (Oban, Ekoi).
_Distribution._—It is found in the Calabar, Owerri and Ogoja provinces
of Nigeria, occurring sparsely in the evergreen forests in several
localities, where it takes the place of Khaya, which is not prevalent
in such places.
_Chief Characteristics._—It is a large tree, with orange-coloured
bark, especially in young specimens, and a little scaly. In habit
otherwise rather like Mahogany, after which the timber has been named.
It is much harder and has little resin canals typical of the order. It
is not attacked by white ants. It reaches a height of 100 feet, with a
bole length of about 40 feet and a girth of 12 feet. The root spurns
are only slight. The large, elongated, spherical-shaped fruit, with
rough, pale orange-coloured rind, speckled brown in several places, is
most typical of this tree. Generally speaking, it could easily be
mistaken for Mahogany Entandrophragma by anyone not very familiar with
both species.
_Timber._—The sapwood is white, with a pinkish tint, and the heartwood
a dark red, with small medullary rays as well as very prominent resin-
like canals which, when dry, are filled with a yellow substance.
_Silvicultural Qualities._—It is a shade-bearer, but likes a certain
amount of overhead light in middle age. On the whole it is slow-
growing, except for a short period when the chief height-growth is put
on. A few stump shoots sprout when the tree is cut down, but the more
common form of reproduction is by seed.
_Utility._—It has not been felled for export, but the Public Works
Department felled and converted a good deal at the Etehetem sawmill,
and it was favourably reported on as a hard mahogany. It has
occasionally been used by the natives for making canoes.
_No botanical name_. Oshusi (Ibo, Owerri).
_Distribution._—It is found in the Owerri province of Nigeria. It is a
comparatively common tree in the evergreen swamp forest.
_Characteristics._—The timber is not over hard, but it reaches a
height of 100 feet and a girth of 8 feet. The bark is smooth.
_Silvicultural Qualities._—It is a shade-bearer and a comparatively
slow-growing tree. The most prevalent form of reproduction is by seed.
_Utility._—It has not been felled for export, but was used in the
construction of the Imo railway bridge as piles.
_Buronona_ (New Calabar).
This is a medium-sized tree of the Owerri province, and is found near
the Imo, not far from the railway bridge. Several piles of the
temporary bridge were made from the timber of this tree.
_Ochrocarpus sp.?_. Ebattan, Ehranezi (Benin); Buronona (New Calabar).
_Distribution._—It is found in the Owerri, Benin (?) and Ondo (?)
provinces of Nigeria.
_Chief Characteristics._—It is a very straight, thin-stemmed tree,
with several whorls of branches near the top of the tree, very much
compressed together. The flowers are red sprays, which look very
pretty at the beginning of the dry season. It occurs near the
freshwater swamps, comparatively close to the sea. In many places it
is almost gregarious in habit, more especially near Degema. It reaches
a height of 100 feet, and a girth of 6 feet, often with a bole length
of 50 feet.
_Timber._—The sapwood is white and the heartwood is light brown; both
appear to be equally durable. It is termite-resisting. It planes with
a smooth surface; the grain is very fine. A red latex exudes when it
is cut.
_Utility._—It is chiefly used for door and window frames, and does not
warp nor crack, even when put in green. It attains a large enough size
to be used as piles, some of which were used in the construction of
the temporary railway bridge at Imo. The natives do not use the wood,
and it has not been felled for export.
_Silvicultural Qualities._—It is a shade-bearer and a comparatively
slow-growing tree, though on less wet soils it seems to grow faster.
The more prevalent form of reproduction is by seed. Weak stool shoots
also come up after the tree is cut down. The foliage is dense and
persists for several years.
[Illustration: FIG. 80.—=Heavy Sapeli Mahogany (Entandrophragma utilis)
standing near the road between Uyeri and Benin City, Benin Province.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 81.—=Agba (Benin), (Pterogopodium), standing near
Ifon Road, South of Uyeri, Benin Province.=]
To face p. 364.
=Bixaceæ.=
_Bixa orellana_.
This tree grows well in the Olokemeji Arboretum. It is found up to a
height of 10 feet, and is cultivated for the sake of its seeds, which
yield the orange dye called “annatto.” The tree bears pods very
freely. Samples were sent to the Imperial Institute in 1906 and were
valued at about 5d. a pound.
=Flacourtiaceæ.=
_Smeathmannia pubescens_. Moyida (Yoruba).
It is a medium-sized shrub found in the Western Provinces.
_Soyauxia sp._ Ogohomeh, Oyohomeh (Benin).
This tree was found on the mountain slope above Ogabi in the Obudu
district. The fruit is edible.
_Soyauxia sp._ Aye (Yoruba); Owowe, Owawe (Benin).
It is found in the Ondo, Benin and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria, growing
at the edge of the evergreen forest. It is a medium-sized tree, with a
bole length of about 30 feet and a girth of 6 feet; on the whole, it
is of more slender build and habit than the Terminalia, to which it is
apparently closely allied. The flower is very small, white and
spherical, being only a quarter of an inch in size; it is most
frequently seen lying scattered about in patches on the path or
roadway, giving out a very sweet scent. The seeds are double winged,
like Bougainvillea. The leaf is smaller than that of the Terminalia
and the foliage generally less dense; the sapwood is white and
somewhat wide, the heartwood of a light-brown colour, and on the
border-line of being a hardwood. The wood is not very durable unless
under cover; it is not very common, though where it is found there are
a fair number of trees which would form a good supply of timber for
local purposes. The natives do not use this wood, as they say it is
liable to attacks by white ants.
_Oncoba dentata_ (Oliv.). Parisha (Yoruba).
It is found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria. It is a small, shrub-
like tree, armed with moderately long thorns. It belongs to the
evergreen forest zone. The flowers are large, white and conspicuous.
_Oncoba glauca_ (Foster). Kakandika (Yoruba).
Found in the Olokemeji and Abeokuta provinces.
_Oncoba spinosa_ (Rich). Kakandika (Yoruba).
This is a small, shrub-like tree found in the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria. It is moderately common, and several hedges have been made
with it in the Olokemeji Arboretum. The most distinguishing feature of
this plant is the large, spherical-shaped white flowers. The petals
are large and conspicuous, with a mass of yellow stamens in the
centre. In habit it is not unlike the thorn; the ends of the twigs are
armed with a short spike.
It stands trimming pretty well. Each year it flowers fairly regularly,
so that it makes quite an ornamental plant. It bears green fruits with
a conspicuous bunch of the old sepals at the top. This fruit is rather
smaller than a tangerine orange, but quite spherical in shape, with a
hard, woody rind.
_Flacourtia Ramontchii_. Abeokuta Plum. Oshere (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria.
_Flacourtia flavescens_ (Kew). Niger Plum.
Found in the Western Provinces.
_Uses._—Edible plums, medicine and hedge plants.
_Homalium_, cf. _H. Africanum_ (Benth.). Atu or Abo Ako (Yoruba).
This is a hard-wooded tree of the Yoruba country, which is used to
some extent locally. It is also found in Benin.
Being a shade-bearing and soil-protecting tree, it is of value in the
forest, apart from the production of timber. It is a slow-growing tree
apparently.
=Lecythidaceæ.=
_Napoleona Whitfieldii_. Ito (? Yoruba); Uruhe (Benin).
It is doubtful if these are the correct native names for this species.
_Napoleona imperialis_. Speckle-fruited Napoleona. Boi Boi (Yoruba).
It is found near Ode district, Oban and Igbeshe, in the Ibadan and
Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
It is a deciduous shrub with pretty white flowers, very shiny leaves,
which are alternate, and bears a spherical, orange-coloured fruit
(with a russet-like surface having white lenticels scattered nearly
all over it), which ripens in March at the Olokemeji Reserve.
This shrub protects and enriches the soil with its fall of leaves.
Considering the attractiveness of the flower and the fruit, it is
surprising that it has not more frequently been planted in gardens,
where it should be placed in a shady corner. It is slow-growing, and
does not need much light. It likes a moist, fairly deep good soil,
especially near a river bank.
_Native Use._—The stem is occasionally used for making hoe or axe
handles, for which it is suitable, as the wood is comparatively tough,
close-grained and hard. The knottiness of it is an advantage either
for the handle or for fixing the hoe or axe head.
_Napoleona Vogelii_ (Hook). Orokwa, Ogemme (Benin).
It is a common tree in the Calabar, Benin, Ibadan and Abeokuta
provinces of Nigeria.
_Chief Characteristics._—It is a medium-sized shrub-like tree, with
orange-shaped fruit, though not quite spherical, having small white
lenticels on the surface and roughness like a russet apple. It does
not attain a girth of more than 3 or 4 feet. It is usually found in
the mixed deciduous forests, though more often in clearings in the
forests; however, it stands a good deal of shade. The wood is
comparatively hard, but it does not reach much size. The tree protects
and enriches the soil with its fall of leaves, and serves a very
useful purpose as a shrub amongst the undergrowth of the forest. It
might be planted in gardens, where both the flower, which is large and
white, and the fruit would be admired. It usually bears a large number
of both. It is rather a slow-growing tree. The natives use the wood
for making matchet handles.
_Napoleona Owariensis_. Adere, Isiurem (Lagos).
Found in the Olokemeji Reserve.
=Rhizophoraceæ.=
_Weihea sp._ (Spreng). Odu (Yoruba).
This tree is found in tropical West Africa.
The flowers have an involucre of two bracteoles. The fruit is fleshy;
seeds with an aril.
_Weihea sp._, cf. _Africana_. Odu (Yoruba); Itobo (Ibibio); Munon
(Efik).
This tree grows near Lagos.
_Rhizophora racemosa_. Red Mangrove or Salt Mangrove. Egba Ibadudu
(Jeb. Yoruba); Ehrodo, Ibadudu (Benin); Odo (Jekri).
_Poga oleosa_. Inoi Nut, African Brazil Nut. Iku (Yoruba); Inoi
(Benin); Inoye (Efik); Ikoi (Oban); Inoi (Ekoi); Ekom (Ibo Owerri);
Imonon (New Calabar).
It is found in the Benin (?), Owerri, Calabar and Ogoja (?) provinces
of Nigeria, in the evergreen zone, both of the level and hill country.
On the whole, it is more prevalent as the eastward side of the country
is approached. In the forest its presence is usually indicated by the
heaps of broken shells left lying near the roots of neighbouring
trees, on the path or roadside. The reddish-brown interior and cross-
section of the inner covering of the shell is a most typical feature.
The nut itself is roughly spherical in shape, with a surface almost
evenly covered with little nodules, giving the nut very considerable
resiliency against cracking. It is nearly half an inch thick, and
inside there are two or three kernels. Each of these is a chocolate-
brown colour with thick (almost three thirty-seconds to one-eighth of
an inch) red-brown shell. Each is about ½ inch long and rather more
than ¼ inch thick. This thick shell quite spoils the flavour of the
nut, which is sweeter and contains more oil than the Brazil nut. It
can, however, be removed with a pen-knife. The trunk of the tree is
light-grey, with comparatively thin cortex. It reaches a girth of
about 12 feet and a bole length of about 60 feet. It usually forks at
about 50 or 60 feet from the ground, and this is one of the typical
features of the tree. The crown is rather open, with several main
limbs and comparatively few branches. Another place where it is
commonly seen, both in the Degema and Calabar districts, is in the old
farms, standing as isolated specimens, or standards overshadowing all
the secondary growth. It is one of the few trees that are preserved
when a fresh clearing is made for a farm. The fruit is the shape of a
large greengage, the fleshy part of which soon breaks away, leaving
the hard nut inside. The fleshy pericarp is about a quarter of an inch
in thickness.
The sapwood is white, tinged with pinkish stripes, and the heartwood
pinkish-red, with very wide and numerous medullary rays, which are
most numerous, and in fact more so than in any other tree, and are
very typical of this timber. The wood is soft, splits well, is of
somewhat open texture and rather fibrous grain. It planes up well with
a smooth surface, takes nails well, and saws well. It is liable to be
attacked by white ants. The sapwood is fairly narrow.
It is a moderately fast-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting and
soil-improving tree. Natural regeneration only appears to be slight,
chiefly owing to the fact, perhaps, that most of the nuts are gathered
and eaten by the natives. It is somewhat exacting with regard to soil.
It appears to like one that is somewhat rich, deep, moist and with
good drainage. In waterlogged areas it becomes stag-headed. No
plantations have been made of this tree.
The timber has not been exported, not has it been cut for local use.
It appears, however, to be worthy of a trial as a substitute for light
cedar or mahogany, especially from wind falls, which are not
infrequent owing to the way it is left standing in the forests.
_Native Use._—The nuts are used by the natives, and are considered
very valuable, in the most out-of-the-way parts of the forest, as a
source of food. They used to be sold in the Calabar market 250 for 3d.
Further notes as to the oil-bearing properties of this nut will be
found in the section dealing with the oil seeds and nuts.
=Combretaceæ.=
_Terminalia sp._ Yellow Terminalia, Black-bark Terminalia. Idigbo,
Opepe, Epepe (Yoruba); Egoyn nebbi, Egoyn nikwi, Egoyn lukan (Benin).
According to the Yorubas this is the Idi of the forest.
_Distribution._—It is found in the Ondo and Benin provinces of
Nigeria.
_Chief Characteristics._—It has a slightly fissured bark, increasing
in age, light-brown in colour in youth, but darkening with age, almost
appearing black in the distance, rather forming a criss-cross pattern.
It flowers in May with small spikes or thin, stiff racemes, each with
little yellow balls of staminate flowers. It has a compressed crown of
two or three whorls of branches, but not so typical as that of _T.
scutifera_. It is, however, much more widespreading, chiefly due to
the fact that the tree on the whole is shorter and stouter than _T.
scutifera_. The trunk is much more cylindrical, and the root spurns
are very slight, and not buttress-shaped as in _T. scutifera_. The
contrast between the light-green foliage and the dark-coloured bole is
so great that the tree is quite unmistakable in this respect. The only
one at all similar in this is False Shea Butter, _Mimusops Djave_, but
even the trunk of this one appears lighter than the former. The slash
is dark-brown, almost black, on the outer edge and yellow on the
inside. The fruit is not unlike a large hazelnut, but the shuck is of
looser build, and the interior seed can be more easily seen than in
the case of the nut.
The sapwood is a faint yellow colour and the heartwood a good yellow.
It is of the hardness of an ordinary softwood, with a straight, even
grain and somewhat open pores. It planes well, takes nails, splits
very easily and saws well. For outside work it is not durable unless
very thoroughly dried. For interior fittings it is very durable. It is
liable to attacks by termites outside. It seasons well, with only a
small amount of shrinkage and slight liability to warping.
It is a fast-growing, slightly shade-bearing tree, with strong soil-
protecting and soil-improving qualities. Natural regeneration appears
to be fair. It sprouts from the stump, but is not very strong. It
likes a good soil, with fair drainage but a good deal of moisture. It
will stand a certain amount of flooding. It is occasionally almost
gregarious. No plantations have been made with this tree. It reaches a
girth of over 14 feet and a bole length of about 70 feet.
The timber has not been cut for export, but occasionally it has been
sawn up for planks for local use. It deserves, however, a further
trial for export as a floor-board and for local use for a similar
purpose. There are comparatively large supplies, and the dimensions of
the tree are such that large planks and boards could be cut out of it.
_Native Use._—The tree is occasionally felled for making canoes, but
it is not taken unless there is a shortage of other harder kinds.
_Terminalia sp._ Orange-barked Terminalia. Ayo, Aiyo (Yoruba); Ayo,
Ulazo (Benin).
_Distribution._—Ibadan and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria. It is one of
the typical trees of the mixed deciduous forest zone, though it
appears to be confined to certain localities, such as the Olokemeji
Forest Reserve and other places.
_Chief Characteristics._—Moderately thick bark, rather reminding one
of Triplochiton, but with a certain amount of roughness and slight
fissures. The crown is very pointedly oval and long, the leaves
appearing only slightly terminal and not typically so. The branches
tend to flatten out in old age, though they are slightly pendulous at
the tips. The bole reaches a girth of about 10 feet and a height of 50
feet. The light patchy, orange-coloured bark is a most typical feature
of this tree. Satinwood is the only one at all similar in this
respect, but it is much smoother.
_Timber._—White, with a faint yellow tint; the pores are much shorter
than those of the other Terminalias, such as _T. scutifera_ and
_Togoensis_. The grain on the whole is finer and of closer texture.
The timber is somewhat harder than either _T. scutifera_ or _T. sp._,
but not so hard as that of _T. Togoensis_. It planes well, takes
nails, saws easily, but does not split so well. It is attacked by
termites, but is durable for interior work. It is somewhat more
brittle than _T. sp._
It is a moderately rapid growing, light-demanding tree, with soil-
protecting and soil-improving qualities. Natural regeneration does not
appear to be good. It sprouts, but poorly from the stump, and if at
all shaded dies away. It likes a moderately good soil, with a fair
amount of moisture and depth.
The timber has not been cut for export, and only occasionally has it
been felled for cutting into planks for local use. It deserves,
however, a trial as a local flooring board. The available quantities
so far discovered are not large enough to justify its trial as an
export wood.
_Utility._—The wood is used for planks and for canoes. It is likely to
furnish timber for the home markets.
_Local Use._—It has been used for making canoes, and also for sawing
up into planks for house-building.
_Terminalia scutifera_. Shingle Wood. Afara (Yoruba); Oaha Egoyn, Egoyn
nufwa (Benin).
It is a common tree in the Calabar, Ogoja, Owerri, Warri, Benin, Ondo
and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
The chief characteristics of this tree are the thin and far up-
reaching root flanges and its thin, grey-coloured bark. It attains a
height of about 200 feet and a girth of about 16 feet. The bole length
often exceeds 100 feet. The crown is compressed and flat, with few
main branches. It is usually found near water.
The timber is light-brown to almost yellowish-white, with darker
streaks. The sapwood is almost white, but when dry is barely
distinguishable from the heartwood, though when freshly cut the
heartwood appears drier, and thus shows up against the damper sapwood.
The wood is soft and planes easily, though not always giving a smooth
surface. It is also easy to saw or cut with a chisel and splits well.
It is attacked by termites.
On the whole the tree is a light-lover, and even the young self-sown
seedlings only grow in comparatively open places near rivers, where
there is no shade directly over them, though there may be trees to one
side or the other. It is one of the typical trees of the evergreen and
mixed deciduous zone, growing always on damp and deep soil. Natural
reproduction by seed is good. Stool shoots grow, but do not persist
for a great length of time. It often forms small pure groups in the
secondary forest, and in suitable localities tends to be more
prevalent in the secondary than in the primeval forest.
In Nigeria it has been used as planks, but is not considered very
good. On the Gold Coast it has been used for shingles.
The natives occasionally use the tree for making canoes, also for
bowls, plates, and native doors in the Benin country, but owing to its
softness it is not considered of much account.
In figure No. 108 there is a picture of a very large specimen found in
the Ikrigon Forest Reserve.
_Terminalia Togoensis_. Dry-zone Terminalia. Idi, Idi Odan (Yoruba).
Found in the Oyo, Benin and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria. It is a very
common tree, with slight foliage and small stem, which is usually
forked about 10 feet from the ground. The slash is yellow and almost
dry, which is most typical of the tree.
The wood is soft, though harder than most of the other Terminalias. It
works easily, but does not split well. The sapwood is white and the
heartwood of a pale yellow colour. The bark is rough and widely
fissured. Natural regeneration by seed does not appear to be good,
though stump shoots appear when the tree is cut down. It stands a
considerable amount of fire, but it is a light-loving tree.
The local people find the stem useful for house-building posts, as it
is comparatively durable and forked in shape.
_Terminalia avicennioides_.
It was stated it was found in the Calabar province.
_Terminalia Brownii_. Inya joko (Yoruba).
Found in the Abeokuta province.
_Combretum racemosum_. Ogan pupa (Yoruba); Akoso, Orsorsor (Benin).
Found in Olokemeji and Benin. Climbing shrub with red flowers and
white bracts.
_Combretum Lawsonianum_. Ome (Benin).
It has red flowers and is found at Agege.
_Combretum mucronatum_. Okan pupa (Yoruba).
It is found in the Mamu Forest.
_Combretum Zenkeri_. Ogan (Yoruba).
It is found in the Yoruba country.
_Combretum micranthum_. Okan (Yoruba).
It is found in the Yoruba country.
_Combretum glutinosum_.
_Combretum paucinervium_.
_Combretum Hartmannium_.
These are climbing Combretums found in the Yoruba country.
_Anogeissus leiocarpus_ (G. and P.). Yoruba Chew-stick. Ayin (Yoruba).
_Distribution._—It is found in the Oyo and Abeokuta provinces of
Nigeria.
_Chief Characteristics._—This tree reaches a height of about 70 feet
in favourable localities and a girth of 9 feet. With its birch-like
foliage and the drooping and sweeping of the pendulous branches in old
age, it is certainly the “Lady” of the African “open woods.” The
little spherical fruits cover the ground in the early part of the dry
season. The comparatively smooth bole, giving way to small scales of
light-brown bark as the tree gets older, is a typical feature. It is
often forked, especially low down. The bole is thin and slender in
build, with upward tending branches, also very slender in build, but
dark in colour. A blackish gum exudes when it is cut. The slash is
yellow before the gum runs out.
_Timber._—The sapwood is yellowish-white and the heartwood dark-brown
to almost black in some specimens. It is hard, durable and termite-
proof. It does not plane nor split well, takes nails with difficulty,
but saws fairly easily.
_Silvicultural Qualities._—It is a light-loving species, though in its
youth it will stand a little shade. It is one of the first trees to
appear on disused land, so long as the soil is good. Its foliage is a
little acid, as it kills all grass, even Ekon, and for this purpose is
invaluable as a tree for admixture with more valuable species. It is
somewhat exacting as to soil.
Once it gets started after being planted, or as a self-sown seedling
on good soil, it is a rapid-growing tree, which is only hindered in
its growth by the annually recurring grass-fires. Wherever it is
protected it develops into a straight-boled, large tree. The branches
are very persistent, so that close planting is most necessary. Several
plantations have been made with this tree.
_Utility._—The tree is burnt for its ashes for fixing native dyes; the
roots are used for chewing-sticks, and the bark is used medicinally by
the natives.
It yields a good firewood which gives great heat. The smaller poles
make very useful hut-building timber, as it is so often forked.
It should find a place as an avenue tree, owing to the delicate green,
the drooping nature of its foliage, and the moderate amount of shade
cast on the road.
The timber has not been tried for export, but with its dark black and
sometimes streaky coloration it is worthy of a trial. Locally it has
occasionally been cut for planks and for house-building. It is not
liked because it is so hard. The sapwood is rather wide. The timber is
sometimes rather knotty, especially containing dry knots. It is
sometimes attacked by a large borer, making large holes in it.
_Laguncularia racemosa_. White Mangrove or White Button.
This species is found growing in the swamp regions, also on the coast.
It yields timber, tanning, dyeing materials and medicaments.
=Myrtaceæ.=
_Eugenia Owariensis_ (Beauv.). West African Allspice. Adere (Yoruba).
It is a common tree of the Olokemeji Reserve and the Abeokuta and Oyo
provinces.
With its comparatively short bole (about 8 feet) and wide, almost
spherically-shaped crown, it is one of the largest and most
conspicuous of the dry-zone trees. The tree attracts the pigeons, but
not so much as the wild fig. The flowers are very minute and
insignificant. The fruit is very small and poor.
Reaching only a girth of about 4 feet, it does not yield very large
timber. Although moderately hard and durable, it has not yet found a
place in the local market. It is doubtful if it is termite-proof. It
might be used for making boxes or for small articles of furniture in
localities where wood is scarce.
It is a comparatively slow-growing tree, almost soil-improving, and of
a light-loving nature.
Owing to its comparatively dense foliage partially shading the ground
and thus killing the grass, it is a distinctly helpful species in the
protection from fire of a dry-zone forest.
Natural reproduction by seed is only moderate, but stump shoots are
strong, and it appears that root suckers also come up in certain
places.
_Eugenia Owariensis_. Isinren (Yoruba).
This tree is found in the dry-zone forests—a spreading tree which
flowers in February.
It yields timber, edible fruits and medicaments.
=Melastomaceæ.=
_Memecylon sp._, nr. _Barterii_.
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve in the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria.
=Araliaceæ.=
_Cussonia Nigerica_ (Hutch.). Elephant Sugar-cane. Sigo (Yoruba).
This is an evenly and rather deeply fissured small tree of the dry-
zone forest, which has in the main only a great tuft of large digitate
leaves at the top of the stem. It is occasionally branched, when it
gives an appearance of bearing all the leaves at the end of the stem.
It is fairly common in the Olokemeji Forest Reserve of the Abeokuta
province. This tree is one of the few digitate-leaved trees of the dry
zone, and is certainly one with the largest; it is a fire-resisting
tree. The natives occasionally use the stem for house and verandah
posts.
=Umbelliferæ.=
_Heptapleura Mannii_. Found in the Oban Reserve.
=Sapotaceæ.=
_Mimusops multinervis_. Emido or Sleeper Wood. Ako Emido (Yoruba);
Aganokwi (Benin).
This species is found in the Abeokuta and Oyo provinces of Nigeria; it
is most common, and, in fact, forms almost half the crop in the belt
of forest just on the south side of the railway four to six miles east
and west of Olokemeji Station. The most distinguishing feature of this
tree is the grey, thick, deeply-fissured bark. With its comparatively
short bole and stout, crooked branches, it is not unlike an oak. It
reaches a height of about 80 feet and a girth of about 15 feet. The
root spurns are practically non-existent. The trunk tapers off quite
abruptly after each series of branches. The crown is rather long and
sometimes almost pear-shaped. The foliage is dense, and, for the size
of the tree, the leaves are small. The flowers are small and white and
conspicuous. The fruit is a small round nut, about half an inch in
diameter. The leaves are a very dark green colour, but on the upper
surface are often shiny.
The sapwood is white and, for the size of the tree, comparatively
narrow. The heartwood is a deep red colour, which it retains even
after the wood is dry. In sections from older trees it exhibits
isolated white streaks, scattered here and there through the
heartwood. This is made of a small mineral deposit which is closely
allied to apatite. It is one of the hardest of the African woods and
also the most durable; it splits most satisfactorily; it saws very
cleanly, planes well, but owing to its extreme hardness takes nails
with difficulty. It is termite-proof. It is just as durable in, as out
of the ground. It burns with a fierce heat and, in fact, makes the
hottest fire of any of the West African woods. The grain is very
close, though sometimes it shows some figure. The knots in the wood
produce some pretty “curl” effects.
The tree is a shade-bearing, soil-improving species of the mixed
deciduous forest. It is very slow-growing, often not showing a greater
height-growth than 6 inches per year. In its youth the branches grow
more or less in whorls of three or four branches; these branches are
very persistent. Natural generation good; it demands a good soil, but
will stand a great deal of moisture, not to say flooding of the area
for several months of the year. It flowers in February; the roots are
comparatively deep-growing and there is a distinct tap-root. Some
plantations have been made with this tree. It has been tried as a
species to mix with ebony, and for this it seems suitable. In similar
localities this species and ebony are often found.
Locally it is used as a house-building wood and occasionally for
firewood. The timber has been cut up into sleepers and found to be
most durable. When it was used in an unseasoned state, and in very dry
territory, it was found to split—but this was scarcely a fair test of
the wood. It has also been used as joists and for the framework of
buildings, for which purposes it has proved very useful. Local
carpenters have complained about its hardness, but usually the tools
used have not been of such high quality necessary to give the best
results when working on this wood.
The timber has not been used for export, but it deserves a trial,
especially for railway sleepers.
[Illustration: FIG. 82.—=Benin Satinwood (Afrormosia laxiflora) standing
in the Ogba Plantation, Benin District.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 83.—=Mixed Mahogany Plantation, Khaya grandis on
left, Khaya Punchii in centre and Entandrophragma in the right
foreground, six years old, near Ogba, Benin Province.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 84.—=Ogea, Gum Copal (Daniellia caudata), standing
in the Ogba Plantation, Benin Province.=]
To face p. 376.
_Mimusops Djave_. African Pearwood, False Shea Butter Nut, Cross River
Nut. Aganokwi No. I. (Benin), Nyam (Efik).
It is found in the Benin, Owerri, Calabar and Ogoja provinces of
Nigeria. It is also known as Cherry Mahogany. It is a moderately
common tree in the evergreen forest zone, up to the end of the mixed
deciduous forest zone. It is one of the giant forest trees, attaining
a girth of over 30 feet and a height of over 200 feet; its bole is one
of the straightest of African trees, the trunk often reaching over 100
feet without a branch. The crown is flattish and almost symmetrical in
its roundness; it is formed with three or four main limbs spreading
out at almost right angles to the trunk. The foliage is heavy and the
sword-shaped leaves almost appear as though they were digitate,
looking at them from the base of the tree. From a short distance the
trunk looks almost black, but on closer inspection the bark is seen to
be deeply fissured in a comparatively even lattice-work fashion. The
slash is white and a thick white latex exudes. The root spurns are
only slight, except in old age; otherwise the bole is one of the most
cylindrical of African trees. (In illustration No. 100 a tree of about
8 feet in girth shows the very straight and even thickness of the
bole.) The fruit falls to the ground about the beginning of November,
and crushes on contact with the ground, showing the yellow floury pulp
inside. The pulp has an extremely dry, sweet, almost nauseating taste
and is inclined to stick in the throat. This huge fruit, the size of a
man’s fist, is almost like a huge plum, with rough opaque surface and
almost spherical in shape; inside, embedded in the pulp, are two,
three or four lobed nuts, smooth and shiny on the more rounded face
and rough on the other; in some respects they are roughly kidney-
shaped when looked at sideways. The flowers are white and small; the
tree loses its leaves for three or four days, when fresh ones come out
again.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood of a rich red colour, often
showing figured rosy grain; it is very hard, heavy and very durable,
and is sometimes cross-grained, though usually the texture is fine and
planes up with a smooth surface; it saws well, but is too hard to take
nails, except in very thin wood. The sapwood is usually only two or
three inches wide; the heartwood forms comparatively early in the life
of the tree. On the whole, this tree has a more open grain than the
other Mimusops.
Although the tree can stand a little shade in its youth, it is really
a light-loving species: after the first year the height-growth rapidly
increases when trees standing in a plantation have plenty of light. In
illustration No. 93 some trees only twelve years old show how rapidly
they develop under suitable conditions. None of these trees have yet
come into the nut-bearing stage, but it appears that in favourable
localities the trees will bear fruit between the fifteenth and
twentieth year.
It is a soil protecting and improving tree—in fact, the thick leaves
form some of the finest soil found in the forest. Natural regeneration
is not usually very good, because the seedlings have little or no
light, growing as they do from seeds which have fallen under the
parent tree. Duika and various other animals spread the seeds in old
farms where the trees have a chance of growing up. The timber has
occasionally been shipped to Europe and has been sold at Hamburg as
pearwood at 6d. per superficial foot, but the more rosy and figured
wood has also found a sale in Liverpool, as it sometimes looks almost
like a pinkish mahogany; it is, however, by no means well known, and
further trials with the wood should certainly be made. Small
consignments of the nuts have been exported from the Cross River and
sold in Liverpool as a substitute for Shea nuts; they are found to be
of a similar nature and of similar value for making an edible oil. The
original cost was rather high, so that the nuts did not yield a profit
on the transaction; however, with greater quantities being brought the
cost should not be so high, and also, since this first experiment was
made, the price of all oil nuts has risen enormously, so that at the
present time there is an ample margin between the cost of production
and the selling price. In the Cameroons the Balong natives dry the
nuts, which they split open in two pieces, pick off the thin shell and
boil out the thick buttery-like substance, which is used for cooking.
On our tour through their country we also tried it in place of lard,
and found it quite suitable and quite pleasant to the taste and only
about half the cost. In Nigeria, only the Oban people apparently know
anything about making this butter from the nuts; in other parts it is
quite unknown. The tree is not felled, but, on account of its size and
all-inspiring form, is considered “Ju-ju”; pieces of the bark are
chipped off and used as medicine to increase a person’s strength.
By the way, the constant cutting away of the bark at the base of the
tree and the continual struggle of the tree to overgrow these wounds
causes the grain to grow quite unevenly and wavering, thus forming
figured wood.
_Mimusops lacera_. Benin Pearwood. Aganokwi (Benin).
In 1906 samples of this timber were sold in the Liverpool market as
mahogany of a good, rich colour. It is found in the swamps near the
Osse and Cross Rivers.
_Dumoria Heckeli_ (A. Chev.). Oban Mahogany.
It is found in Tropical West Africa. It yields a fair timber. An
immense tree of the Oban Reserve, similar to _Mimusops Djave_.
_Omphalocarpum procerum_. Ikassa (Benin), Apassa, Ukpassa (Efik).
It is found in the Calabar, Benin and Ondo provinces of Nigeria.
It is a common tree of the evergreen forest. It reaches a height of 60
feet with a girth of 28 feet. The bole is short and the crown long,
but narrow. The huge, flatly spherically-shaped fruits, quite 9 inches
in diameter and 6 inches thick, are most characteristic of the tree.
These protrude just from the trunk or heavy branches with little or no
stalk. The depression in them, top and bottom, is quite an inch deep.
There are about sixty seeds inside, more like nuts. The leaf is large.
The sapwood is white and heartwood is brown-red. It is very hard.
It grows slowly and stands the shade. The seeds germinate well. It
does not sprout from the stump nor do root shoots appear. Elephants
and other animals, porcupines especially, eat the fruit.
The seeds are used in playing Ikbo, a Benin game. The seeds also are
used, tied in front of Apata sticks, for making a musical instrument,
or tied to the ankles of small boys to make a noise like a rattle when
they start to walk.
_Butyrospermum Parkii_. Shea Butter Tree, Dry-zone Oak. Emi-emi or Emi-
gidi (Yoruba).
This is one of the most prevalent trees of the Oyo province of the
Southern Provinces of Nigeria and of the Borgu, Niger and Nassarawa
provinces of the Northern Provinces of Nigeria. In places it is almost
gregarious, but it is most commonly found in mixture with the Dwarf
Red Ironwood, _Lophira alata_. In appearance it is most like a gnarled
old oak, except that the base is often burnt and partially hollow. It
is a large tree, reaching a height of about 40 feet and a girth of
over 10 feet. The root spurns are comparatively short and rounded; the
bole is short, attaining a length of up to 25 feet; the crown is
almost spherical, but rather inclined to be broken up by three or four
main branches; these are very thick in comparison to the size of the
tree, but not so much in proportion as in the case of the Baobab. The
bark is grey and very deeply fissured, more or less in criss-cross
fashion, and even with deeper and wider fissures than that of the oak.
The slash is white, and a small amount of thick white latex exudes
very slowly from the cut. In the case of the Dwarf Ironwood scarcely
any ordinary sap exudes and no latex. The leaves are about 10 inches
long, a very dark green and shiny, and not unlike the hart’s-tongue
fern, but somewhat broader at the end; the greenness of the leaves,
their shininess, and the greater thickness distinguish them from those
of the Dwarf Red Ironwood. The under surface of the leaf is whitish,
sometimes almost grey; the flowers are white and come out in December;
the fruit is like a small green plum and ripens in May. The leaves
persist over one season. The green pericarp covering the nut can be
eaten and is not unpleasant to the taste. The nut itself is not unlike
a chestnut in its being brown and shiny; the shape, however, is more
oval, with one comparatively sharp ridge.
The sapwood is white and comparatively wide; the heartwood is a rich
dark-red colour; it is very hard and durable; it is termite-proof; it
splits very badly, does not take nails well; it is hard to plane and
is sawn none too easily. It does not warp or crack to any extent while
it is seasoning under proper conditions; it burns with great heat, but
rather less than in the case of Emido.
It is a rather slow-growing tree, with soil-protecting and soil-
improving qualities; as a light-loving species takes up a good deal of
space. Natural regeneration appears to be poor, and may be due to the
fact that the flowers appear, or before the young fruit has only just
set, as the annual grass-fires run through the open deciduous forests
where this tree is found. On the other hand, root suckers grow in
great profusion. It also sprouts well from the stump. It is one of the
most fire-resisting trees, and the thick bark no doubt protects it
from its worst ravages. It may be considered one of the most typical
trees of the drier parts of the open deciduous forests. A few sample
plots have been tried with this tree, but it does not stand
transplanting at all well. Rodents such as the cut-grass (ground pig)
are very fond of the nuts, and no doubt destroy a great number whilst
they are germinating. Fire-protecting root suckers and other young
trees have thus far proved the most effective method of increasing the
number of mature trees. It does not appear to be very exacting as to
soil, but no doubt the growth is best on moist alluvial flats so long
as they are well drained.
Locally the most valuable part of the tree is the nut, from which the
Shea butter is boiled out after three days; it is a general article of
diet instead of palm oil, in those districts where the latter is hard
to obtain. Locally, also, the largest trees are cut down and made into
mortars for beating food; these fetch a price of 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d.
apiece; they are considered not only the most suitable, but also the
most durable, except those made of the wood of the Oil Bean
(_Pentaclethra macrophylla_). In other places it is used as a house-
building timber.
As far as Europeans are concerned, the chief value of the tree lies in
its nuts, which are either exported quite unprepared or in the form of
the butter as the natives make it, in large elliptical-shaped sausages
about 2 feet long and 9 inches in diameter. For these purposes it has
become a regular article of commerce, and only lack of suitable means
of transport prevents much greater quantities being collected and
exported to the European markets. In Europe its most suitable use is
said to be as a medium or inside substance of chocolate creams. The
butter itself has a most peculiar and rather nauseating flavour, which
is removed on its being refined and purified. The timber has not been
tried for export.
_Chrysophyllum sp.?_. Round Star Apple. A species of Star Apple. Agoma
(Benin).
The fruit is quite spherical and supposed to be larger than _C.
Africanum_. It is somewhat similar to _C. Kainato_. The natives
squeeze the fruit in order to eat it.
_Chrysophyllum Africanum_. African Star Apple or Edible Star Apple.
Osangbalumo (Yoruba); Otien (Benin).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ondo, Benin, Warri, Owerri, and Calabar
provinces of Nigeria. It is a medium-sized tree, often found growing
at the roadside at the edge of the villages or as an avenue leading up
to them.
The most characteristic feature of this tree is the silvery underside
of the leaf, which is formed by minute white hairs. In the fruiting
season, another characteristic is the golden-coloured, pointedly pear-
shaped fruit, which bursts on falling to the ground. A white latex
exudes from the fruit; this latex is sucked out and is tartly sweet to
the taste. Inside the fruit are five thin, elliptic-shaped seeds;
these are brown and very shiny. Their position inside the fruit
probably gave rise to the English name.
The wood is white and soft; it cuts easily and planes well, but does
not split well. The grain of the timber is fine and the texture
smooth. It is a moderately fast growing tree and the wood is not
durable. The slash is white, and the tree exudes a white latex when
cut; the foliage is very dense, and the dark upper surface of the
leaves is a great contrast to the underside. It is a soil-protecting
and soil-improving tree. The timber has not been exported to Europe.
It is occasionally used by the natives for making “Ju-jus” such as the
devil.
_Chrysophyllum sp._ Monkey Star Apple or Monkey Otien. Osang Palambi,
Osang Edan (Yoruba); Ekuso (?), Ekpuro, Otiemmie (Benin).
This is a moderately prevalent tree in the Calabar, Ogoja, Benin, Ondo
and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
It is a medium-sized tree with a small leaf. It attains a girth of
about 8 feet. The golden-brown of the underside of the leaves is most
typical of this tree and makes it easily distinguished from
_Chrysophyllum Africanum_; in fact, in passing through the forest this
is one of the few trees having brown tomentose hairs on the underside
of the leaf. The crown is broad and flat and heavy. The bole is not
too long and is covered with a smooth light-brown-coloured bark.
The Benin native name means that it is the Monkey Otien, that is to
say, not the one that men may eat. It is usually found in the
evergreen forest.
The timber is white, light and soft, and is attacked by termites. It
has not so far been cut for export or local use.
_Native Use._—The fruit is sometimes eaten by the Benins.
_Chrysophyllum albidum_ (Don.). White Star Apple. Osum Agbalumo
(Yoruba).
This is one of the Star Apples of the Yoruba Forest, where it is found
chiefly in the Abeokuta province. It is not very prevalent. The fruit
is not so esteemed by the natives as that of Osangbalumo. The bole is
somewhat straighter and less branched than that of _C. Africanum_. The
wood is white and soft; the stem is not absolutely round, being
somewhat fluted at the base, with narrow and thin spurs which extend 4
to 6 feet up the stem. The natives occasionally use the wood for
household utensils. It has not been cut for export.
_Chrysophyllum Welwitchii_.
This so-called Forcados Star Apple was found in the forest just behind
the station of Forcados. It is not a very common tree.
_Malacantha sp. nov._ Akala (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve and neighbouring parts of the
Abeokuta and Ibadan provinces. In many places it is very prevalent,
though it does not grow actually gregariously. It reaches up to a
medium size. The bole does not exceed a length of much over 15 feet
and a girth of 5 feet. With its four narrow, somewhat long (up to 4
feet) buttress root spurns, the base of the stem forms a rather
irregular shape. The bark is roughish and scales off to a slight
extent as the tree becomes older.
The leaves are inclined to be placed at the terminals of the shoots
and twigs, and the main veins are very prominent, giving the
impression that the leaf has only comparatively recently opened. The
leaf is a little rough to the touch, and rather dry and thickish. It
is a distinctly yellowish-green colour. The foliage is very sparse.
With its none too straight stem and comparatively slight amount of
foliage it presents a poor appearance.
The wood is of a pleasant light-yellow colour and comparatively hard.
It planes up with a smooth surface and saws easily. It does not take
nails well, nor does it split easily. It is termite-proof.
Natural regeneration appears to be slight, but stool and root shoot
reproduction seem to be strong. The seeds are very small and appear
like little round, spherical nuts. Although it will bear a slight
amount of shade in its youth, it is a light-loving species later on.
Occurring as it does in the mixed deciduous forests, near the lower
edge of the dry-zone vegetation it should prove a useful tree,
especially as it is comparatively fire-resisting.
Although comparatively slow-growing it attains sufficient size to be
cut up into verandah-posts and banister rails and uprights.
On the whole, quite a respectable quantity of timber could be obtained
in the aggregate from the large number of trees found growing in the
forests.
_Pachystela cinereum_ (Pierre). Osan odo, Orban igba (Yoruba).
Found in the Abeokuta province.
=Ebenaceæ.=
_Diospyros Mombuttensis_, syn. _Sinensis_. Walking-stick Ebony or
Yoruba Ebony. Ogan pupa, Aggan Egbo (Egba) (Yoruba); Ungungmekkan
(Benin).
It is a small tree with reddish-coloured stem and very thin, scaly
bark, often branching near the base and usually forming several stems
up to 18 inches in girth instead of one main stem. It has a large,
alternate leaf, with large leaf scars, amounting to projections from
the twigs. The fruit is like an acorn, but of reddish colour, with a
very small, low-rimmed cup. The twigs are reddish colour too, which is
most typical of the tree.
It is common in the Benin, Abeokuta, Ibadan, Oyo and Ondo provinces of
Nigeria.
_Timber._—Very hard, whitish-brown wood.
_E. Use._—Walking-sticks, as it often grows forming a natural handle.
_Native Use._—Walking-sticks.
_Diospyros sp._ Benin Ebony. Owegbo (Benin).
A medium-sized tree, yielding a black ebony, which is prevalent in the
Benin forests. The bark scales off like _D. atropurpurea_. It is a
larger tree, though, than the last named. It likes the dense forest
with a deep, damp soil.
In proportion the sapwood is white and very wide.
The tree is slow-growing, shade-bearing, with soil-protecting and
soil-improving qualities. Natural regeneration is weak.
The timber has not been exported, nor has it been sawn up for local
use.
_Native Use._—Firewood.
_Diospyros mespiliformis_. Monkey Guava or Yoruba Ebony, Kanran, Etini
(Yoruba); Igedudu (Benin).
From the similarity of its fruit to a medlar it obtains its botanical
name.
It is found in the Abeokuta and Ibadan provinces of Nigeria, in the
mixed deciduous forest zone. In places such as the Olokemeji Forest
Reserve and neighbourhood it is very prevalent and almost gregarious
in habit. As regards height, and almost always as regards girth, it is
the largest of almost all the ebony-trees, with the exception of one
species found near the Niger, reaching a girth of over 14 feet and a
bole length of 70 feet. At the pole stage, and as it gets older, the
bark is evenly fissured, vertically and horizontally, breaking up into
small black-edged sections of about 2 inches long and ½ inch wide.
Until it is much over 2 feet in girth the cortex is smooth, dark-green
or black. After this it becomes rather rough, with small fissures.
Although often very cylindrical in shape, the bole sometimes has very
considerable taper—in fact, more so than many other trees. The
branches come out almost at right angles to the stem and are very
persistent, still remaining as short snags for many years after they
have been broken off by storms or other agencies. The leaves are
smallish and lanceolate in shape, and almost appear to be silvery on
the under surface and very dark green on the upper surface. The
thinner branches appear silvery-grey, though they are very similar,
but thinner in comparison to _M. multinervis_, which are found in the
same locality growing side by side. The leaf has a few fine veins. The
fruit is flatly spherical, and is like a little medlar with its
russet-brown rough surface and the dried-up sepals of the flower on
it. It is, however, larger than than of Multinervis.
The sapwood is white and narrow and the heartwood dark-brown to black,
sometimes even green-black. It is very hard—in fact, almost the
hardest of all African woods, with perhaps the exception of Yoruba
Ironwood, Red Ironwood, and African Greenheart. It splits fairly well.
It is inclined to be brittle, especially in timber from larger
specimens, planes well and saws well, but is difficult to nail. It is
termite-proof. Occasionally a large boring beetle burrows into the
wood when it is lying on the ground. However, the grubs which do this
damage are considered a delicacy by the natives, so that wherever
found they are soon collected and eaten. The younger tree grows with
branches more or less in whorls, but not so regular as those of _M.
multinervis_. When fresh it is liable to warp. It keeps its colour
better than most of the ebonies. It occasionally shows a little
figure. In proportion it has the largest heartwood of any of them, and
for this reason is a most valuable tree.
[Illustration: FIG. 85.—=Khaya anthoteca, 16 feet in girth, Obagie
Forest Reserve, Benin Province.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 86.—=Okan (Cylicodiscus Gabunensis), African
Greenheart, 24 feet in girth, standing in Obagie Forest Reserve, Benin
Province.=]
To face p. 384.
_Diospyros Kamerunensis_. Cameroon Ebony.
This tree has been found in the Boji Hills Forest as well as in the
Cameroons. Although not of great size, it yields a comparatively large
and black-hearted ebony. The fruit is much larger than that of most
other species. It is comparatively prevalent at an elevation of about
1,000 feet in the Boji Hills. Up to the present it is doubtful if it
has been worked at all. The natives have no use for the tree.
_Diospyros Barteri_. Ebony Nut or Yam Stick. Ivioha (Benin).
Small ebony-shrub of the Benin province of Nigeria, found near Okomo
in rather moist ground. The natives have no use for the wood.
_Diospyros bipendensis_. South Cameroon Ebony.
It is supposed to be found in the Oban Reserve.
_Diospyros crassiflora_. Benin Ebony. Aborkpor (Benin).
It yields the black ebony of the Benin country and is somewhat
prevalent. Found in the Benin, Abeokuta and Onitsha provinces of
Nigeria. A tree with a small leaf.
It forms almost pure groups or even small stands, of half a mile and
less in extent, near the banks of the Niger. It can stand swampy
ground. It used to be cut in the Onitsha district.
_Diospyros sp._ Benin Ebony. Isanhianme or Ehrenyegbo (Benin).
A common tree of the Benin province of Nigeria. It is supposed to
yield a good ebony. It does not reach a very large size. It is a soil
protecting and improving tree. Locally it is used for house-building.
In 1906 samples of this timber were sold in the Liverpool market as
mahogany at 1s. 6d. per cubic foot. Since that time it has not been
exported.
_Diospyros atropurpurea_ (Gurke). Brown Ebony. Igedudu (Yoruba);
Igedudu (Benin).
It is a small tree, attaining a girth of about 4 feet. The heartwood
is usually brown with black streaks, giving it a curious and diverse
streakiness, not unlike black marble or Indian Blackwood. The flower
is reddish-purple coloured and quite conspicuous, growing out of the
upper surface of the twig without a stalk of any kind. The bark is
almost black and peels off in very thin, oblong-shaped flakes; the
cortex underneath is green. In old age it is hollow at the first
branch joint.
It is found in the Benin and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria. About one-
third of the diameter of a mature tree is heartwood. Apparently a
slow-growing tree, though none have been planted. It is a shade-bearer
in the evergreen and mixed forest; natural regeneration is not good. A
large cerambix or other borer makes finger-thick holes in the sap and
heartwood of old trees.
It should be an export timber of value, but it was only valued at £5
to £10 a ton in 1906. It has been used for mirror frames.
_Native Use._—For firewood in the Benin country, where it is
considered very good.
_Diospyros suaveolens_. Benin Ebony. Oohoo (Benin).
It is a small-sized tree, with very small heartwood and a small,
oblong, almost lanceolate leaf. The bark, which is quite black, has
slight fissures and is much harder than that of _D. atropurpurea_.
It is prevalent in the Benin country, Nigeria.
It likes to grow near water, but not in a swampy place. It is a slow-
grower and shade-bearer, being found as an undergrowth in the high
forest. It is not attacked by white ants. The wood is hard and
durable.
_Native Use._—It is used for house-building as rafters, as well as for
axe-handles of any kind. Small trees are used for making bows (long)
for shooting birds.
_Diospyros verrucosa_.
This tree, although named from the Cameroons, is found in the Abeokuta
and Benin provinces of Nigeria. The twigs are very rough compared to
the other species.
_Diospyros dendo?_. Cross River Ebony. Ebubri etu, Obiliteto (Efik);
Itiuyang (Oban, Ekoi).
It is a medium-sized tree with dark-green, smooth bark, with large
lanceolate leaves and strong upward-spreading branches, which makes
the bole shorter than it would otherwise be. The fruit is almost pear-
shaped, containing four long, thin, wedge-shaped seeds, brown outside
and white inside.
It is found in the Calabar and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria, in the
evergreen forest zone of the hill forests.
The crown is rather irregular in shape, being supported with two or
three main limbs from the bole. It reaches a girth of about 6 feet and
a bole length of 12 feet.
The sapwood is wide and white and the heartwood black. The tree is
occasionally attacked by a large borer, which makes large holes nearly
¾ inch in diameter. The timber is very hard, but if the tree is killed
by fire it becomes a little more brittle than is usually the case. In
old trees which may be left lying in the forest, the middle of the
heartwood often decays away with ground-rot. It planes well and saws
well. Nails often split it. It splits moderately well, especially when
free of knots.
It is a very slow-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting and soil-
improving tree. On the whole, it is more exacting as to soil than most
other trees, being usually found on a good loam rich in humus, which
is moist and with fair drainage. Natural regeneration is none too
good. Stump shoots are very weak, and often do not occur. It has not
yet been planted. It is very susceptible to fire—in fact, more so than
perhaps any other tree. The timber has been exported for many years
from Calabar, but of late in decreasing quantities, owing to the
exhaustion of the nearer sources of supply, and to the fact that only
small billets under 3 feet in length, not square, and only 3 or 4
inches in cross-section were cut. The usual native method of procedure
is very curious. On making a clearing for a farm, any ebony standing
there gets killed with the fire, and having comparatively few roots
and being very heavy, the tree falls down. Before abandoning the farm
the native may put a mark on this tree, or at any rate make a mental
note of its existence. After a year or two, if he is in need of money
to buy clothes, or wishes to purchase anything, he goes back to this
old farm, finds this tree, perhaps externally somewhat charred, and
perhaps the centre of the heartwood rotted away; he proceeds to cut it
into lengths of about 10 or 12 feet. These he then splits lengthways
into segments with a rounded side of about 5 inches, the two split
sides about 4 inches, and the inner surface about 3 inches. In order
to get these long pieces of suitable dimension to carry to the nearest
factory or trading station, he cuts them into three or four billets;
two or three of these, according to weight, are tied together and
carried to the factory. It is sold by weight, and sometimes 200
billets go to the ton, though a smaller quantity of a larger size
would be better and secure a better price. This method should be
compared with the superior one adopted by the natives of the
Cameroons. Compared to the usual price of £6 or £7 per ton for Calabar
ebony, Cameroon wood usually fetches £10 to £12.
_Diospyros xanthochlamys_. Okahimi (Benin).
This is one of the Benin ebonies and is not very prevalent. It is said
to yield a good ebony.
_Maba Mannii_. Benin Maba.
It is a common tree in the Benin and Ondo provinces of Nigeria. It
only reaches a girth of 4 feet and a short bole of about 10 feet. It
is much branched, even low down, the branches being persistent and
crooked. The leaves are small, rather less than ebony itself. The leaf
is really a long, pinnate one, with thirty pairs of pinnæ. The fruit
is white, soft and oblong, with small seeds.
The tree has a white sapwood with a black heartwood, rather small in
proportion to the size of the stem. It does not split well. Termites
do not attack it, but occasionally the gigas borers make holes in it.
It grows slowly and stands a good deal of shade. It sprouts well from
the stool and the seed also grows fairly well. It grows in the damp,
deep soil and does not stand fire at all. It belongs to the evergreen
forest zone.
This tree has not been cut for local use or exported to Europe. It is
used as firewood, and is considered better than most other woods, even
_Ohia_, _Celtis sp._
=Oleaceæ.=
_Schrebera Golungensis_. Hard Yellow Wood. Opele (Yoruba); Udegwoga (?)
(Benin).
It is found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria, Olokemeji and Ilaro
Reserves.
It is a large tree, reaching a girth of about 10 feet. The smooth,
light-green bark with yellow patches differs from the Celtis species,
which is rougher, and the Afrormosia species, which is orange-red and
peels off. The leaves are small for the size of the tree. The crown is
narrow and long and the branches forming it slender. The curious small
pear-shaped dehiscent fruit, showing four oblong niches for seeds, is
most typical of the tree. In other respects the habit and build of the
tree is similar to the Celtis species, especially with the root spurns
slightly corrugating the base of the bole. It is not a common tree,
but usually a fair number of specimens are seen in any locality where
it has been found. The bole is very straight and free from branches
for quite a height of the tree.
The timber is a dull-yellow colour, fine grain, of smooth texture and
moderately hard. It planes to a smooth, almost shining surface. It
scarcely shrinks or warps when drying.
It sprouts slightly from the stump, though the shoots do not seem to
have much strength.
The timber has not yet been exported, though its valuable quality
should assure it of a market. Sample planks used at Olokemeji proved
most durable.
_Native Use._—The fruit is used by the Yorubas for divining the
future.
=Loganiaceæ.=
_Strychnos densiflora_ (Baill.). African Strychnos Tree. Attako
(Yoruba); Egbeda (Benin).
It is found in the dry-zone forest of the Ibadan and Benin provinces
of Nigeria, where it seems to be very prevalent.
_Chief Characteristics._—It is a small tree or shrub, up to 12 feet
high, with small leaves and very hard wood.
It is of slow growth, but on the whole is a shade-bearer and soil-
protecting and soil-improving tree. Natural regeneration appears to be
poor.
It has not been planted.
Apparently the seeds have not yet been examined as to their value. The
timber is too small for export or local use, except for hut-building.
_Use._—The Benin natives use the stem for making snares for Duika and
the branches for making brooms, as they are very tough.
_Anthocleista nobilis_. Ogugu, Sapho, Apa Oro (Yoruba); Orrimogungun,
Oriweni (Benin).
It is found in the Ibadan, Abeokuta, Benin and Ogoja provinces of
Nigeria.
It has huge soft leaves, and is one of the first plants to appear on a
clearing in the dry-zone or mixed forests. In old age the leaf is much
smaller, and the mass of white flowers along the uppermost branches is
most typical of the tree. It is often almost gregarious, and in most
places more than one tree is found in the immediate neighbourhood.
Reaching a girth of about 3 feet, its stem does not exceed 20 feet in
height. There are usually two or three main branches into which it
divides. The wood is soft and white.
It is a light-loving, rapid-growing tree, which is soil-protecting and
soil-improving in youth, but is too open in crown after a few years.
It should, however, prove a useful nurse for superior species in the
dry zone.
_Native Use._—Firewood in places where wood is scarce.
=Apocynaceæ.=
_Alstonia Congensis_ (Eng.). Pattern Wood, Stool Wood. Ahun, Awun,
Ogudugbu (Yoruba); Ukhu (Benin); Ekuri Ebu (Ibo Owerri); Abo, Idu
(Efik); Ofemm (Bembi); Etiap, Oguk (Oban, Ekoi).
It is a large tree, growing up to a height of 100 feet and 10 feet
girth. The white lenticels on the bark are very typical of the tree,
and give it the appearance of having a rust disease. The crown is
formed of two or three whorls of branches and is very flat in old age.
The tree grows always in whorls, though it may have more than one
stem. In the distance the leaves appear to be digitate, but in reality
three to seven are found to be growing out of the end of one stalk,
all being much the same size. The crown is flatly umbrella-shaped. It
has comparatively few branches. The root flanges are slight, soon
merging into the trunk. At the base of the bole, however, they are not
absolutely round in shape, but have two or three large ridges,
sometimes almost subdividing it. The slash is white, with yellow
spots. A chalky white latex exudes when it is cut, rapidly running
down the stem like a streak of whitewash.
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan, Ondo, Benin, Owerri, Calabar and
Ogoja provinces of Nigeria in the evergreen and mixed deciduous forest
zone. It is a very common tree throughout this region and is usually
found growing singly.
The timber is white, there being little or no difference between
sapwood and heartwood. When dry, it is very light and soft. It splits
and planes easily, saws well, and takes nails easily. The grain is
close and fine and very even in texture. Although dull, it works up to
a smooth finish. It is attacked by termites. It is not durable in the
open, but under cover it lasts quite well. In drying it is liable to
shrink and warp a little, but with care this can be avoided. It
seasons comparatively quickly. It cuts easily with a knife or chisel
and might take the place of lime as a carving-wood. From its texture
it should take stains very well.
It is a very fast-growing, at first slightly shade-bearing and
latterly a light-loving tree, which thoroughly protects the soil and
enriches it with its leaf fall. Natural regeneration appears to be
good, as it sprouts well from the stump. It seems to like a good soil
with plenty of moisture, and will even withstand floods. It is not
fire-resisting. The crown and branches are liable to be broken with a
high wind.
In 1906 samples of this timber were sold in the Liverpool market as a
whitewood, but it was considered to be of no value. It deserves a
further trial as a pattern-wood, comparatively large quantities being
available. Locally it has not been sawn up for planks.
In Calabar the timber is used for stools, which are carved out of
large solid blocks of this wood in one piece, without a joint.
_Native Use._—In the Benin country the timber is used for doors and
the roots for medicine.
The box of the musical instrument Asologun, a kind of zither, is made
of this wood in the Yoruba country. The latex is used for mixing with
real rubber latex of the Anyo or _Funtumia elastica_ tree.
_Voacanga Africana_ (Stapf.). Cloth Shrub. Dodo, Giwini (Yoruba); Igbo
(Benin).
It is a common shrub-like tree in the Ogoja, Onitsha, Benin, Warri,
Ondo, Ibadan and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria. The tree is usually
noticeable from its white wax-like, trumpet-shaped flowers, which have
a very fragrant scent, and which very rapidly wither when cut. The
bark is thin and extremely fibrous and hard to break, so much so that
the natives of the Asaba district make grass-like fibre out of it and
mix it with a silk fibre to make a very durable kind of cloth, which
the natives wear. It grows in waste places and requires light. It
sprouts well from the stump.
_Conopharyngia durissima_.
This tree is found in the Western Provinces. It is of a similar size
to _C. pachysiphon_, and the timber is just as durable.
_Conopharyngia pachysiphon_. False Boxwood. Dodo? (Yoruba); Ibbu
(Benin).
It is a common tree in the Calabar, Warri, Benin and Ondo provinces of
Nigeria. A small tree, attaining a girth of only 4 feet, with a large
leaf, bearing large spherical-shaped fruits in pairs. The large
creamy-white, strongly scented flowers are conspicuous to both sight
and scent. The bark, even in its younger stages, is covered with small
yellow lenticels. The wood is hard and yellow in colour, and there is
no difference between sapwood and heartwood. The latex has sometimes
been used as an adulterant for rubber. It is a shade-bearer, and is
found at the border of the evergreen and mixed deciduous forests.
The natives of the Benin country use the roots for medicinal purposes.
_Farquharia elliptica_. Onanisankianmon (Benin).
This is a member of the new genus of Farquharia found by Mr. Farquhar
in the Benin province of Nigeria, near Ugumu. It is not stated whether
the natives use this as a source of rubber or not.
_Landolphia florida_ (Benth.). Rubber Vine. Ibugidi, Ibo-akitipa
(Yoruba).
A vine found throughout Southern Nigeria, though most abundant in the
dry-zone fringing forests and in the intermediate forests, and at
Ottoa, Benin province. It bears white flowers having yellow centres.
_Uses._—Milky juice is obtained from this vine, but it is not good
rubber, and has no market value.
_Landolphia scandens_. Ibo (Yoruba); Ubamiogon (Benin); Otopoi, Otanta
(Ibo Asaba).
Ilaro.
_Landolphia Owariensis_, var. _rubiginosa_.
Found Anwai River, Asaba district.
_Landolphia Owariensis_. White Vine Rubber. Ibo tabong (Yoruba);
Ubamiogon, Ubgo (Benin); Otta farfridi (Ibo Asaba).
Found Benin City and Mamu.
_Landolphia Senegalense_. Ibo akitipa (Yoruba).
It is found in the Oyo province of Nigeria, and it is supposed to be
one of the sources of vine rubber.
_Landolphia Thompsonii_ (Chev.). Corrugated-fruited Rubber. Ibogidi
(Yoruba); Ugbamiogun (Benin).
Abeokuta, Benin and Calabar provinces of Nigeria.
A vine growing abundantly throughout the rain and fringing forests. It
has white flowers with yellow centres and a bright-yellow edible
fruit. No rubber is obtained from it, but only a pasty mass from the
latex.
_Landolphia Petersiana_. Large-fruited Landolphia.
Found in the Oban Reserve and Benin province.
_Landolphia bracteata_. Autopoi (Ibo Asaba).
Found at Idanre, Anwai, Asaba district.
_Carpodinus hirsuta_ (Stapf.), var. _djenge_. Flake or Paste Rubber,
Root Rubber, Brown Cluster, or Brown Medium. Ibo Ilecki (Yoruba);
Uboto, Obo, Ubanakwi, Ake, Abache (Benin).
It is found in the Onitsha, Benin and Warri provinces of Nigeria. It
has a mauve-coloured flower with a musk-like scent.
The rubber was bought near the Niger until the vines from which it was
taken were destroyed.
_Carpodinus Barteri_, syn. _Clitandra Barteri_. Mauve-flowered Vine
Rubber. Ibo (Yoruba); Akhe (Benin); Akwarri, Offonkwari (Ibo Asaba).
Anwai River.
_Carpodinus fulva_. Pear-shape-fruited Rubber. Ikwian (Benin).
Found in the Asaba district, Benin province.
_Clitandra elastica_. Brown Medium Rubber. Ubabikpan (Benin);
Beckindanko (Hausa).
Benin province.
A vine of the dry zone, found in the Okwoga district and at Adani in
Awka district. It also yields root rubber.
It yields a good rubber, sold on the Niger for 1s. 3d. to 1s. 6d. per
pound (1911). Extracted by tapping and coagulated by boiling, also
with salt.
_Clitandra visciflua_ (Hall. Fil.). Ubake (Benin).
Found in the Benin province.
_Clitandra Togolana_ (Hall). Ibo, Agba (Benin).
It is a large tree, up to 60 feet high (?). Olokemeji.
_Clitandra cirrhosa_. Oban Rubber.
This is one of the commoner vines of the Oban Forest Reserve. In
recent years, owing to the low price of rubber, it has not been tapped
to any extent. The cost of collection to the natives is rather high,
with the extended preparations and amount of food they must take with
them in this forest. Added to this there is the cost of the licence
and the cost of taking it over the long distance to the market, so
that they do not think it pays to collect this rubber.
_Rauwolfia vomitoria_ (Afzel). Swizzle-stick. Iraigbo, Asofeyeje
(Yoruba); Akata (Benin).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan, Ondo, Benin, Warri, Owerri and
Calabar provinces of Nigeria, in the evergreen and mixed deciduous
zone, where it is very prevalent.
It is a small tree of 12 feet in height and 18 inches in girth, with
almost always four branchlets to each branch, forming regular whorls
in this manner. It has a soft, thin leaf and a round, small green
fruit. The stem is usually forked near the ground, and each side
branch is forked again and the uppermost branches divided into four
separate twigs, making thus a most convenient shape for a swizzle-
stick. The stem is more or less dotted with a few white lenticels. The
bark peels off very readily and cleanly with a knife, leaving the bare
white stem, especially in the smaller branches.
The wood of the smaller branches is soft, showing a small pith in the
centre, but that of the stem in the larger specimens is comparatively
hard, and more like an inferior type of boxwood. The sapwood is
usually a little softer than the heartwood.
It is a moderately fast-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting and
soil-improving tree. Natural regeneration is good. It sprouts well
from the stump, and a certain number of root suckers appear. It stands
pruning well.
The tree does not really reach a large enough size to yield export
timber, or to be of much value for local use. It is, however, commonly
used as a swizzle-stick.
In places where building timber is scarce, it is occasionally used in
house-building. It could be, and sometimes is, used as a live fence.
_Polyadoa umbellata_ (Stapf.). Oak or Boxwood. Aini (Egba); Erm
(Yoruba); Osu (Benin).
It is a medium-sized tree which grows to a girth of 4 feet. The young
stem is easily recognized by the longitudinal strips of lenticels,
joined together with the dark-green cortex, showing between each
strip. When older, lenticels appear on the stem and it may be quite
grey or white.
The wood is a dirty yellow colour and very hard, resembling box in the
fineness and the hardness of its grain. It is used by the natives for
making combs for the hair; these combs have six prongs about 6 inches
long and are sold at 6d. to 1s. apiece. It is used for house-building,
and is considered the most durable timber for this purpose; it is
forked about 15 to 20 feet from the ground. The bark is used
medicinally by the natives (Yorubas).
The leaves are a yellowish-green, gradually turning a rich dark-green.
The small greengage-sized fruits appear in pairs at the ends of the
shoots, and occasionally in threes, but this is rare.
It likes moist ground, though it will stand a long dry season, so long
as it has the shade of other trees. It is a distinct shade-bearer,
though it grows a fair height when it has a chance. The flowers are
white and have a very pleasant smell.
Only a very small quantity of latex exudes when the tree is cut, and
so does not give the impression of belonging to the rubber family of
Apocynaceæ.
The sapwood is a similar colour to the heartwood. It is not always
straight, but this is owing to its slow growth causing it to be
amongst the dominated trees. In older trees the stem is usually quite
white, except where the bark has been removed.
A sample was sent to England in 1914 and was said to be valueless as a
substitute for boxwood. In 1906 samples were shipped to Liverpool,
where it was sold as a species of oak at 1s. 9d. per cubic foot, but
it was not considered as good as that obtained from Awaw, Eba,
_Lophira procera_ or _Ostryoderris impressa_.
_Native Use._—The chief tree for all tool-handles and house-posts. The
most durable kinds are in Egba, and they are not attacked by white
ants.
_Alafia Landolphioides_. Ubamiagon (Benin); Ata frifridi (Ibo Asaba).
Found at Illushi, Asaba district, Oke Igbo, Ilesha district.
_Carissa edulis_.
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria. The fruit is edible.
_Motandra Guineensis_ (A. D.C.). Bodekadun (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria.
It has not been used for making rubber.
_Strophanthus Preussii_. Elephant Poison. Isha gere, Isha kekere
(Yoruba).
Found in the Shagamu, Lagos and Calabar districts.
A climbing shrub, attaining the height of 12 feet. The flowers are
creamy in colour, deepening to orange, with purple spots and streaks.
_Strophanthus hispidus_ (A. D.C.). Isha fere (Yoruba).
Found in the Ilesha district, Oyo province.
_Holarrhena Wulfsbergii_ (Stapf.). The Male Rubber Tree or False Rubber
Tree, according to the Yorubas, or sometimes known as the False Ireh
Tree. Ireh-ibeji, Ireh-ako, Ako-ireh (Yoruba).
This tree being found in the Abeokuta and Oyo provinces of Nigeria, it
is not very prevalent, nor does it grow in large numbers in any one
place. With its smooth, dark-green bark, speckled irregularly all over
with white spots and lenticels, it is easily distinguishable from the
almost silver-white or grey beech-like stem of the true West African
Rubber Tree.
At a height varying from 10 to 15 feet the bole sometimes divides and
forms two very straight stems, one much smaller than the other. In the
African Rubber Tree (_Funtumia elastica_) usually only one stem is
formed.
Again, in its sparse and rather drooping foliage it is very different
from the real rubber-tree. The leaves are much longer, more sharply
pointed, and in fact more lanceolate than those of _F. elastica_. The
foliage often gives the appearance of being withered or that the tree
is drying up.
Large raceme-like masses of small flowers appear in February or March,
which are much more prominent than those of _F. elastica_, these being
more hidden among the leaves, although individually having larger
blossoms. Later on, a thin round pod, nearly 2 feet in length, forms
in pairs, which hang down and make the tree look most grotesque. On
the other hand, _F. elastica_ pods are stout and short and almost
hidden by the foliage.
The tree reaches a girth of 36 inches and a total height of about 50
feet.
The slash is greenish-white, and a very little white, rather watery
latex exudes from the cut. The wood is white, soft, planes easily, and
splits comparatively easily. It saws fairly well and takes nails with
comparative ease. It is not termite-proof.
It is a moderately fast-growing tree of a light-loving nature. Natural
reproduction by seed appears to be fair. It sprouts slightly from the
stump.
Being found in odd and poor places in the mixed deciduous forests at
the edge of dry-zone vegetation, it should prove useful for temporary
house-building purposes and for cutting up as cratewood for bananas,
etc.
_Pleiocerus Barteri_ (Baill.). Irena, kekere (Yoruba).
The fruit is very much like a Cola and fairly common in the forest. It
is very sticky to the taste.
It is a medium-sized tree, in habit similar to the Cola-tree, and most
people would classify it from its external appearance as a species of
Cola.
It is found in the Benin and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
_Picralima Klaineana?_. Agege (Yoruba).
Found at Agege, Yoruba country.
_Oncinotis gracilis_. Ornamental Rubber Vine. Allerle (Benin).
Found in Ogodo Dry-zone Forest.
_Name unknown_. Ikwian (Benin).
An uncommon tree of the Benin province of Nigeria. It attains a
medium-size and bears large fruits. The wood is used as firewood.
=Borraginaceæ.=
_Ehretia cymosa_ (S. and H.). Ija oke (Yoruba).
Found in the Olokemeji.
_Cordia sp._, _? Platythyrsa_. Drum-wood Cordia. Ako Ledo (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria.
_Cordia Irvingii_. Acorn-like-fruited Cordia.
It is a medium-sized tree, similar to _Cordia Millenii_. It is found
in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria.
_Cordia Millenii_. Omon or Omo (Yoruba); Omah (Benin).
This tree is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan, Ondo, Benin, Owerri,
Calabar and Ogoja provinces of Nigeria.
It is an irregularly shaped tree, often with more than one stem. The
light-coloured bark, especially when it is scaly, often gives the
impression that the tree is luminous at night. The leaf is large. It
is a common tree in the Benin district, of medium-size.
It yields a softwood, which has a certain amount of resonance. The
sapwood is white and the heartwood a mid-brown colour. It is not very
durable, except under cover.
It stands a good deal of shade. It sprouts well from the stump. It
bears fruit irregularly, and seedlings are scarce in the forest. The
wood has not been exported, and none of its qualities so far assure it
of finding a good market in Europe.
_Native Use._—The natives use the wood for making drums.
[Illustration: FIG. 87.—=Koko Town, with raft of mahogany logs moored
near the bank.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 88.—=Mahogany logs floating in the river above Koko
Town.=]
To face p. 396.
=Verbenaceæ.=
_Avicennia Africana_. White Mangrove. Ogbun (Lagos); Ede, Eyhrodo
(Benin); Odonumon (Efik).
It is found in the Colony, Ondo, Warri, Owerri and Calabar provinces
of Nigeria. It is seen partly in pure groups, and also mixed more or
less in groups with the other areas of Red Mangrove and _Laguncularia
sp._
It is a small tree, growing up to 2 feet girth and about 40 feet high.
The bole appears silvery grey and the branches very slender. The
leaves are of a lighter green than those of the Red Mangrove. The
aerial roots are smaller and not so extended as in the case of
Racemosa. On the whole, it occurs in the quieter and less exposed
localities, away from the sea, and it seems to appear only secondary
to _R. racemosa_, which is the first tree to appear in the mangrove
formation. The slash is white; the cortex is thin.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood a light brown when freshly cut.
Is moderately hard, and durable when dry and used away from water. It
is termite-proof. In structure it is similar to teak, being a member
of the same family, but the grain is more open and the pores are
considerably larger and longer, giving the wood a more open texture.
It planes up with a smooth surface, splits well, takes nails
moderately well and saws easily.
It is a somewhat slow-growing, at first shade-bearing, and later on a
light-demanding tree. Natural regeneration is good, but it does not
appear to be extending as fast as _R. racemosa_. It sprouts from the
stump; root suckers and aerial root shoots grow in considerable
numbers. On the whole, it tends to die out sooner when the ground
becomes dryer than _R. racemosa_, and its area of distribution from
the coast inland is much less wide.
The timber has not been exported, nor has it been sawn up for local
use. For the natives this tree forms what is considered the best “salt
bush” in the Jekri country. It is still used for the manufacture of
salt, which is considered much stronger than and superior to imported
salt. It is also used for poles, house-building, boat and canoe houses
and wharves.
_Vitex grandifolia_. Ori (Yoruba); Owenkundignon, Oriri Ogikiomi (?)
(Benin).
It is found in the Benin, Onitsha, Owerri and Ogoja provinces, in the
open deciduous forest zone.
The digitate leaf is much larger than that of _V. Cienkowski_, and on
the whole the tree is larger too, reaching a girth of 10 feet and a
bole length of 30 feet. The fruit is rather larger, but similar in
shape and taste to the former. The branches are very persistent, and
coming out more or less in whorls from the bole, give the tree a most
distinct appearance.
The sapwood is white and the heartwood at first light-brown, and then
darker brown. It is rather more open-grained than the teak. It does
not split very well, but can take nails; neither does it plane easily,
but can be worked up to a smooth finish. It is very durable and
termite-proof.
At first fast growing and later rather slower, it is on the whole a
little faster growing than _V. Cienkowski_. It withstands the fires in
an extraordinary manner, and only occasionally does the bole get so
deeply burnt that the tree becomes hollow. It bears a large crop of
fruit almost every year.
The timber has not been exported, nor has it been sawn up for local
use. It deserves further attention than it has received up to the
present, more especially as it is of the same family as the teak.
_Native Use._—The fruit is eaten, and occasionally the smaller trees
are used for house-building.
_Vitex Cienkowskii_. Ori, nla (Yoruba).
It is a medium-sized tree, attaining a girth of about 8 feet and a
bole length of about 25 feet. The bark is rough, divided up with long,
narrow vertical fissures, which are more or less regular in their
distribution. The crown is spherical, somewhat widespreading, and
usually occupies about half the height of the tree. The large, shiny,
dark-green digitate leaf is most characteristic of the tree. The
fruit, not unlike a large acorn without the cup, is edible and has a
slight honey taste. It attracts the bees from far and near.
This tree is found in the Oyo and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
_Timber._—Hard, brown wood, very similar to teak. It is often rather
knotty and sometimes cross-grained.
At first fairly fast-growing, later on it is rather slow. It is very
fire-resisting, but does not thoroughly protect the soil. It has not
been felled for export, nor has it been sawn up for local use. It
serves a useful purpose amongst the dry-zone vegetation, and is one of
the larger trees of that zone.
_Vitex Fosteri_. Ori-eta (Yoruba); Obuban, Ibang (Benin); Ogi
(Calabar).
_Chief Characteristics._—It is a medium-sized tree with thin, white
bark and voluted stem, which is not overstraight beyond 15 or 20 feet,
soft and fibrous; one of the common trees in the mixed forest, though
also found in the evergreen forest. It has a thin, digitate leaf. It
usually stands as one of the dominated trees in either forest. The
leaves often look silvery, but this is an optical illusion, owing to
their being so thin and white on the underside.
_Distribution._—It is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan, Jebu, Ode, Benin
and Calabar provinces of Nigeria.
_Timber._—It is a hard, white wood of even texture and smooth grain,
which is apparently durable for interior work. It is somewhat like
hornbeam, though not quite so hard. It works up with a smooth surface.
_Silvicultural Qualities._—It is a shade-bearer, though, if planted
pure, it is doubtful whether its foliage would thoroughly protect the
ground, owing to its being so thin. Natural regeneration by seed is
apparently good.
_Use._—It would probably make good verandah-posts, door-frames and
window-frames, but so far has not been tried. As there is plenty of
it, proper supplies could be obtained in the provinces named.
_Value._—At present doubtful, as it is an untried wood; however,
belonging to the same family as teak, it should find a place amongst
the valuable small timbers for local use.
_Vitex diversifolia_.
It has been noted from the Oban Reserve.
_Clerodendron Thonningii_. Egwa, Oriakuku (Benin).
It is an ornamental shrub of the Benin province of Nigeria, found near
the Osse River.
_Clerodendron Thompsonii_. Egwa oviakuku (Benin).
A medium-sized shrub with woody stem found in the Benin province.
_Clerodendron scandens_ (Beauv.).
It is a large shrub with hard wood of the Benin province of Nigeria.
_Clerodendron volubile_. Ebenote (Benin).
Found in the Benin province.
_Clerodendron splendens_ (Kew). Adabi (Yoruba).
A medium-sized shrub found in the Abeokuta province. The stem yields
small wood for farm implements.
=Labiatæ.=
_Ocimum viride_ (Willd.). Efinrin (Yoruba); Aramoho (Benin).
Found in the Yoruba and Benin country.
=Scrophulariaceæ.=
_Cycinium camporum_ (Engl.). Arojoku (Yoruba).
Flowers white. Found at Obba on the Hill, Ondo province.
=Bignoniaceæ.=
_Spathoidea campanulata_. Red Tulip Tree. Oruru (Yoruba); Okokwi
Okwekwe (Benin); Essenim (Efik); Osukaregigi (Bembi).
This tree grows in the fringing and intermediate forests. It is of
medium size and has large trumpet-shaped flowers, not unlike those of
the tulip.
_Uses._—This tree is often used for ornamental purposes. Timber,
edible seeds and medicaments are obtained from it.
_Stereospermum acuminatissimum_. Osualong (seed), Okwekwe, Aguana
(Benin).
This is a somewhat common tree of the Benin province of Nigeria, and
certainly with its red flowers it is one of the most handsome. It is
not unlike the so-called African Tulip Tree, _Spathoidea campanulata_.
On the whole, it is a smaller tree, with a round, almost spherical
crown; the wood is soft and white and not durable. It bears a large
number of seeds, but few appear to germinate. It sprouts feebly from
the stump, is a light-loving tree, and also a soil-protecting and
soil-improving species. It deserves greater attention for planting in
gardens and at the edges of recreation grounds of all sorts.
_Stereospermum Kunthianum_ (Cham.). Ayagdo (Yoruba).
This tree is found in the Abeokuta province and Erin, Ilesha. It is
very similar to the tulip-tree, but has a more orange-coloured flower.
_Kigelia Africana_. Sausage Tree. Orora, Pandoro (Yoruba); Ogiahimi,
Esiskwi (Benin).
It is a common tree of the Ogoja, Owerri, Onitsha, Benin, Ondu, Ibadan
and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria. The most typical feature of this
tree is the long sausage-shaped fruit, which hangs by a stalk about 10
inches long; the flowers are red, the leaves large and open. It is a
small tree, often very much branched. It is usually found in old
clearings at the edge of the mixed deciduous forest. The wood is not
durable. The natives use it for fences, and the roots are mashed and
used by Benis for cuts in the fingers. The bark and fruit are also
used medicinally by the Yorubas.
_Markhamia tomentosa_. Iru, Aya, Iwe (Yoruba).
It is found in the Abeokuta province of Nigeria, in the mixed
deciduous forest zone.
It is a tree 4 to 6 feet in girth, with a large leaf having five pairs
of pinnæ, the lowest being very small, like stipules. A deciduous tree
bearing small fruit. A very common tree.
The timber is a soft, white wood, which is not used. It is attacked by
white ants, and is not durable except under cover.
The tree is a light-lover, quick-growing, and non-soil-improving.
Natural regeneration is moderate, so that it does not spread too much.
The tree has not been felled for export timber, nor has it been cut
for local use.
_Newbouldia lævis_. Benin Ju-ju Tree. Akkoko (Yoruba); Ikhimi (Benin).
It is found in the Calabar, Ogoja, Owerri, Warri, Onitsha, Ondo,
Benin, Ibadan and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria.
It is a small tree, scarcely exceeding 4 feet in girth. It has a
large, oblong, dark leaf. It is most commonly seen in the middle of a
compound with a pot at the base of it. The flowers are trumpet-shaped,
white-coloured at the base and rose-red at the mouth. The fruit is a
long, thin black pod, which opens releasing many flat, winged seeds.
The seed is yellow and in the middle of the wing.
The timber is white and soft.
It has not been exported or cut for local use.
_Native Use._—The tree is used to mark boundaries. It is a “Ju-ju”
tree, both in and outside the compound. It is sometimes used for
fences. It is used by the Yorubas for rafters.
=Acanthaceæ.=
_Thunbergia Vogeliana_ (Benth.). Blue Benin Thunbergia. Ohwohiro
(Benin).
This is a shrub with handsome blue flowers; it is moderately common in
the Central Circle.
=Rubiaceæ.=
_Sarcocephalus eu-esculentus_. Sierra Leone Peach. Egbesi (Yoruba);
Aragbaihi (Benin); Amellaky or Egbessye of Sierra Leone.
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan, Benin, Onitsha, Owerri and Ogoja
provinces of Nigeria, where it is common in the open deciduous forest.
In habit it usually takes more of the shape and form of a shrub rather
than a tree, though where it is protected a longish main leader grows
up, but even this droops. It rarely attains a height of more than 15
feet and a girth at the base of about 18 inches. The leaf is large and
oval, opposite, and rather leathery to the touch. The fruit is not
unlike a peach, except that its surface is not smooth, but is pitted
in small depressions, giving it a more special peach colour. The flesh
is very woody and tough, interspersed with small seeds not unlike
those of the strawberry. When ripe the birds eat them. The roots are
of a yellowish-brown, especially when the cortex is rubbed. The slash
is yellow. The leaf is very shiny.
It does not really reach timber size, but the sapwood is a light
yellow and the heartwood a darker yellow.
It is a moderately quick growing, light-demanding, soil-protecting and
soil-improving tree. Natural regeneration is poor, but reproduction by
root suckers and stool shoots is very strong. It is very fire-
resisting, and recovers easily from any effects of fire.
_Native Use._—In cases of scarcity of building-timber, occasionally
short sections are obtained from it for hut-building. It is, however,
usually too short. The roots are used medicinally in the following
way: roots about a ¼ inch in diameter and upwards to ¾ inch are
thoroughly washed in water and cut up into sections of about 4 inches
long and boiled in water. The solution thus made is strained off, and
is drunk either hot or cold in fairly large doses for the relief of
venereal disease (G.) in its earlier stages. Most of the natives
affirm that it gives great relief, though they acknowledge that it
does not prove a cure for it.
_Sarcocephalus esculentus_. Weatherboard Wood. Opepe (Yoruba); Obiache
(Benin); Awessu (Jekri).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ondo, Benin and Calabar provinces of
Nigeria, where in certain localities it is very prevalent.
It is a large tree of the evergreen forest zone, which attains a girth
of 12 feet and a corresponding bole length. The bark is slightly rough
and scaly, but in an even manner. It bears a large edible fruit 2
inches in diameter. The fruit is not unlike a peach in shape and
colour, but with a rougher and softer skin. It is very closely and
finely pitted with tiny holes in its surface. Inside, the flesh is
pinkish-white. It is commonly seen at the edge of freshwater swamps in
the Benin, Ifon and Ondo districts. It likes soil with good drainage,
but it may be very moist.
The bole is very straight, and not unlike that of real African Oak in
appearance. The leaves are rounded and moderately large, and inclined
to be leathery in texture, with two stipules at the base. In the young
seedlings the stem is more quadrangular in shape than round, and there
are a few almost straighter furrows running vertically up it.
It tends to spread with the opening up of the evergreen forest. The
root spurns are very slight and round, merging into the stem a foot or
so above the ground. The slash is yellowish-white, and a rather dirty
colour. Mucilage-like latex gradually exudes from the cut.
_Timber._—The wood is very durable indeed, both for exposed places and
for interior work. It is moderately hard, a little open and fibrous in
grain, of a yellow to orange colour, with slight variations in its
distribution through the wood. It planes well and saws easily; splits
fairly well, takes nails, and does not warp or shrink very much. There
is only a slight difference in colour between the sapwood and
heartwood, but the sapwood is not quite so durable. It is termite-
proof. It is usually very straight-grained, free of knots and other
internal defects—in fact, it is one of the cleanest of all the African
timbers.
It is a very fast-growing, at first slightly shade-bearing and later
light-loving tree, which thoroughly protects and enriches the soil
with its leaf fall. In fact, after the first two years it is very
impatient of shade, and grows very slowly, if it is at all under large
trees. In suitable places natural regeneration is very good. Fair
crops of seeds are borne almost every year. In some places, notably
north of the Ikoha in the Benin province, it is almost gregarious in
habit. It sprouts well from the stump. Here again, unless there is
sufficient light, it does not grow rapidly, and even tends to die
down. In the nursery, seeds generate readily, but often fall a prey to
the Duika, which eat the young seedlings. The tree does not stand
transplanting very well, as it throws back its development very
considerably. Small plantations have been made in one or two places.
Close planting appears to be the correct method, as the branches are
rather persistent and liable to form knots or places of decay in the
stem, if they do not drop off when they are quite small.
In 1906 samples of this timber were sold as a hardwood in Liverpool
market, where it was considered to show little or no merit. However,
since that date there have been increased demands for all good
timbers, so that it seems worthy of a further trial. Locally it has
been used for making canoes, or has been cut up for planks. It has
also been used for bridge-building and other constructional work, and
being one of the most durable, ever wider use is being found for it,
quite apart from any likely demands for export.
_Native Use._—It is felled for sawing up into planks and making
canoes, and is considered one of the best of all local timbers, except
Iroko.
_Sarcocephalus sambucinus_ (?). Yellow Wood. Opepe (Yoruba); Ebengiku,
Obiache (Benin); Eben (Jekri).
It is found in the Ondo, Benin and Warri provinces of Nigeria.
It is a medium-sized tree of the swamps, both near rivers and near the
sea coast—in fact, it will grow in waterlogged places—whereas the
_Sarcocephalus esculentus_, to attain large dimensions, likes drained
soil.
The fruit is only an inch in diameter, but of the same colour as the
former. The pitting of the surface is more widely distributed and the
pits are shallower. The bark is less scaly, with a very slight
roughness or fissured surface. The wood is not so durable as the
former, especially in exposed places. On the whole, the leaves are
larger than _S. esculentus_ and a little thinner.
The sapwood is whitish-yellow and the heartwood of a deep yellow
colour. It is more fibrous and rather more open-grained than that of
_S. esculentus_. The pores, too, are longer. On the whole, it is
easier to work, a little softer, planes well, takes nails, splits well
and saws easily. It is doubtful if it is termite-proof.
Although really a light-loving tree, it can stand more lateral shade
than _S. esculentus_. It is a thoroughly soil-protecting and soil-
improving tree, the foliage making a very rich humus. It is much more
slow-growing than _S. esculentus_, though on the whole it will stand
closer together, and yet grow well. It sprouts well from the stump.
Natural regeneration appears to be good. It is sometimes almost
gregarious in habit, and in some places one of the few valuable trees
in the swamp region. It is also often one of the few of merchantable
size. No plantations have been made with this tree.
In 1906 samples of this timber were sold in the Liverpool market as
cedar, but it was only considered of poor quality. It deserves,
however, further trial now. Locally it is occasionally sawn up for
planks.
_Native Use._—It is sometimes used for making canoes, but it is not
liked by the natives, because they say it is not so durable as _S.
esculentus_.
_Sarcocephalus sp._ Swamp Opepe. Oppepera (Yoruba); Eben Obiache
(Benin). Perhaps the same as the foregoing species.
_Morinda sp._ Brimstone Wood.
Ekiti district, Ondo province.
_Morinda lucida_. Brimstone Wood. Oruwo (Yoruba); Obiache (Benin).
Found in the Yoruba and Benin country.
_Morinda longiflora_. Ekiti Morinda.
Found in the Ekiti district, Mamu Reserve.
_Pausinystalia sp._
It is found in the Eastern Calabar province of Nigeria. It is a
medium-sized tree found growing in old farms. It has globular-shaped
flowers with yellowish-red anthers, making it very pretty and
conspicuous. It has a hard, yellowish-white wood.
_Saccoglottis Gabunensis_. Mahogany, Tala. Ugu (Benin); Attalla
(Jekri); Edat (Efik); Tala (Brass); Tala (New Calabar); Edat (Oban,
Ekoi).
It is a large tree, attaining a girth of 15 feet and a height of 150
feet. Nearly always found on swampy ground, or anyhow where the
rainfall is high, as, for instance, in the Oban district. One of the
first trees to be seen in the forest immediately behind the mangrove
swamps. The bark is roughly fissured like elm, but more regularly, and
the slash is red. The fruit is an indehiscent nut with small nodules
on it, about the size of a walnut, which exudes a liquid not unlike
honey. Bees often frequent the tree for that reason. A reddish sap
exudes when the tree is cut.
It is found in the Benin, Warri, Owerri and Calabar provinces of
Nigeria.
The wood is hard and dark-red, with a fairly close grain, though easy
to work. The sapwood is usually very narrow and yellowish-red.
It is evidently a shade-bearer, and stands a good deal of shade in its
youth. Natural regeneration is fairly good where the rainfall is high.
It seems a moderately fast grower, though no actual measurements have
yet been taken. It is almost gregarious, especially in Oban. In 1906
it was valued in the Liverpool market at 3d. to 6d. a superficial foot
as a mahogany of mild texture and fairly good colour. It has, however,
not been used by the Public Works Department.
_Native Use._—In the Benin, Warri and Calabar provinces the bark is
stripped off in rolls about 3 feet long and sold for making gin
bitter, by placing it in the liquid. A bundle of bark is sold for 5s.
at Calabar. In the Degema and Brass districts it is one of the common
canoe trees.
_Mitragyne macrophyllum_. False Opepe. Burokossa, Bulokossa,
Ugbodokossa (Benin); Ebar (Brass); Ebar (New Calabar); Ubuen (Efik).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ondo, Benin, Warri, Owerri and Calabar
provinces of Nigeria.
It is a large tree, attaining a girth of over 12 feet and a height of
over 100 feet. It has a very large leaf. The tree is often more or
less gregarious, more especially in the moister or almost swampy parts
of the evergreen forest zone. The bark is of a dull-green colour,
comparatively thin, and only slightly fissured in a large tree.
The sapwood is yellowish-white and the heartwood of a pale yellow
colour. It is almost a hardwood, does not split well, planes up
smoothly and saws comparatively easily. It hardens considerably on
seasoning and is very durable under cover, but not so much on exposure
to the air. The dense foliage makes a thick layer of humus under the
trees, as a few of the leaves fall off each year. It is thus a soil-
improving and soil-protecting tree. It would probably be found to make
a good mixture, in groups of about half an acre in extent, with
mahogany in the evergreen forest zone. In the Brass district it is one
of the commonest trees which is used for making canoes; it has also
occasionally been sawn up for planks. It has not yet been exported to
England, but at any rate locally it should command a wider use in
house-building of all kinds.
_Mitragyne Africanum_. Akpakossa (Benin).
It is found in the Benin, Ondo, Warri and Calabar provinces of
Nigeria.
It is a somewhat common tree on the borderland of the mixed deciduous
forest and the dry-zone vegetation. The tree is of small size,
attaining a girth of about 6 feet and a bole length of 25 feet; the
leaf is very large, but does not reach the size of _M. macrophyllum_.
It is most frequently found in the swampy places at the edge of the
deciduous forest; like the sister tree, it is more or less gregarious,
though the groups are usually not very large.
The timber is of a dull yellowish-white colour, and planes well; it
does not split very easily and is very durable.
This species is a shade-bearing tree of soil-protecting and soil-
improving qualities, owing to the dense bed of leaves, which in turn
makes a bed of humus at the base of the tree, and thus grass-fires are
very much hindered in spreading. The timber has not been exported to
Europe and the natives scarcely ever use this wood.
_Randia malleifera_. Buje nla (Yoruba).
Found in the Olokemeji Reserve.
_Randia octomera_ (Hook.). Buje (Yoruba); Assun (Benin).
It is found in the Benin province. It is a shrub with spherical-shaped
fruit like an apple, with the sepals projecting from the top. The
fruits yield a black dye which is used by the natives.
_Randia cladantha_ (K. Sch.).
It is found in the Benin province of Nigeria. It is a woody shrub
having a hard wood, and rather pretty red flowers in the autumn, which
brighten the evergreen forest very much.
_Randia maculata_ (Kew). Buje, Buji dudu (Yoruba).
A shrub having large, trumpet-shaped flowers. It is very ornamental.
_Randia caudata_. Blue Dye. Buje (Yoruba).
It is a small tree, 15 to 20 feet high. Found in the Olokemeji
Reserve.
_Randia macrantha_. Kan Kan (Yoruba).
Found in the Ondo province.
_Nr. Randia_. Ukape (Benin).
Found in the Benin province.
_Mussænda erythrophylla_ (Sch. and Thonn.). Kamatete (Ibo, Owerri).
Found in Obudu, Ogoja province.
_Mussænda tenuiflora_ (Benth.). Mamu (Yoruba).
Found in the Mamu Reserve.
_Mussænda Isertiana_. Igi Ira (Lagos) (Benin).
Lagos.
_Pavetta Baconia_ (Hiern). Idofun, Igbo (Yoruba); Akapano Iyokheze
(Benin).
It is a common tree in the Calabar, Warri, Benin, Ondo and Abeokuta
provinces of Nigeria. A small, shrub-like tree, reaching about 3
inches in diameter, most common as an undergrowth plant in the
evergreen forest zone. Many specimens are found in the Obagie Forest
Reserve. It stands the shade well, is moderately hard, and sprouts
well from the stump. The natives of the Benin country cut young
specimens very largely for use as yam-sticks.
_Hymenodictyon bracteatum_. Obadon (Benin).
Found in the Benin province of Nigeria.
_Corynanthe paniculata_ (Welw.). Olikiba Anikiba (Benin).
So far it has been found in the Benin province of Nigeria, but either
this species or Johimbe should be found in the Calabar and Ogoja
provinces.
It is a medium-sized tree of the mixed forest zone, which is
moderately prevalent in certain localities.
The timber is brown, hard and durable. It planes well and splits
moderately well. It takes nails and saws moderately easily for hard
wood. It is considered termite-proof by the natives.
It is a somewhat slow-growing tree, a shade-bearer, a soil-protecting
and soil-improving tree. Natural regeneration only appears to be
slight. It does not sprout very prolifically from the stump. No
experimental plantations have yet been made.
This is a sister species to _C. Johimbe_, which yields the bark
containing the very useful alkaloid Johimbin, but as yet the bark of
this tree has not been tested for a similar substance.
In the timber report of 1906 it is valued at 2½d. to 3½d. a foot as a
species of gummy mahogany, and in another case as fancy wood at 1d.
per superficial foot or 1s. 6d. to 1s. 9d. a cubic foot.
Amongst the Benin natives it is used for wall-plates, for which
purpose it is highly esteemed.
_Crossopteryx Kotschyana_. Ayeye (Yoruba).
A small tree found in the dry-zone forests, of no special value. The
fruit is leathery; the flowers grow in panicles.
_Native Use._—Parts of the tree are used in medicine by the natives.
_Sabicea calycina_ (Benth.). Agan Aparo (Yoruba).
Found in Iro.
_Canthium glabriflorum_ (Hiern). Attan (Benin).
It is a common tree in the Calabar, Ogoja, Warri, Benin and Ondo
provinces of Nigeria, also in the Cameroons.
It is a medium-sized tree, reaching a girth of 9 feet, but with a bole
length of about 60 feet, rather longer in proportion to the girth. The
flat, wide crown is typical of this tree, as are also the large
tripinnate leaves and the brown, stringy bark with slight fissures.
The branches spread out almost in two or three whorls near the top of
the tree. The light can be seen through the crown. The flower is
white, in large, umbel-like masses of small flowers, borne on the
upper side of the branches. It flowers in November.
The sapwood is white and fairly broad and the heartwood is brown, like
cedar. Termites attack in the open.
It is a light-lover and grows quickly, in old farms especially. It
sprouts well from the stump, but there are no root shoots. Seed
production is good, and seedlings appear in near open spaces.
It has not been cut for local use or exported to Europe.
The branch is used. It has to be placed on a boy’s head and is said to
make him grow. The boys do it themselves in the Benin country. The
wood is also a firewood in Benin.
[Illustration: FIG. 89.—=Funtumia Rubber Plantation on both sides of the
road, Igwoshudi, Benin.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 90.—=Mahogany Plantation (Khaya Punchii), twelve
years old, near Noami, on the banks of the Osse River, Benin Province.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 91.—=Entandrophragma log with three sides already
squared and fourth partially cut ready for squaring.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 92.—=Stump of Khaya Punchii with log at base, left
in the Benin Forest.=]
To face p. 408.
=Compositæ.=
_Vernonia conferta_. Big-leaf African Cabbage Tree. Onimagugun, Shapo
(Yoruba); Orimagugu, Oriweni, Onamagungun (Benin).
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan, Benin, Onitsha and Ogoja
provinces of Nigeria, in clearings at the edge of the mixed deciduous
and dry-zone forests. It is a very common small tree or large shrub,
springing up in all old farms. The very large bright-green leaves, set
opposite to each other on a small, comparatively, stout, green,
succulent stem, are most typical of this plant. The fresh leaf,
especially on the smaller plants, is not unlike a very open cabbage
leaf, but of a lighter green hue. As the plant gets older the leaves
do not attain such a size. The flowers are small, but grow on large,
open and much-branched spikes. The stem is comparatively soft and
pithy, scarcely forming a real woody tissue. When dried they can be
used for firewood and kindle easily. Occasionally it is used for
making live fences.
_Vernonia Nigritana_ (O. and H.). Bitter Leaf. Ewuru or Oko (Yoruba);
Ihagobo (Benin).
This is found in the upper part of the Benin province of Nigeria, near
Sabongida, in the deciduous zone. A small shrub-like tree, the leaves
of which are used for soup. The dried stem is used for kindling wood.
The roots are sometimes used as chew-sticks.
_Vernonia amygdalina_. (Del.). The Bitter Leaf. Ewuru (Yoruba), Oriwu
(Benin).
Yoruba Chew-stick, also known as the Chew-stick of Ewuro, thereby
clearly showing the Yoruba origin of some of the inhabitants of Sierra
Leone, as Ewuro is also the name of it in the Sierra Leone country.
It is found in the Abeokuta, Ibadan and Benin provinces, where it
grows in openings in the mixed forests.
It is a small shrub, reaching a height of about 5 feet, having soft
leaves, with rather a greyish tint, which are covered with very fine
silvery hairs. It is commonly found in old farms and by the side of
the roads, usually in small bushes or clumps.
It sprouts up when cut down, and thoroughly shades the ground.
However, it is sometimes so thick that it rather hinders plantation
operations, though once the other plants are established it acts as a
useful little “nurse.” The leaves are picked off by the natives and
cooked in water for making soup. They have a distinctly bitter
flavour, but make a very healthy vegetable soup. The leaves are often
sold in the local markets. This shrub is occasionally left more or
less in line as a small living fence.
_Vernonia cinerea_ (Les.). Ash-coloured Fleabane. Elegbe Oju (Yoruba).
It is found in the Olokemeji Reserve of the Abeokuta province of
Nigeria. A large, woody shrub, one of the chewstick family, the leaves
of which are sometimes used for making soup.
=Lycopodaceæ.=
_Lycopodium phlegmaria_ (Linn.).
This is a small Lycopodium found in the Benin province of Nigeria. It
was obtained from the uppermost branches of a very tall tree, growing
at the edge of a deep valley about 8 miles north of Benin City.
NON-INDIGENOUS TREES OF NIGERIA
=Myrtaceæ.=
_Eucalyptus amygdalina_.
A specimen of this tree stands on the old beach at Akassa, Warri
province.
_Eucalyptus tereticornis_.
Lagos Island.
_Eucalyptus rudis_.
Lagos Island.
_Eucalyptus tesselaris_.
Lagos Island.
_Eucalyptus citriodora_.
A specimen of this tree stands in the Botanical Gardens at Calabar.
NOTES ON NIGERIAN TREES OF WHICH THE BOTANICAL NAMES ARE NOT KNOWN
_Itufiak_ or _Etufiak_ (Efik). Essunwoi (Yoruba); Ilako (Benin).
It is a medium-sized tree of the freshwater swamps, with heavy dark-
green foliage; it grows quite gregariously in stands of one to ten
acres in extent. The trunk reaches a girth of about 7 feet and a bole
length of about 30 feet. The roots spurns are comparatively slight,
and do not extend much over a foot up the bole. The foliage is very
heavy and it casts a most dense shade, making patches of this forest
the darkest of almost any in Africa.
It is common on the banks of the Itunkpe Creek, a tributary of the Kwa
River, near Calabar, in the same named province, and also in the
Owerri province of Nigeria. It belongs to the evergreen forest zone.
The timber is a reddish-brown hardwood of close grain, which would saw
into sizeable planks. It is a somewhat slow-growing, shade-bearing,
soil-protecting and soil-improving tree. The leaves yield a thick bed
of humus. It appears to be one of the most valuable trees in this
respect. It is moderately hard, with even, close-textured grain. It
planes well, saws fairly easily, takes nails, but does not split well.
Natural regeneration appears to be good. It also sprouts from the
stump.
The timber has not been exported, nor has it been cut for planks for
local use. It appears to deserve a trial as a local timber for floor-
boards or for the making of boxes. Considering that so often many
trees are found in the same place, it should not be difficult to
obtain adequate supplies.
_Native Use._—Building, but it is attacked by the insect called Efiak.
_Musk Tree_. Owi (Benin).
It is found in the Benin province of Nigeria, in the evergreen
forests. It is a medium-sized tree, reaching a girth of about 8 feet
with a short bole of about 10 feet. The crown is large but rather
elongated, and reaches down two-thirds of the height of the tree. The
fruit is large and more like an avocado pear in shape and colour. The
leaf is very large and wide, more like a teak leaf, but of stronger
texture, the midrib especially being very thick.
The timber is hard, with white sapwood and green heartwood. It splits
well and takes nails fairly well. It is a little fibrous in texture,
but can be planed; it saws fairly easily.
It is a somewhat slow-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting and
soil-improving tree. The leaves make a rich humus. Natural
regeneration is none too good. Stump sprouts do not appear to be very
strong.
It has not been exported or cut for local use, but would be worth
trying for house-building.
_Native Use._—The fruit is kept for four days and then the inside
large kernel is eaten. The young leaves are used for curing boils, as
an external plaster to draw the poison.
_Ekkiowa_ (Benin).
It is a small shrub which is found in the Benin district of the same
named province. It is not very common.
_Native Use._—The seed is used medicinally for the hands in case of
sores which are red or raw.
_Satinwood_. Okwaba (Benin).
This tree is found in the mixed forests of the Benin province of
Nigeria.
In 1906 sample logs of this timber were sold in the Liverpool market
as satinwood, but were not considered worth shipping. Since then,
however, none has been cut for export or for local use. Perhaps owing
to the increased demands for all kinds of timber a further trial
should be made with this one for satinwood. Natural regeneration is
poor. It is a somewhat slow-growing, shade-bearing, soil-protecting
and soil-improving tree. It reaches a large size.
_Ubellu_, genus? Annamamilla (Benin).
It is found in the Benin province, Nigeria.
It is a small tree, the name often confused with the mahogany-walnut,
_Lovoa Klaineana_, which is also sometimes known as Annamamilla in the
Benin country. The leaves are imparipinnate. It is a softwood with
light-brown heartwood and little black, spherically-shaped fruit,
unarmed.
_Native Use._—Firewood of good quality. Not used otherwise.
_Big Hardwood_. Arugbo (Yoruba); Eto (Benin).
It is a very large tree with a wide crown. The timber is of a brown
colour, but the sapwood is white. It is extremely hard and durable;
even when felled in the farms it will be six years before it has
rotted away. The bark is a dark-green with white lenticels scattered
over it.
It is rather a rare tree in the Benin province of Nigeria. Standing a
good deal of shade, it is a soil improver and protector. Natural
regeneration does not appear to be very plentiful.
It does not sprout up when coppiced.
_Native Use._—None.
_Ifon_ (Yoruba). Owehe (Benin).
Is a small tree which has scented wood. It reaches a girth of 20
inches only. Before going to market, according to the natives, the
feet, hands and body should be washed with a solution prepared from
the bark of this tree mixed with soap. The object of this operation is
to effect quick sales at the market.
_Ewayron_ (Yoruba).
A leaf for wrapping up food, found in the Yoruba country, also used in
Benin for roofing houses.
_Mahogany_. Alode (Benin).
This tree is found in the mixed deciduous forests of the Benin
province of Nigeria.
In 1906 samples of this timber were sold in the Liverpool market as a
species of mahogany of a soft nature. Since that date none has been
felled. Perhaps with the changed conditions with regard to the demand
for all timbers similar to mahogany a further trial with the timber of
this tree should be made. Natural regeneration is not very good. It is
a rather slow-growing, soil-protecting and soil-improving tree.
_Spiny Tree_. Oaha (Benin).
It is a small tree found in the Benin, Ondo and Abeokuta provinces of
Nigeria. The small, rather thin and longish spines on the stem are the
most typical feature of this tree. It usually grows with aerial roots.
It reaches about 3 feet in girth, and on the whole is more common in
the secondary forest than in the primeval. The wood is moderately
durable, especially when used for inside work, such as verandah-posts.
_Native Use._—It is sometimes used for small poles for hut-building.
_House Post_. Ewai (Benin).
A common tree in the Benin and Abeokuta provinces of Nigeria. It is a
slow-growing tree which has a very hard brown wood; it is a shade-
bearer. The seed is a small nut. The wood is used by the natives of
Benin for building-posts, rafters and small planks.
It is found in the moist evergreen forest zone and is somewhat common
in the Obagie Reserve of the Benin district.
_Ussehin Chew-stick_. Okuta (Yoruba); Okuta, Opahan (Benin).
It is rather a rare tree of the Benin, Ondo and Abeokuta provinces of
Nigeria. The name means “a stone,” and has apparently been given
because of the hardness of the wood. It is a medium-sized tree,
reaching a girth of about 5 feet. The wood is almost white, and there
is little difference between sapwood and heartwood. In the Ussehin
country of Benin it is used as a chew-stick. The Yoruba states that it
is the hardest of all native woods.
_Akpo_ (Benin). Hardwood.
It is rather an uncommon tree of the Benin province of Nigeria, also a
very hard wood, a medium-sized tree. The brown heartwood is used by
the natives for planks. It is thought rather highly of by the Benin
natives, especially for wall-plates and joists. In the past it has
been only hewn by them, but not sawn.
_Ukpaigwi, Okpaigwi_ (Benin).
Rather an uncommon tree of the Benin province of Nigeria. It grows to
10 feet in girth and yields a soft wood which is attacked by white
ants. It is a shade-bearer and soil-protecting tree. The roots are
used by the natives for medicinal purposes.
_Oruru_ (Benin).
It is a tree found in the Benin province of Nigeria.
It is a small tree, reaching a girth of 2 feet. After three years it
comes up in an old farm. The slash is red and a little red sap exudes
slowly. It is usual to find thirty small ones in one place, from root
suckers, but also from stool shoots if a tree has been cut down
before. It is similar to Eranpata in this respect. The fruit is round
and small and like peas, only a little larger. The flower, which is
white and quite small, grows in small clusters.
The wood is not hard and white all through. It is attacked by
termites, except when placed in the house, where it is more or less
protected.
Reproduction by stool shoot is the best method.
It is a shade-bearer and grows slowly. It grows in good soil of some
depth and also in the evergreen forests. When it appears in old farms,
it stands the fires well.
It is a soil-improving and soil-protecting tree, and tends to spread
with the extension of cultivation, especially in the evergreen and
mixed deciduous forest zone.
As it does not reach timber size, it is not worth trying as a building
timber.
The fruit is edible; after eating it the tongue becomes almost of a
blue colour. The root is used medicinally. The branches are used as
pegs in the top of the walls of the houses in Benin, partly for fixing
the roof.
[Illustration: FIG. 93.—=Mimusops Djave, about twelve years old,
standing near Prison, Degema Station, Eastern Circle.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 94.—=Mature Light African Greenheart (Piptadenia
Africana) standing in the middle of Degema Station.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 95.—=Young Oil Bean Tree in bearing (Pentaclethra
macrophylla), Degema Station.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 96.—=Red Oak (Berlinia acuminata), 20 feet in Girth,
standing near the Sombreiro River, Degema Station.=]
To face p. 414.
CHAPTER X
THE FORESTS AND TIMBER PRODUCTION OF THE BRITISH SPHERE OF THE CAMEROONS
Running parallel with the Nigerian boundary, a strip averaging 75 to 90
miles in width, and running back from the coast about 300 miles, we have
the British sphere of the Cameroons, in all, an area of about 31,000
square miles. From the forest-zone point of view this land area can be
divided into really three different zones. First of all, nearest the
coast, there is Victoria, the Cameroon Mountains, followed by the bank
of the Mungo. Past the crest of Kuppe and the Manengube Mountains and
onwards along the Mbo, Foto and Bambuto Ranges round to the headquarters
of the Cross River and to the Nigerian boundary, we have about 7,000
square miles of an almost unbroken evergreen forest zone.
The second area comprises a beautiful open grassland with only scattered
trees, covering largely the Chang, Bamenda, Kontsha and more northern
districts of the British sphere, in all about 17,000 square miles.
The third section comprises the heavy evergreen and deciduous forests on
the banks of the more northern rivers, such as the Mo, the Cam, and
covers approximately an area of 7,000 square miles.
From the forestry point of view, the most accessible, and therefore the
most valuable, of these areas are situated in the first-named zone,
therefore we will consider this area more in detail.
To begin with, it can be subdivided into three almost distinct forest
divisions; following the watersheds or basins of (1) the Mungo River,
(2) the Cross River, (3) the Akwayefe, Ndian, Moko, Meme Rivers and the
Rio del Rey district. Taking the third area first, we have comparatively
large areas of forest covering both level and hilly country up to an
elevation of about 3,000 feet, but with the sides of the valleys less
timbered than in the Mungo River forest zone. Amongst the species of
trees which have been felled and exported from this area are the
following: Mahogany Sarcocephalus, Bitter Bark, _Saccoglottis
Gabunensis_, Light Mahogany, _Khaya Euryphylla_, Ebony, _Diospyros
Kamerunensis_, Red Ironwood or Bongossi, _Lophira procera_, Long-
capsuled Mahogany, _Entandrophragma Rederi_.
Amongst the more prevalent trees of the lower lying land, including the
Tiko plain, are the following: Mahogany, _Khaya Klainei_, Long-capsuled
Unscented Mahogany, _Entandrophragma Candollei_, Scented Mahogany,
_Entandrophragma utilis_, Cedar, _Guarea sp._, Red Ironwood, _Lophira
procera_, _Canarium Schweinfurthii_, Brown Ebony, _Diospyros sp._,
_Terminalia scutifera_, _Afzelia pachyloba_, _Berlinia sp._, two kinds
of Camwood, Walnut, _Lovoa Klaineana_, _Pterocarpus tinctorius_, as well
as the valuable orange-coloured wood of _Sarcocephalus sambucinus_ and
Mahogany-like species of Guttiferæ and _Uapaca Staudtii_.
Some of the “stands” of this timber, and especially on the hill slopes
of the Cameroon Mountains, are very thick and dense, more especially
near Debundscha, with its annual rainfall of 423 inches.
One of the most interesting and unique stands on the mountainside is
that of tree-fern, about 30 feet high, as an undergrowth, and heavy
mahogany, _Entandrophragma Rederi_, and _Ongekea Kamerunensis_, chiefly
at an altitude of 3,500 to 4,000 feet, also quite untouched except in
the neighbourhood of Buea.
Only the smallest part of all this area, and in fact only that on the
bank of the Meme, had been at all operated upon before the war, and the
forests on the banks of the Akwayefe were quite untouched. All the
higher slopes and the northern sides of the Cameroon Mountains, and
beyond as far as Mount Gonistan, were also quite unused. All through
this part the villages are comparatively few and far between, and even
in those parts where they are closer together, the population in each is
very small, and the forest growth is so thick that they make little
impression upon it. Added to that, the chief crop grown by the natives
is the cacao-yam, for which only comparatively small areas are
necessary, and in many cases this is grown in small spaces in the shade
of giant forest trees. Also, all through this area only comparatively
small patches, compared to the whole, have been cleared and planted with
cacao. Again, the area occupied by the European-owned cacao and rubber
plantations is very small, and chiefly found near Victoria and a little
both westward and eastward at the base of the Cameroon Mountain (Mount
Fako).
Turning now to the Mungo River region, we have in some ways an even more
valuable forest area. Here, indeed, one German firm had actually made a
felling over an area of nearly one square mile and had sold nearly all
the timber in Germany.
Amongst the more prevalent species found are the following: Bush Oak,
_Chlorophora excelsa_, Black Ebony, _Diospyros Gilgiana_, Pearwood,
_Mimusops Djave_ (which is found in immense specimens on the edge of the
Kumba road), Inoi Nut, _Poga oleosa_, with its light-reddish wood with
wide medullary rays; African Greenheart, _Cylicodiscus Gabunensis_, a
magnificent tree; Shinglewood, Scented Mahogany, _Guarea glomerulata_,
Brown Teak, _Brachystegia cynometroides_, Long-capsuled Mahogany,
_Entandrophragma Candollei_, the Oil Bean, _Pentaclethra macrophylla_,
Red Ironwood, not quite so prevalent; _Lophira procera_, Paddle Wood,
_Uvaria Busgenii_, Gum Copal, _Pterogopodium sp._, Wild Mango, _Irvingia
Barteri_, Light African Greenheart, _Piptadenia Africana_, Camwood or
Barwood, _Pterocarpus santalinoides_, Wood Oil Nut, _Ricinodendron
Africanum_, Hard Yellow Wood, _Coula edulis_, and Ironwood, _Bridelia
stenocarpa_. Although the Bakundu and Balong natives are more active in
their farming operations near the banks of the Mungo, there are still
very large areas of comparatively untouched forests, and more especially
in the upper regions of the river. In four separate places beyond the
crossing of the Bakossi Road there are four different rapids or
waterfalls on the river, which would provide water-power for saw-mills,
or other wood-using industries. On the left bank of the river, beyond
the Bakossi crossing, there is an area almost without population in
which there are large numbers of Oil Palms, as well as other forest
trees. On this road, too, is seen the very picturesque waterfall and
narrow gorge of a tributary of the Mungo, which is also suitable for
generating power for one kind of mill or another.
Turning now to the Bakossi forests, which culminate in the more or less
isolated peak of Mount Kuppe (altitude 6,300 feet), the land is all
covered with forest with the exception of some rocky points on the
eastern side. A small amount of land has been cleared at an altitude of
about 3,000 feet, for the making of tobacco plantations, but the rest,
with the exception of the taking of a few trees for local felling,
remains intact. The Bakossis have made large farms in the valleys, and
are very industrious, but still the forests situated higher up are
largely untouched. It is interesting to notice that the walls of the
round and conically roofed houses are made with about five circular rows
of tree-fern stems, cut to the length of the height of the wall and
placed one behind the other. These are most durable and are a most
unique example of the utilization of the produce of these forests,
although many of the tree-fern “stands” have been cut down and have
quite disappeared; a few remain in isolated places.
Some of the more common species found in this forest are the following:
Bush Maple, _Triplochiton scleroxylon_, Ebony, Diospyros, Mahogany,
_Khaya Euryphylla_, Bush Teak, _Chlorophora excelsa_, Gum Copal
(_Copaifera Demeusii_), Bilinga (_Afzelia Zenkeri_), Hardwood
(_Millettia sp._), Scented Mahogany (_Entandrophragma Candollei_), Light
Mahogany (_Canarium Schweinfurthii_), Hardwood (_Dialium Staudtii_ and
_Newtonia Zenkeri_), Yellow Hardwood (_Ongokea Kamerunensis_), African
Whitewood (_Enantia chlorantha_), Camwood (_Pterocarpus Soyauxii_).
There is less forest near the Manenguba Mountains, most of it being
situated on the banks of the Mo and Mbu Rivers (tributaries of the Cross
River). Continuing along the boundary line between the grass country and
the tree-fern forest, we have the Mbo and Foto Ranges, with their dense
evergreen forests up to an altitude of 5,000 feet. Amongst the more
valuable trees are the Cola (_Cola laterita_), Camwood (_Pterocarpus
Soyauxii_), Albizzia species, Ibadan, _Ficus Vogelii_. Below this point,
at about 4,000 feet, Iroko, _Chlorophora excelsa_, Corkwood, _Musanga
Smithii_, and tree-ferns reappear, as well as _Acacia Farnesiana_. The
Wild Date, _Phœnix sp._, occurs again about this altitude. The Oil Palm
occurs again in the valleys. On the lower slopes there are
Ricinodendron, Bombax, Sarcocephalus, and Trema.
Continuing farther northwards we have the Bambuto Ranges, with their
fringing forests on the banks of the streams, and the bamboo groves at
an elevation of about 8,000 feet. Willows and small Abyssinian plants
are found, and with the flowering of Delphiniums in the grass we might
almost be in Europe. Toward the Cross River side, the mountains are very
steep, and isolated peaks, such as that of Monkwa Rock, stand out in
solitary grandeur amongst the lower forested mountains of the Cross
River. In the Cross River basin we have mainly six large rivers, all
joining the Cross River. On the right or northern bank these are the
Manyu, Mo, Manya, and Oyi, above Mamfe, and on the left or southern bank
the Mbu and Manja, as well as the Awa, joining below Mamfe. All except
one of these rise amongst the forests, and it is on the banks of these
that the finest forests are situated, although in some parts, such as
near Tinto, the natives have been more active in farming and have
cleared large areas of them. This is more the case nearer the villages,
and nearer the roads, even where the forest has been cut down, there are
almost continuous groves of Oil Palms, less than a quarter of its
produce having as yet been collected or sold. Amongst the most valuable
timber trees of these forests are the Ebony (_Diospyros_), Bush Teak
(_Chlorophora excelsa_), African Whitewood (_Enantia chlorantha_),
Camwood (_Pterocarpus Soyauxia_), Bilinga (_Afzelia Africana_), Hardwood
(_Millettia sp._), Sapeli Mahogany (_Entandrophragma Candollei_), Light
Mahogany (_Canarium Mansfeldii_), Hardwood (_Newtonia Zenkeri_), Wild
Mango (_Irvingia Barteri_), Mukonja (_Terminalia superba combretaceæ_),
White Cedar (_Pycnanthus Kombo_), Red Oak (_Berlinia acuminata_),
Berlinia species with very large pod, three species of Walnut,
Albizzias, Red Ironwood (_Lophira procera_), African Wood Oil Nut Tree
(_Ricinodendron Africana_), _Parinarium sp._ (_Dialium_).
The range of hills Nda Ali is also forest-covered and is situated in the
Cross River basin.
More or less adjacent to these areas, and partly between these and the
Meme River forest, are those of Gonistan and the Rumpi Mountains. These
again are quite untouched, although, lying some distance away from
navigable rivers, they may subsequently prove of greater value when
eventually opened up with the forest tramway or other means of
transport. The species of trees found here are very similar to those
found in other parts. On the whole, Red Ironwood (_Lophira procera_) is
most prevalent in Ogu and Mbu, as also both Mahoganies, Camwood
(_Pterocarpus sp._), African Greenheart (_Piptadenia Africana_),
Corkwood (_Musanga Smithii_), False Iroko (_Chlorophora excelsa_), Hog
Plum (_Spondias lutea_), Wild Mango (_Irvingia Gabonensis_), Hard
Mahogany (_Detarium Guineense_). Numerous small Oil Palms occur in
places. On the banks of the Fi, Cedar (_Carapa procera_), Hard Mahogany,
Trichilia, an anacardiaceous tree; the hard whitewood Akboro (Benin),
the brown hardwood, Microdesmis, African Greenheart (_Piptadenia
Africana_), _Heritiera sp._, Scented Mahogany, _Guarea Thompsonii_,
_Chrysophyllum Africanum_, and a very hard wood known as Alikongeba by
the Yorubas are found. Near the Rumpi Mountains the following are more
prevalent; the _Sarcocephalus sp._, Berlinia, _Piptadenia Africana_,
_Cylicodiscus Gabonensis_, Oroko, _Lophira procera_, Satinwood,
_Zanthoxylum macrophyllum_, Pattern-wood, _Alstonia Congensis_, Shingle-
wood, _Terminalia scutifera_, Pear-wood, _Mimusops Djave_, Corkwood,
_Musanga Smithii_, Scented Mahogany, _Guarea sp._, White Cedar,
_Pycnanthus Kombo_, Camwood, _Pterocarpus sp._, brown hardwood,
Microdesmis, Wild Mango (_Irvingia Gabunensis_), Gaboon Mahogany,
_Canarium Schweinfurthii_, Bilinga (_Afzelia pachyloba_), and Walnut.
Out of the total of 14,000 square miles of forest, 6,000 must be
deducted as being inaccessible for many years to come. Again, out of
this 8,000 square miles, 4,500 square miles will be made accessible as
soon as those areas lying nearest the rivers have been opened up for
timber extraction. Therefore only these last areas will be taken into
consideration at the present time.
The chief timber forests comprised in this area are those situated
between the Mfu and Fi, the Fi and Mbu, and the Manja and Mak Rivers.
On the whole, in the Cross River basin there is an area of fully 2,000
square miles of exploitable forests, within reach of streams or rivers
deep enough to float logs in the rainy season. In the Akwayefe, Ndian,
Moko, and Meme River valleys there is another 700 square miles. Again,
on the banks of the Mungo and its tributaries there is an area of about
800 square miles suitable for the extraction of timber. In all, then,
there is an area of 3,500 square miles of forest which could be utilized
at the present time. Assuming that only one tree on every four acres is
of value for export, and that each tree is worth a nominal amount of £1,
therefore the whole forest is worth £575,000. In addition to these there
are many other trees which would become valuable either for export or
for local use as soon as the forests were opened up and utilized, and
this would at least double the value of the forest. This, also, is one
of the last remaining large tracts of forest where the population is
smaller and the requirements for forest products less than those to be
had in the forest. There is thus a surplus for export. Up to the
outbreak of war, out of all this area only 47,000 acres, or 73½ square
miles, had been, or was being, leased as timber areas. Outside these
areas some 285,000 acres, or 445 square miles, had been alienated,
chiefly on the lower slopes of the Cameroon Mountains and in the
neighbourhood of Mount Kupe. Under the old German law, ten marks per ton
was charged on Ebony, Mahogany, Bush Oak, and one or two other species,
and five marks on all soft woods, except certain trees which had proved
unprofitable to export. Compared with those in force in Nigeria, these
fees were very low, and despite the fact that on the average the
Cameroon forest would be more difficult to exploit than the average one
in Nigeria, there should still be more profit in the former; also, with
the considerable number of water-power sites available, timber
conversion could be undertaken, and thus the cost of transport cheapened
in comparison with the value of the product to be transported. Well-
squared logs, large flitches or planks of timber could be cut and
transported. Under the German Colonial land law, with the exception of
15 acres per head allowed to each native, all the land could be declared
Crown land, so that no difficulty would be involved in leasing land to
timber companies; that is to say, it was first declared to be Crown land
and then subsequently leased to timber companies. The natives, however,
then received no royalties on the trees which were felled. Thus those in
the immediate neighbourhood had no incentive to work in the forests as
they do in Nigeria. Sufficient emphasis was not laid on the fact that a
timber company should possess ample capital.
In afforestation a great deal had been planned, but only a small amount
had been executed. In the north, at Fontwans, in the Dschang district, a
40-acre teak plantation had been made. At each of the stations
themselves, Dschang, Mbo, Djutisha, various experimental plots of trees
had been planted. Nearer the coast, at Kumba, valuable test plantations,
aggregating some 400 acres, had been planted with Ebony, _Diospyros
suaveolens_, Umbrella Tree, _Musanga Smithii_, Casuarina, _Casuarina
equisitifolia_, Cigar-box Cedar, Cedrela, Iroko (_Chlorophora excelsa_),
Djave Nut (_Mimusops Djave_), Teak (_Tectona grandis_), Para Rubber
(_Hevea Braziliensis_), Cacao (_Theobroma cacao_), and Oil Palms (_Elæis
Guineensis_), Red Ironwood (_Lophira procera_), Mahogany (_Khaya
euryphylla_), and Heavy Mahogany (_Entandrophragma sp._).
At Mussake at an elevation of 6,000 feet on the side of the Cameroon
Mountains, there was a quinine plantation. At an elevation of 3,000 feet
at Buea there were small experimental plantations of tea, Ceylon and
ordinary, quinine and Casuarina. Several of the roads had been planted
with avenues of cypress and Biota trees. On the coast at Victoria, small
Casuarina plantations had been made. For the furtherance of all
agricultural and forestal interests, the very extensive Botanical
Gardens had been made. Not only is it the largest, but it contains the
most extensive collections of plants of economic value and for ornament
of any place on the West Coast of Africa. The very numerous test plots
of most of the tropical commercially known plants, such as Nutmeg,
Rubber, Cocoa, Cola, Cocoanut Palms, Oil Palms, Vegetable Ivory Palms,
demonstrated how these grew in the Cameroons.
Then the agricultural areas of Cacao-yams, Casada, Sugar-cane, Rice, one
and all were destined to demonstrate the value and possibilities of
growing these products in the Cameroons. Then again the forest tree
plots of Teak, Casuarina, Mahogany (_Swietenia macrophylla_),
Trinkomalee Wood (_Berrya ammomilla_), Gum Copal (_Copaifera Demeusii_),
Candle Nut (_Aleurites Moluccana_), Balsam of Peru (_Toluifera
Pereiræ_), _Terminalia sp._, _Dillenia Indica_, show how these trees
will thrive in this locality. In growth, an avenue of Indian Almond,
_Terminalia Catappa_, could not be compared with those at Lome.
Again, all showed what forest products and forest trees were most
suitable to that climate.
In the garden Museum, there were collections of timbers, fibres, rubber,
gums, resins, as well as mineral products; also very full collections of
the seeds, nuts and fruits of the trees and plants. Finally, there was
the large and well-equipped building of the Experimental and Agronomical
Institute, where chemical analyses of the soil and other processes could
be undertaken and tested. Here also all the very full meteorological
results were tabulated, as well as other observations on the spot. This
served also as a centre to which planters or Government officers could
send specimens or material to be named or to be examined as to their
value. Allied with this, but having a separate building, was the
Agricultural School, where pupils were trained in the elements of
agriculture and forestry, so that they might subsequently act as
instructors at the different Government stations and also serve as
assistants on the plantations.
Although economically much more backward than Nigeria, and with a
smaller population in a proportionate area than that in the Southern
Provinces, the possibilities in the development of the forest products
are even greater, especially in regard to that of palm kernels and all
the various kinds of timber for which West Africa is gradually becoming
well known. The main difference in working would appear to be that owing
to the lack of population, much greater use of animal and mechanical
means of transport, and especially mechanical appliances, as well as
machinery, are necessary to make the labour most productive, as well as
to economize without upsetting the present agricultural system and the
very necessary production of food-stuffs for the local population, as
well as for sending to the larger towns.
THE CONGO FRANÇAISE, OR THE FRENCH GABOON
To English-speaking mahogany producers and users the latter name conveys
more, and reminds them of one of the chief products, Gaboon Mahogany,
_Oukoumea Klaineana_, which had but a poor name in the London market.
This rich French colony, however, should mean a great deal more to us
with its huge extent, upwards of 300,000 square miles, and its
comparatively large open waterways all flowing into the giant Congo. Its
comparatively thin population per unit of area, and its almost
impenetrable forests make it one of the largest of the last remaining
primeval forests of Africa. Already before the war it was the largest
timber exporting country of the West Coast of Africa. However, its
somewhat ill-regulated timber trade had one or two drawbacks and
laboured under several disadvantages. Most of the timber was shipped in
the round—i.e. round logs. This means, of course, that in stowing these
logs in the ship space is lost between them, and that space is charged
for by the shipping company, despite the fact that it is often filled
with “dunnage” in the shape of Ebony billets or even Camwood. In the
round log, too, there is all the sapwood, and for this the merchant does
not expect to pay much, if anything, and there is no doubt that it tends
to depress the value of the timber, whatever it may be. The mere fact
that the log is in the round is sufficient. Quite apart from that
factor, too, a round log, even when it is a beautiful bit of redwood,
never looks so well nor so workmanlike as a hewn squared log with clean-
cut sawn ends. The sapwood, being softer than the heartwood, is more
easily damaged than the heartwood in the squared log, so this is an
additional reason why the round log often does not look as well as a
squared one.
Amongst the most important timbers exported from the French Gaboon which
are known and have been found suitable to the English market are the
following:
1. Okoume or Angouma. Gaboon Mahogany. _Oukoumea Klaineana_.
2. Zaminguila or Ombega. Mahogany. _Canarium?_.
3. Duika. Mahogany. _Irvingia Barteri?_.
4. Kambala. Oak. _Chlorophora excelsa_.
5. Mandji or Bilinga. _Afzelia Africana_, or sometimes said to be
_Sarcocephalus Pobeguinii_.
The first named has always sold at a cheaper rate in the London market
than the timber obtained from the other genii of West African Mahogany,
such as Khaya, Entandrophragma, Pseudocedrela and Lovoa. First of all,
as with other timbers, the Gaboon Mahogany is shipped in round logs,
which are cut none too straight at the ends, owing to the rough usage
they get in the long transport by water; before and when reaching the
port of shipment they are often much damaged externally, which gives
them a bad appearance. The wood is not only lighter in weight but also
lighter in colour than the other West African Mahoganies, and both these
qualities detract from its value. The grain is more open; it rarely if
ever shows any figure, in comparison to the highly figured logs from
Benin and Bassam. Having been tested very thoroughly as to tensile,
torsion and compression strengths since the beginning of the war, it has
not proved to be nearly as strong as the other West African Mahogany.
These tests having been conducted with scientific accuracy and
impartiality, they are to be trusted. Thus, for some purposes, such as
aeroplane propellor construction, Gaboon Mahogany has proved unsuitable.
However, it is only the very best, very strongest and most durable kinds
of mahogany that will stand the most severe strains, such as wood is
subject to when used in this work. However, that does not preclude the
wood from being used for similar purposes as the other kinds of West
African Mahogany, where the strains and stresses are not so great and
where the lighter colour is no advantage. In fact, in many positions a
greater lightness in the weight of the wood would be a distinct
advantage, which should be pressed for all it is worth.
Zaminguila is becoming better known, though previous to the war it could
not be said that it had an established place in the market.
Duika Mahogany is scarcely known, and may be the wood of _Irvingia
Barteri_.
Kambala or Oak, which is also known as African Teak, is much better
known now, and in fact there is a steady demand for it, chiefly under
the Nigerian name Iroko, which has been exported from Benin and Lagos in
Nigeria in the form of “squared” logs.
Thus far very few forest regulations have been issued in the Congo
Française and very little replanting has been done. However, for the
present, the supplies appear to be very large, but they will no doubt
get more costly as the timber has to be cut and obtained from the much
more distant and inaccessible forests. Apparently there is little or no
Khaya Mahogany in those regions, so that there is little fear of real
competition between the main species of Mahogany found in the different
West African countries. The natives work the timber chiefly, cutting and
bringing it to the ports themselves.
THE BELGIAN CONGO
This, the greatest and largest river system in Africa, gives its name
also to the largest compact forest area of that country. Of the 800,000
square miles, probably 700,000 are covered with forests of one type or
another. From the mangrove swamps on the islands at the mouth of the
Congo, through the dense evergreen forests of the Upper Congo to the
dry-zone open deciduous or almost treeless areas of Katanga, an almost
illimitable amount of unused sylvan wealth is to be found. Despite the
obvious advantage of the Congo River, with its 3,000 miles suitable for
timber transport and its hundreds of tributaries with many more thousand
miles of streams, capable of floating logs, only the smallest quantities
of mahogany are exported from the Belgian Congo.
No doubt the large size of the river and the great distance of some of
the forests from the sea have hindered a more rapid and intensive
exploitation of the forests. In fact, Mahogany (_Khaya sp._) as an
export timber is not really so well known as Redwood (_Pterocarpus
sp._), though the former has been shipped in the round. In the past a
better known Belgian wood was blockwood or boxwood, known as _Polyadoa
umbellata_ or _Dialium Guineense_. Other forest products, however, such
as Gum Copal (_Daniellia sp._), are found in huge quantities, in large
blocks weighing over a hundredweight, and have been exported for many
years.
Large quantities of rubber, too, have been exported, and Oil Palm
products, such as kernels and oil, are of increasing export importance,
especially since Les Huileries de Congo have started working up the Oil
Palm forests with modern means of transport and machinery on three
different tracts of 10,000 hectares each.
The railways of the Congo, supplementing as they do the waterways, have
also not been used to any extent for the shipment of timber, though vast
quantities of firewood have been burnt on them as well as conveyed to
the various stations both near and on the River Congo. To some extent
the paucity and low density of population per unit of area has tended to
hinder the working of heavy produce such as timber, which is difficult
to transport compared to rubber, with its higher value per unit of
weight. Owing to this fact, too, near the mouth of the Congo there is an
almost savannah forest on the banks of the river, which has given the
country the appearance of not being an afforested one. In the past the
system of huge, exclusive trading concessions over specific areas being
granted only to one firm also hindered any free development of the more
lower-priced forest produce such as timber.
SPANISH GUINEA
From Eloby, a little-known port situated in the middle of the coast of
the Spanish possession south of the Cameroons, a great deal of Gaboon
Mahogany (_Oukoumea Klaineana_), Redwood (_Pterocarpus Soyauxia_), and
several other timbers have been exported. Despite the fact that the
forests are not extensive, but almost untouched, and very rich in
mahogany, a comparatively small number of firms have been working these
areas. Apparently there are no forest laws, and there is little or no
security for any forest rights one may acquire from the natives. It
would be perhaps advisable to work areas here in conjunction with those
in the Southern Cameroons. It is supposed to be more unhealthy in this
part than in others, though probably this is due to the local
conditions. Khaya is less common than elsewhere, while Redwood
(_Pterocarpus Soyauxii_), Gaboon Mahogany (_Oukoumea Klaineana_) and
Bilinga (_Afzelia sp._) are common woods. Again, _Canarium
Schweinfurthii_ and other species are also very prevalent.
NOTES ON THE CAMEROON TREES
=Palmæ.=
_Raphia vinifera_ (Raph.). Wine Palm.
It is found in the district of Victoria. The leaves are 60 feet long.
Palm wine (called Mimbo) is obtained from this tree, also piassava
fibre.
_Elæis Guineensis_ (Jag.). The Oil Palm.
It is found in the Buea and Victoria districts chiefly, but is one of
the most widely spread trees of the Cameroons. Oil, kernels and cake
are obtained from it, also palm cabbage from the growing shoots at the
top. The oil is collected by the primitive efforts of the natives.
_Phœnix reclinata_. Swamp Palm.
It is largely used in the Dschang and Ossidinge districts for making
palm wine, by tapping near the root.
=Commelinaceæ.=
_Palisota hirsuta_.
Found in the Victoria district.
=Iridaceæ.=
_Antholyza Zenkeri_.
Found in the district of Dschang.
=Ulmaceæ.=
_Trema Africana_.
Found in the district of Buea.
=Moraceæ.=
_Chlorophora excelsa_. Bush Oak. Vai (Bali); Abwang (Bare); Ntong
(Fontem and Bangwa); Emang (Bakossi); Obang (Bafo); Bobang (Balong);
Mokongo or Momangi (Bakundu); Momangi (Bakwiri); Bang (Duala).
One or two found on an area of 2½ acres in the districts of Johann
Albrechts Höhe and Mbo. Height, 97½ to 162 feet. Time of flowering,
December to February.
_Musanga Smithii_ (R. Br.). Umbrella Tree. Ikomba (Bare); Ekombo
(Bakossi); Ekomba (Bago); Bokombo (Bakundu); Lisengi (Bakwiri); Bosenge
(Duala).
The wood is soft and like cork in texture. Found in the district of
Dschang and along the coast. Height, 97½ feet.
_Myrianthus arboreus_. Bokukulende (Bakossi); Wokeku (Bakwiri); Bokeku
(Duala).
Found in the Undu districts of Buea and Dschang.
_Treculia mollis_ (Engl.).
Height, 48¾ to 65 feet. Found in the Bipindi district.
_Treculia Africana_. Boembe (Bakundu); Bwembi (Bakwiri).
Found in the districts of Buea and Dschang.
_Myrianthus arboreus_. Wokaka (Bakwiri).
Found in the district of Fako, Buea.
_Ficus populifolia_.
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Ficus Capensis_. Ekol (Bakossi); Ekolo (Bakundu); Monja (Bakwiri).
Found in the districts of Buea and Dschang.
_Ficus courania_. Wotenge (Bakwiri).
Found in the district of Buea.
_Ficus Schimperia_. Njondji (Bakwiri).
Found in the districts of Dschang and Buea.
_Antiaris toxicaria_.
Found in the district of Buea.
=Olacaceæ.=
_Ongokea Kamerunensis_ (Engl.).
It grows to the height of 97½ feet and has a yellowish heartwood.
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Strombosiopsis tetrandra_.
Height, 32½ feet to 97½ feet. Found in the district of Johann
Albrechts Höhe and Bipindi.
_Coula edulis_. Bokumia (Bakundu); Bonwula or Woula (Duala); Wokomea
(Bakwiri).
Height, 48¾ to 97½ feet. Found in the district of Johann Albrechts
Höhe. Time of flowering, October. This is a good building wood.
_Strombosia grandifolia_ (Hook.). Ifondo or Wofondo (Bakwiri).
Grows in the Dschang district chiefly, but spreads over the Cameroons.
_Strombosia glaucescens_ (Engl.).
Height, 32½ to 65 feet. Found in the Bipindi district.
=Anonaceæ.=
_Enantia chlorantha_ (Oliv.). The Yellow-wood Tree. Bopalo or Bololo
(Bakundu); Woyoyo (Bakwiri); Nje or Banuke (Duala).
Height, 48¾ to 65 feet. The wood is a beautiful yellow and is used in
furniture-making and carpentering, and the bark for building native
houses. Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Uvaria Busgenii_. Bopanda (Bafo); Bopande (Bakundu); Wofe (Bakwiri);
Bope (Duala).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Uvaria microtricha_ (Diels).
Height, 65 to 97½ feet.
_Monodora myristica_ (Dun.).
Found in the district of Fako, Buea.
_Hexabolus megalophyllus_ (Engl. and Diels).
Height, 65 to 97½ feet. Found in the Bipindi district.
_Hexabolus salicifolius_ (Engl.).
About 65 feet high. Found in the Bipindi district.
_Hexabolus grandiflorus_ (Benth.).
65 to 81¼ feet high, widely spread over the Cameroon country.
_Xylopia parviflora_ (Guill. and Perr.), (Engl. and Diels).
65 to 81¼ feet in height. Found in Bipindi and Johann Albrechts Höhe
districts.
_Isolona pleurocarpa_ (Diels).
Height, 48¾ to 81¼ feet. Found in Bipindi district.
=Myristicaceæ.=
_Pycnanthus Kombo_ (Warb.). Nutmeg. Ngitsa (Fontem or Bangwa); Pitchong
(Ossidinge); Ngosame (Bakossi); Bosambe (Bakundu); Esamba (Bakwiri);
Bokondo (Duala).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe. It is a tall tree.
Used for building purposes.
_Staudtii stipitata_ (Warb.).
Height, 97½ to 123½ feet. Found in the district of Johann Albrechts
Höhe. The wood is hard.
_Staudtii Kamerunensis_ (Warb.).
Height, 97½ to 113¾ feet. Found in West Africa. This tree has a hard
reddish wood.
=Lauraceæ.=
_Tylostemon crassifolius_ (Engl.).
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district. This tree has a very hard
yellowish-brown wood.
=Rosaceæ.=
_Parinarium chrysophyllum_ (Oliv.).
Height, 48¾ to 81¼ feet. Found in the Bipindi and Johann Albrechts
Höhe districts.
_Parinarium_ (small). Ndikombo (Fontem or Bangwa).
Found in the Ossidinge district.
=Leguminosæ.=
_Piptadenia Africana_ (Hook.). Redwood. Erundu or Wunga (Bakundu);
Edundu (Balong); Jondo (Bakwiri); Bolondo (Duala).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe. It flowers in October
and changes leaf December to January. Height, 97½ to 195 feet.
_Piptadenia Winkleri_ (Harms.).
9¾ to 39 feet in height. Found in the Duala district.
_Millettia sp._ Bongongi (Bakundu); Bongongi (Duala); Bongongi (Sanaga
River).
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district.
_Hylodendron Gabunense_ (Taub.). Bokata (Bakundu).
Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts Höhe, Bipindi, Minifia and
Gabun. Height, 65 to 97½ feet.
_Platysepalum_. Djengu (Bakwiri); Tada (Duala).
Found in the district of Buea.
_Lonchocarpus Zenkeri_. Sosong (Bakossi); Epuepue (Bakwiri).
_Macrolobium Preussii_ (Harms.).
65 feet in height.
_Macrolobium Mannii_. Mokowa (Bakwiri).
Found in the district of Buea.
_Macrolobium Zenkerii_ (Harms.).
65 feet in height. It grows in the Bipindi district.
_Oxystigma Mannii_ (Baill.), (Harms.). Softwood. Bosipi (Duala).
Height, 130 feet. Found in the district of Victoria. The wood is used
in building.
_Pterocarpus Soyauxii_ (Taub.). Bo (Balong); Boa (Bakundu); Muenge
(Duala); Hiol or Mbia (Bakoko).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe. Height, 81¼ feet to
97½ feet. The wood is mediumly heavy, blood-red in the heartwood,
difficult to plane; used in making heavy furniture.
_Copaifera Demeusii_. Bobanja (Duala).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe. Height, 97½ feet.
[Illustration: FIG. 97.—=Base of Red Oak (Berlinia acuminata), showing
smooth bark with comparatively few large scales, Degema Station.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 98.—=Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa) Nursery Bed, with
seedlings two years old, at the side of Forest House, Degema.=]
To face p. 428.
_Tetrapleura Thonningii_ (Benth.). Kombolo (Duala).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe. Height, 48¾ feet.
_Pentaclethra macrophylla_ (Benth.). Combolo (Duala).
A huge tree, over 65 feet in height, with tough, fibrous, reddish
wood. Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts Höhe, Bipindi and
Jaunde. It yields Owala oil.
_Albizzia Welwitschii_ (Welw.). Goo (Bali); Esang (Bakossi); Elund
(Balong); Isaka (Bakundu); Esakasaka (Bakwiri); Bobai (Duala).
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district.
_Albizzia Brownii_ (Walp.), (Oliv.). Isaka (Bakwiri).
Height, 65 to 97½ feet. The wood is hard and much used in building. It
grows in the districts of Bipindi, Mimifia and Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Albizzia fastigiata_ (E. Mey.), (Oliv.).
Height, 97½ feet. Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe. The
wood is moderately hard.
_Berlinia auriculata_ (Sol.).
Height, 32½ to 65 feet. Found in the Batanga and Bipindi districts.
_Berlinia acuminata_ (Sol.). Mbava (Bakwiri).
Found in the district of Teko (Buea). Height, 48¾ to 81¼ feet.
_Erythrophlœum micranthum_ (Harms.).
65 to 130 feet in height. Found in the Bipindi district.
_Erythrophlœum sp._
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Erythrophlœum Guineense_ (Don).
Height, 97½ feet. Widely found through West Africa. The wood is much
used for house, bridge and ship building.
_Ostryoderris impressa_.
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district.
_Cynometra Mannii_ (Oliv.).
A high tree found in Victoria and Bimbi and on the coast.
_Cynometra multynge_ (Harms.).
Over 65 feet in height. Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts
Höhe and Bipindi.
_Scorodophlœus Zenkerii_ (Harms.).
Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts Höhe, Bipindi and Urwald.
Height, 48¾ feet.
_Parkia Zenkerii_ (Mim. Harms.).
Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts Höhe and Bipindi. Height,
48¾ to 65 feet.
_Wacuminata_.
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Baphia_.
Found in the district of Rio del Rey.
_Baphia Barombiensis_.
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Pterogopodium sp._
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Afzelia Africana_ (Smith).
Height, 32½ to 65 feet. Found in the Batanga, Lokundje, and Bipindi
districts.
_Afzelia Zenkeri_. Lom (Bakoko); Bobolo (Malimba).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe. A giant tree with
edible seeds.
_Brachystegia cynometroides_ (Harms.).
Height, 113¾ feet. Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts Höhe and
Mimifia.
_Erythrina excelsa_. Mokamu (Bakwiri).
Found in the district of Buea. Height, 65 feet. Time of flowering is
December and January.
_Dialium Staudtii_ (Harms.).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Dialium Guineense_ (Willd.).
Height, 81¼ to 97½ feet. Widely spread through the Cameroon country.
_Dialium Zenkeri_ (Harms.).
About 32½ feet high. Found in the Bipindi district.
_Distemonanthus Benthamianus_ (Baill.).
Height, 97½ to 130 feet. Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts
Höhe and Mimifia.
_Distemonanthus sp._
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Calpocalyx Dinklagei_ (Harms.).
Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts Höhe and Bipindi. Height,
32 to 48¾ feet.
_Newtonia Zenkeri_ (Harms.).
Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts Höhe and Bipindi. Height,
97½ to 113¾ feet.
_Adenocarpus Mannii_.
District, Fako, Buea.
_Detarium macrocarpum_ (Harms.).
Height, 81¼ to 97½ feet. Found in the Bipindi district.
_Indigofera Atriceps_.
Found in the district of Fako, Buea.
_Phutophyllum mirabile_.
Found in the district of Rio del Rey.
_Galium aparine_.
District, Victoria.
_Daniellia caudata_.
District, Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Afrormosia laxiflora_.
District, Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Cylicodiscus Gabunensis_ (Harms.). Edum (Bafo); Emang (Bakossi).
District, Johann Albrechts Höhe. A tree with enormous trunk and bark
resembling the pine; the wood is reddish. Height, 97½ to 130 feet.
_Trachylobium sp._
District, Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Fillæopsis discophora_ (Harms.).
Height, 48¾ feet. Found in the Bipindi district. Called by the
Kameroon Holz Syndicate “Milletia.” A big tree with huge paper-like
pods.
_Stemonocoleus micranthus_ (Harms.).
Height, 81¼ to 97½ feet. Found in the Bipindi district.
_Pithecolobium altissimum_ (Oliv.).
Height, 48¾ to 81¼ feet. Found in Bipindi.
_Stachyothyrsus Staudtii_ (Harms.).
Height, 81¼ feet. Found in the Mimifia and Bipindi districts.
=Linaceæ.=
_Phyllocosmus sessiliflorus_ (Oliv.).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe. Height, 48¾ to 81¼
feet.
=Erythroxylaceæ.=
_Erythroxylon Mannii_ (Oliv.).
Height, 48¾ feet. Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts Höhe and
Bipindi.
=Rutaceæ.=
_Fagara Rederi_ (Oliv.). Wongo (Bakundu); Woongo (Bakwiri).
Found in the district of Buea.
_Fagara altissima_ (Engl.).
Found in the Bipindi district. Height, 48½ to 81¼ feet.
_Zanthoxylum Senegalense_. Nitone (Fontem or Bangwa).
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district.
=Simarubaceæ.=
_Irvingia Barteri_ (Hook.). The so-called Wild Mango. Bope (Bafo);
Bopek (Balong); Weke (Bakundu); Bwiwa (Bakwiri); Bwiba ba mbale
(Duala).
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district specially, but widely
spread through West Africa.
_Irvingia Gabunensis_. Etue or Etu (Bakossi); Botuba (Bafo); Bopala
(Bakundu).
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district.
_Odyendea Gabunensis_ (Pierre).
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district. Height, 65 to 97½ feet.
_Klainedoxa Gabunensis_ (Pierre).
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district. Height, 65 to 97½ feet.
_Klainedoxa grandifolia_ (Engl.).
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district.
_Pierreodendron grandifolium_.
Found in the Rio del Rey district.
=Burseraceæ.=
_Pachylobus Zenkeri_.
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district.
_Pachylobus edulis_ (G. Don). Bosao (Bakundu); Sao or Bosao (Duala);
Bokuka (Etam).
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district. A fruit tree of about 65
to 97½ feet in height, having dark-green, alternating, bipinnate
leaves, smooth bark and reddish to grey-yellow wood. The wood is used
to make axe-handles; the tree also yields resin.
_Pachylobus var._ (Mbafo according to Engler). Bosao (Bakundu).
A fair-sized tree with reddish and greyish-yellow wood. It has a good
heartwood, used for the axles of wheels; also for calabashes. Found
throughout West Africa.
_Canarium auriculatum_. Bweii (Bali); Wotua (Bakwiri).
Found in the Victoria district.
_Canarium Schweinfurthii_ (Engl.).
Height, 113 to 130 feet. Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district
principally, but is fairly common throughout West Africa. The wood is
white and is used for building.
_Canarium Mansfeldianum_.
Found in the Ossidinge district.
=Meliaceæ.=
_Entandrophragma Rederi_. Njokubwele (Bakundu); Won (Bakwiri).
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district.
_Entandrophragma utilis_.
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district.
_Entandrophragma Candollei_ (Harms.).
Height, 97½ to 130 feet. Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district.
The wood is similar to mahogany.
_Guarea glomerulata_. Bobe ba ndiko (Bakundu); Lilualamombe (Bakwiri);
Timba or timba nundi (Duala).
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district. This wood is, like
mahogany, used for furniture, also window-wood. This tree is
frequently attacked by boring insects.
_Trichilia rubesilus_ (Oliv.). Ifassoa (Bakwiri).
Found in the Buea district. Height, 17½ to 32½ feet.
_Trichilia Prieureana_ (Juss.).
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district. Height, 32½ to 39 feet.
_Khaya Klainii_ (Pierre).
The most valuable mahogany is obtained from this tree.
It is abundantly found in West Africa.
_Khaya euryphylla_ (Harms.).
From 97½ to 130 feet in height. Found in the districts of Johann
Albrechts Höhe and Buea.
_Khaya Senegalensis_.
Found in the district of Victoria.
_Turraeanthus Zenkeri_ (Harms.).
Found in the Jaunde and Buea districts. Height, 65 feet.
_Carapa procera_ (D.C.).
Height about 65 feet. Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district. It
yields a wood very like mahogany, useful in building and carpentry.
=Euphorbiaceæ.=
_Ricinodendron Africanum_ (Mull. Arg.). Esango (Bakossi); Wonjasanga
(Bakundu); Wonjangasanga (Bakwiri); Njangsang (Duala); Ehan (Bakoko).
Height, 48¾ to 81¼ feet. Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district.
_Lepidoturus occidentalis_. Longoso (Bakundu); Longoso (Bakwiri);
Joloso (Duala).
District, Mbo.
_Macaranga sp._
Found in the district of Buea.
_Macaranga rosea_. Boka (Bakundu); Njon bwele (Duala).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe. Time of flowering,
November.
_Bridelia stenocarpa_ (Mull. Arg.). Esenge (Bakundu); Mosenge
(Bakwiri); Tata (Duala).
District, Johann Albrechts Höhe. It flowers in February and changes
leaf in December and January. The wood is light yellow with large,
open pores.
_Bridelia macrocarpa_. Esenge (Bakundu).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Alchornea floribunda_ (Mull. Arg.).
Sometimes found over 81¼ feet in height. It is widely spread over the
Cameroons.
_Alchornea cordifolia_. Dibobonga (Duala).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Antidesma laciniatum_. Liwoma (Bakwiri).
It grows in the Buea district.
_Claoxylon Preussii_ (Pax.).
It is found in the district of Buea.
_Croton pyrifolius_.
Found in the district of Buea.
_Phyllanthus discoideus_.
Found in the district of Buea.
_Uapaca Staudtii_ (Pax.). Bosambi (Bakundu).
Found in the district of Buea.
_Hevea_.
A rubber-tree which needs less soil than the Funtumia. Its extension
has been hampered by lack of seed. It suffers much from root diseases.
The tree is found in the Buea district.
_Sapium Mannianum_ (Mull. Arg.), (Bth.).
Height, 48¾ to 97½ feet. Widely spread over the Cameroon country.
_Grossera paniculata_ (Pax.). Nama tubave (Bakundu).
It grows in the Bipindi district. Height, 48¾ to 65 feet.
=Anacardiaceæ.=
_Sorindeia trimera_ (Oliv.).
Height, 48¾ feet. Very plentiful throughout the Cameroons.
_Pseudospondias microcarpa_ (A. Rich., Engl.).
Height, 32½ to 48¾ feet. Found in the Buea district and throughout the
Cameroons.
_Trichoscypha Bipindensis_ (Engl.).
Height, 65 to 97½ feet. It is found in the Bipindi district.
=Sapindaceæ.=
_Phialodiscus Zambesiacus_.
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district.
_Deinbollia pycnophylla_ (Gilg.).
Height, 65 feet. It is found in the Bipindi district.
=Tiliaceæ.=
_Desplatzia Dewewrei_.
Found in the (Boanda) Buea district.
_Grewiopsis globosa_. Ebonga evodi (Duala).
This is a small tree having yellow fruit, the size of a man’s fist,
used as food for elephants.
District, N.W. Africa.
_Grewiopsis discophora_.
District, N.W. Africa.
=Malvaceæ.=
_Pavonia Schimperiana_.
Dschang and Buea district.
=Bombacaceæ.=
_Ceiba pentandra_. Silk-cotton Tree. Monga (Balong); Mungongo (Duala).
Yields timber, bast, tanning materials, wool for stuffing, oil, etc.;
fruit woody.
_Adansonia digitata_. Baobab. Sometimes called “Asses Bread.”
It yields timber, fibre, tanning materials, etc. The pulp of the fruit
and the seeds are edible. Found in the savannah forests and also near
villages.
_Eriodendron_. Silk-cotton.
District, West Africa.
_Bombax buonopozense_. Silk-cotton.
District, West Africa. The tree yields timber, wool for stuffing,
fibre, oil, etc.
=Sterculiaceæ.=
_Sterculia oblonga_ (Mast.). Engele or Ongele (Balong); Bongele
(Bakundu); Ekonge (Bakwiri); Bongele or Bopum ba nji (Duala).
It grows in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe. A large tree having
opposite leaves and smooth bark, which rapidly turns red when exposed
to the air. The wood is much used for planks.
_Sterculia tragacantha_. Poose (Bakundu); Ndototo (Bakwiri); Pio
(Duala).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe. It flowers in
November.
_Sterculia grandifolia_. Kamdjok (Ossidinge).
Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts Höhe and Ossidinge.
_Sterculia cordifolia_. Lom (Bakoko).
Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts Höhe and Ossidinge.
_Sterculia acuminata_, syn. _Cola acuminata_ (?).
Much cultivated in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district and on the
mountain slopes. The nut of this tree is very much used in chocolate-
making and is very refreshing.
_Sterculia rhinopetala_ (K. Schum.).
Height, 81¼ to 113¾ feet. This tree yields an excellent building wood.
_Cola sp._
Found in the districts of (Muea) Buea.
_Cola sulcata_.
It is found in the district of (Boanda) Buea.
_Cola altissima_ (Engl.).
Height, 65 to 97½ feet. Found in the Bipindi district.
_Cola marsupium_.
Found in the district of (Boanda) Buea.
_Pterygota Kamerunensis_.
Found in the district of Mungo River.
_Xeropetalum Dombeya_.
Found in the Dschang district.
_Triplochiton scleroxylon_ (K. Schum.). Nkom (Bakossi); Ejuong
(Jaunde).
This tree yields a good timber and furniture wood. The leaves are very
similar to those of the maple. Found very plentifully in the Cameroon
country.
_Theobroma cacao_. Cocoa Tree.
There are about twenty species of this tree. The Cameroon country is
the richest in the world for cocoa. It grows chiefly in the low-lying
country of the Mungo, Wari and Sanaga Rivers, in the Duala and Yabassi
districts and Edea; also on the slopes of the Cameroon mountains. It
is much attacked by cockchafer grubs (brown rot) and bark bugs. The
world’s supply from _T. cacao_ has been going on for five hundred
years, and consequently has developed varieties showing a marked
difference from the original type.
=Scytopetalaceæ.=
_Oubanguia Klainei_ (Teigh.).
District, Buea. Height, 48¾ to 65 feet.
=Ochnaceæ.=
_Lophira alata_ (Banks). Ironwood. Boko (Bakundu); Ndonge (Bakwiri);
Bongossi (Duala).
Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts Höhe and Mbo. Diameter, 7½
to 10½ feet. Height, 162½ feet. The time for flowering is December and
January and February for ripe fruit. A good, very hard wood, used for
stair treads.
_Ouratea monticola_.
Found in the Buea district.
=Guttiferæ.=
_Endodesmia calophylloides_ (Bth.).
Height, 81¼ to 130 feet. It grows abundantly throughout the Cameroon
country.
_Garcinia punctata_ (Oliv.).
Height, 65 to 81¼ feet. Plentiful in Cameroon, specially in the Johann
Albrechts Höhe district.
_Pentadesma butyraceum_ (Dom.).
A very high tree. Common throughout Cameroon.
_Haronga paniculata_. Konkwa (Bali); Worolongo (Bakwiri); Tolongo
(Duala).
Found in the districts of Dschang and Buea.
_Symphonia globulifera_ (L. fil.).
Height, 65 to 97½ feet. Found throughout the whole of West Africa.
=Flacourtiaceæ.=
_Flacourtia Ramontchii_. Wondo (Bakwiri).
Found in the Dschang district.
_Barteria aromatica_.
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Barteria fistulosa_. Ant-trees (Musimba).
Found in the Buea district.
_Lindackeria dentata_.
Found in the Buea district.
_Scottellia Mimfiensis_ (Gilg.).
Height, 48¾ to 97½ feet.
=Caricaceæ.=
_Carica papaya_.
Found in the district of Victoria.
=Thymelaceæ.=
_Lasiosiphon glaucus_.
Found in the district of Victoria.
=Rhizophoraceæ.=
_Poga oleosa_. Njove or Njole (Rio del Rey).
District, Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Poga conophora_ (named after Muller). Njove or Njole (Rio del Rey).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Rhizophora mangle_ (Roxb.). Mangrove. Tanda (Duala).
It grows freely on the coast of West Africa. The bark is much used in
tanning.
=Alangiaceæ.=
_Alangium begonifolium_.
District, Buea.
=Combretaceæ.=
_Combretum cinerea_.
It grows in the Dschang district.
_Terminalia superba_ (Engl. and Diels). Nkom (Bakossi); Bokome (Bafo);
Bokome (Bakundu); Djombe (Bakwiri); Mukonja (Duala).
Height, 65 to 97½ feet. It grows abundantly throughout the Cameroon
country, but especially at Johann Albrechts Höhe. The wood is hard,
light yellow and close grained; much used for making windows and
shutters.
=Melastomaceæ=
_Amphiblemma polyneuron_.
District, Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Memecylon macrodendron_ (Gilg.).
Height, 48¾ to 65 feet. Found in the Bipindi district.
=Araliaceæ.=
_Schefflera Hookeriana_ (Harms.).
Found in the Buea district.
=Myrsinaceæ.=
_Mæsa lanceolata_.
Found in the Dschang district.
=Sapotaceæ.=
_Mimusops sp._
_Mimusops Djave_ (Laness), (Engl.). Nsab (Bare); Bonjabi (Bakundu);
Njabi (Duala).
Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts Höhe and Mbo. Height, 178¾
feet. Diameter, 6½ feet. There is frequently a clear bole of 97½ feet,
containing 6,380¼ cubic feet of wood (181 cubic metres). The nuts are
much valued locally as food.
_Chrysophyllum Africanum_.
District, Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Chrysophyllum macrophyllum_. Wonjanja (Bakwiri).
District, Johann Albrechts Höhe and Buea.
_Omphalocarpum Radlkoferi_ (Pierre).
Height, 65 feet. Found throughout West Africa. This tree yields timber
and a sort of gutta-percha.
_Butyrospermum Parkii_ (Kotschy.). Shea Butter.
District, N. West Africa. This tree yields a gutta-percha-like resin,
edible fruits, and from the seeds a fat (Shea butter).
_Omphalocarpum Pierreanum_ (Engl.).
Height, 65 to 81¼ feet. Found in the district of Bipindi.
=Ebenaceæ.=
_Diospyros suaveolens_ (Gurke). Ebony.
Height, 32½ to 48¾ feet. Found in the district of Johann Albrechts
Höhe.
_Diospyros atropurpurea_ (Gurke). Ebony. Efindofindo (Bafo); Findefinde
(Balong); Epindepinde (Bakundu); Findefinde (Bakwiri); Epindepinde
(Duala).
District, Johann Albrechts Höhe, Bipindi and Buea, and Muyuke. The
tree flowers in April and May; the fruit is ripe in October. It yields
timber, tanning and dyeing materials, mucilage, edible fruit (date-
plums), fish-poison and medicaments. The wood is very hard and of a
yellowish colour, the bark black. It is principally used for
furniture.
_Diospyros megaphylla_ (Gurke).
Height, 32½ to 48¾ feet. It grows near Bipindi.
_Diospyros Bipindensis_ (Gurke).
Height, 48¾ feet. It is found in the Bipindi district.
_Diospyros Kamerunensis_ (Gurke).
Height, 48¾ feet. Found in the Bipindi district.
_Diospyros Dendo_ (Welw.).
Height, 48¾ to 65 feet. It is found throughout the Cameroon country.
_Diospyros Gilgiana_ (Gurke).
Height, 48¾ to 65 feet. Found in the Bipindi district.
_Diospyros nsambensis_ (Gurke).
Height, 48¾ to 65 feet. Found in the Bipindi district.
_Diospyros mamiacensis_ (Gurke).
Height, 48¾ to 65 feet.
_Diospyros aggregata_ (Gurke).
Over 65 feet in height. Found in the Bipindi district.
_Diospyros incarnata_ (Gurke).
Height, 32½ to 39 feet. Found in the Bipindi district.
_Diospyros mespiliformis_ (Hochst.).
The sapwood is yellowish-white and close-grained. It is very useful in
turnery. The tree is found widely spread over West Africa.
=Loganiaceæ.=
_Nuxia Mannii_ (Oliv.).
District, (Fako) Buea.
_Anthocleista Zenkerii_, also known as Bopolo-polo.
Found in the Johann Albrechts Höhe district.
_Strychnos gnetifolia_ (Gilg.).
Height, 65 to 97½ feet. Found in the Bipindi district.
=Apocynaceæ.=
_Kicksia elastica_. Dinjongo (Bafo); Dinjongo (Bakundu); Manjongo
(Bakwiri); Ebonga manyongo (Duala).
Found in the districts of Johann Albrechts Höhe and Buea.
_Rauwolfia macrophylla_ or _gonioclada_. Enonge (Bakundu); Kanja
(Bakwiri); Bandonge (Duala).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe. The time of flowering
is October and March.
_Rauwolfia vomitoria_.
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Alstonia Congensis_. Kuge (Bakossi); Bokuk (Balong); Kanja (Bakundu);
Wokuka (Bakwiri); Bokuka ba mhale (Duala).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe. The wood is used for
making stools in the Kamerun country.
_Polyadoa umbellata_.
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Funtumia elastica_. Ireh Tree. (Lagos rubber.)
Found widely throughout West Africa. The chief rubber-yielding tree.
The tree suffers from the attacks of stag-beetles.
_Landolphia Dawei_. (Savannah rubber.)
Found in the primeval forests of West Africa. Several species yield
rubber, dyes and edible fruits (from which drinks are made).
=Convolvulaceæ.=
_Ipomæa involucrata_.
District, Rio del Rey.
=Borraginaceæ.=
_Cordia Irvingia_. Bola (Bakundu); Womba (Bakwiri); Bomba (Duala).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Cordia yombomba_. Jom (Ossidinge); Yombomba (Bakwiri).
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
=Verbenaceæ.=
_Avicennia tomentosa_ (Jacqu.). White Mangrove. Bunja (Duala). Found in
the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe and very frequently among coast
vegetation. Height, 32½ to 48¾ feet. The wood is very beautiful.
_Vitex cuneata_.
Found in the district of Johann Albrechts Höhe.
_Vitex Bipindensis_ (Gurke).
Height, 32½ to 48¾ feet. Found in the Bipindi district.
_Clerodendron_. Mumbambe (Bakwiri).
Found in the district of Buea.
=Scrophulariaceæ.=
_Selaginella Vogelii_.
Found in the district of Victoria.
=Bignoniaceæ.=
_Spathoidea campanulata_. Jon (Bali); Etutu (Bakundu); Mbako (Bakwiri);
Bwele ba Mbongo (Duala).
Found in the Dschang district.
_Kigelia acutifolia_. Sosong (Bakossi); Wulule (Bakwiri).
Found in the Dschang district.
_Markhamia lutea_. Abbe (Bakossi); Mawelu (Bakwiri); Mabanga (Duala).
Found in the Dschang district.
=Acanthaceæ.=
_Thomandersia laurifolia_.
District, Rio del Rey.
=Rubiaceæ.=
_Adina macrophylla_ (Lepr. and Guill.), (K. Schum.).
Found in the district of Victoria. Height of tree, 48¾ to 81¼ feet. A
yellowish wood, used in building and very good for furniture.
_Sarcocephalus sambucinus_ (Wint.). Tabu (Bali).
A very common tree in West Africa. It is a good building wood.
_Plectronia glabriflora_.
District, Dschang and Buea.
_Oxyanthus speciosus_. Wyfongo (Bakwiri).
District, Dschang and Buea.
_Canthium glabriflorum_.
District, N.W. Africa. This tree has grey bark and is like a palm in
appearance. It yields resin, and calabashes are made from the fruit.
_Morinda citrifolia_ (L.).
Height, 48¾ to 65 feet. It has a yellowish wood. A very common tree in
West Africa.
_Randia cladantha_ (_K. cladantha_).
Height, 65 to 81¼ feet. Very common throughout the Cameroon country.
=Compositæ.=
_Vernonia frondosa_ (Oliv.). Bopolopolo (Duala).
Found in the district of Rio del Rey.
_Vernonia conferta_. Bopolopolo (Duala).
Found in the district of Rio del Rey.
_Helichrysum fœtidum_ (Cass.).
Found in the districts of Victoria and Buea.
SOME CAMEROON TREES ONLY KNOWN BY NATIVE NAMES
Abange (Jaunde).
Adom (Jaunde).
Akaka (Jaunde); Ikaka (Bakundu). The wood is soft and nut-brown; it
smells like pencil-wood.
Akondog (Jaunde).
Ase (Jaunde); Njokubore (Bakundu). The fruit is similar to the
Entandrophragma (Meliaceæ), the root buttressed, and the leaves with
rosettes on the branches.
Awong (Jaunde).
Bosambai (Jaunde).
Dibanga (Jaunde). A mediumly hard, greyish-brown wood with brown
medullary rays; it is used for making furniture.
Ebe (Jaunde); Borimba (Bakundu). A giant tree with oval leaves, smooth
on the top and having brownish hairs underneath.
Ehemba (Jaunde).
Ejan (Jaunde).
Ekoah (Jaunde).
Enjog (Jaunde).
Esang (Jaunde).
Lawonong (Jaunde).
Lobog (Jaunde).
Otungue (Jaunde).
Ebunja (Bakundu).
Ekambamba (Bakundu).
Enjenju (Bakundu).
Esok (Bakundu).
Idjnake (Bakundu).
Mbonda pondo (Bakundu). A very close-grained, hard wood.
Mondoa (Bakundu).
Bowasa (Duala).
Bwiba ba njon (Duala). A hard wood used for stair treads. At the Basel
Mission the timber worked at was £2 per 35 cubic feet—Steyer and
Pingel, at the rate of 10 shillings per 35 cubic feet—the latter firm
working all kinds of wood of medium size.
Ebon (Duala).
Etotum (Duala).
Palambanja (Duala).
Tabako (Duala).
Eselebaka (Bakoko).
Ewnon (Bakoko).
Mpang (Bakoko and Basa).
Sibugang (Basa).
APPENDIX I
CAMEROONS—FOREST EXPORTS
-----------+----------------+----------------+---------------
| 1908. | 1909. | 1910.
Products. +------+---------+------+---------+------+--------
| Tons.| £ | Tons.| £ | Tons.| £
-----------+------+---------+------+---------+------+--------
Palm |11,198| 107,776|13,244| 130,550|13,689|177,678
kernels | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Palm oil | 2,983| 48,388| 3,305| 548,500| 3,140| 62,996
| | | | | |
Rubber | 1,214| 238,987| 1,517| 377,096| 1,961|553,534
| | | | | |
Cocoa | — | — | — | — | 475|152,769
| | | | | |
Gum Arabic | 261| 7,049| 272| 4,827| 329| 2,866
| | | | | |
Timber | 1,442| 7,953| 1,912| 8,855| 1,632| 7,193
(buildings,| | | | | |
etc.) | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Bark | 1| 6| 2| 19| 3| 31
| | | | | |
Dyewood | 2| 10| — | — | 8| 21
| | | | | |
Ivory | 53| 45,018| 53| 43,941| 37| 31,269
| | | | | |
Horns | — | 48| 2| 238| 1| 94
| | | | | |
Honey and | — | — | — | 8| — | 20
beeswax | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Shea nuts | 123| 430| 198| 1,144| 186| 710
and Shea | | | | | |
butter | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Kola nuts | 83| 1,213| 42| 1,391| 54| 900
| | | | | |
Djave nuts | 182| 1,023| 30| 160| 343| 1,628
| | | | | |
Copal | 5| 179| 3| 100| 3| 114
-----------+------+---------+------+---------+------+--------
TOTALS |17,547| 458,082|20,580|1,116,833|21,861|991,827
-----------+------+---------+------+---------+------+--------
[Continued]
-----------+----------------+----------------
| 1911. | 1912.
Products. +------+---------+------+---------
| Tons.| £ | Tons.| £
-----------+------+---------+------+---------
Palm |14,937| 208,393|15,742| 220,307
kernels | | | |
| | | |
Palm oil | 3,333| 71,215| 3,537| 81,119
| | | |
Rubber | 2,664| 551,513| 2,766| 573,611
| | | |
Cocoa | 3,525| 165,368| 4,479| 212,114
| | | |
Gum Arabic | 259| 2,135| 221| 2,218
| | | |
Timber | 7,089| 19,409|11,109| 34,793
(buildings,| | | |
etc.) | | | |
| | | |
Bark | 6| 127| 32| 29
| | | |
Dyewood | 11| 36| 4| 11
| | | |
Ivory | 40| 29,038| 34| 31,809
| | | |
Horns | 2| 138| 2| 204
| | | |
Honey and | — | 5| — | 6
beeswax | | | |
| | | |
Shea nuts | 65| 232| 105| 645
and Shea | | | |
butter | | | |
| | | |
Kola nuts | 87| 953| 235| 8,348
| | | |
Djave nuts | 45| 254| 189| 1,258
| | | |
Copal | 2| 97| 2| 63
-----------+------+---------+------+---------
TOTALS |32,065|1,048,905|38,457|1,166,539
-----------+------+---------+------+---------
APPENDIX II
THE CAMEROONS—EXPORTS OF BUILDING AND OTHER USEFUL TIMBERS ACCORDING TO
PORT OF SHIPMENT
[Qu.: Quantity]
---------------+------------+-------------+-------------+-------------
|Rio del Rey.| Victoria.* | Nsanakang.* | Duala.
| * | | |
Kind of Timber.+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
| Qu.,|Value,| Qu.,|Value,| Qu.,|Value,| Qu.,|Value,
|Tons.| £. | Tons.| £. | Tons.| £. | Tons.| £.
---------------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
Abochia | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Arajon, | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
Mahogany, | | | | | | | |
Entandrophragma| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Afzelia, | — | — | — | — | — | — | 13| 32
_Afzelia | | | | | | | |
Africana_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Pear-tree } | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
(Orella), } | | | | | | | |
Adja-tree, } | | | | | | | |
} | | | | | | | |
Njabi, } | — | — | — | — | — | — | 24| 74
_Mimusops } | | | | | | | |
Djave_ } | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Cotton-tree, | — | — | — | — | — | — | 1| 1
_Bombax ceiba_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Bilinga | — | — | — | — | — | — | 53| 149
| | | | | | | |
Bongossi, | — | — | — | — | — | — | 700|18,144
_Lophira alata_| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Bimbwa, | — | — | — | — | — | — | 2| 4
_Irvingia | | | | | | | |
Barteri_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
_Chlorophora | — | — | — | — | — | — | 16| 20
excelsa_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Ebony, | 14| 41| — | 3| 205| 530| 1,503|13,308
_Diospyros sp._| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Mahogany, | 11| 44| 2| 4| — | — | 6,672|18,485
Meliaceæ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Mbang, | — | — | — | 2| — | — | 1,426| 3,114
_Chlorophora | | | | | | | |
excelsa_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Momangi, | — | — | — | 27| — | — | — | —
_Chlorophora | | | | | | | |
excelsa_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
African | — | — | — | — | — | — | 2| 1
Walnut, | | | | | | | |
_Chlorophora | | | | | | | |
excelsa_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
_Okoumea | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
Klaineana_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Odiki | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Olim | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Olong | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Owango | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Palmwood | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Poana-Poana | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Redwood, | 1| 2| — | 2| — | — | 59| 232
_Pterocarpus | | | | | | | |
sp._ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Soppo | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 18
| | | | | | | |
Satinwood | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Misc. parcels | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
of wood | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Terminalia | — | — | — | — | — | — | 25| 176
(Mukonja of | | | | | | | |
Duala) | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Zimingela, | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
_Terminalia | | | | | | | |
superba | | | | | | | |
Combretaceæ_ | | | | | | | |
---------------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
TOTALS | 27| 88| 5| 37| 205| 530|10,503|53,763
---------------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
[Continued]
---------------+------------+-------------+-------------+-------------
| Kampo. | Koibi. | Uroko. | Total.
| | | |
Kind of Timber.+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
| Qu.,|Value,| Qu.,|Value,| Qu.,|Value,| Qu.,|Value,
|Tons.| £. | Tons.| £. | Tons.| £. | Tons.| £.
---------------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
Abochia | — | — | — | — | 40| 17| 40| 17
| | | | | | | |
Arajon, | — | — | — | — | 100| 500| 100| 500
Mahogany, | | | | | | | |
Entandrophragma| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Afzelia, | — | — | — | — | — | — | 13| 32
_Afzelia | | | | | | | |
Africana_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Pear-tree } | — | — | — | — | 62| 54| 62| 54
(Orella), } | | | | | | | |
Adja-tree, } | | | | | | | |
} | | | | | | | |
Njabi, } | — | — | — | — | 240| 137| 264| 212
_Mimusops } | | | | | | | |
Djave_ } | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Cotton-tree, | — | — | — | — | 12| 4| 14| 6
_Bombax ceiba_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Bilinga | — | — | — | — | — | — | 53| 149
| | | | | | | |
Bongossi, | — | — | — | — | — | — | 700| 1,814
_Lophira alata_| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Bimbwa, | — | — | — | — | — | — | 2| 4
_Irvingia | | | | | | | |
Barteri_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
_Chlorophora | — | — | — | — | — | — | 16| 20
excelsa_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Ebony, | — | 3| 29| 110| — | — | 1,753|13,994
_Diospyros sp._| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Mahogany, | 1| 90| — | — | 156| 275| 6,845|18,900
Meliaceæ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Mbang, | — | — | — | — | 3| 2| 1,431| 3,116
_Chlorophora | | | | | | | |
excelsa_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Momangi, | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 27
_Chlorophora | | | | | | | |
excelsa_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
African | — | — | — | — | 897| 684| 899| 685
Walnut, | | | | | | | |
_Chlorophora | | | | | | | |
excelsa_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
_Okoumea | — | — | — | — |10,992| 6,832|10,992| 6,832
Klaineana_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Odiki | — | — | — | — | 24| 16| 24| 16
| | | | | | | |
Olim | — | — | — | — | 12| 5| 12| 5
| | | | | | | |
Olong | — | — | — | — | 10| 9| 10| 9
| | | | | | | |
Owango | — | — | — | — | 3| 6| 3| 6
| | | | | | | |
Palmwood | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Poana-Poana | — | — | — | — | 1| 3| 1| 3
| | | | | | | |
Redwood, | 1| 13| — | — | 13| 10| 76| 260
_Pterocarpus | | | | | | | |
sp._ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Soppo | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | 18
| | | | | | | |
Satinwood | — | — | — | — | 33| 21| 33| 21
| | | | | | | |
Misc. parcels | — | — | — | — | 7| 2| 7| 2
of wood | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Terminalia | — | — | — | — | — | — | 25| 176
(Mukonja of | | | | | | | |
Duala) | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Zimingela, | — | — | — | — | 264| 145| 264| 145
_Terminalia | | | | | | | |
superba | | | | | | | |
Combretaceæ_ | | | | | | | |
---------------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
TOTALS | 3| 107| 29| 110|12,877| 8,728|23,651|47,033
---------------+-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
* These ports are in the English portion of the country.
APPENDIX III
THE CAMEROONS—EXPORTS OF TIMBER ACCORDING TO DESTINATION, 1913
[Qu.: Quantity]
--------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------
| Germany. | England. | France. | Holland.
Kind of +------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
Timber. | Qu., |Value,| Qu., |Value,| Qu., |Value,| Qu., |Value,
| Tons.| £. | Tons.| £. | Tons.| £. | Tons.| £.
--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
Abochia | 40| 17| — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Arajon | — | — | — | — | 100| 500| — | —
| | | | | | | |
Afzelia, | 13| 32| — | — | — | — | — | —
_Afzelia | | | | | | | |
Africana_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Pear-tree | 300| 225| — | — | — | — | — | —
(Orella), | | | | | | | |
_Mimusops | | | | | | | |
Djave_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Cotton-tree, | 14| 6| — | — | — | — | — | —
Ceiba and | | | | | | | |
Bombax | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Bilinga | 53| 149| — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Bongossi, | 600| 1,580| 100| 234| — | — | — | —
_Lophira | | | | | | | |
alata_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Bimbwa, | 2| 4| — | — | — | — | — | —
_Irvingia | | | | | | | |
Barteri_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Ebony, | 135|11,402| 397| 2,592| — | — | — | —
_Diospyros | | | | | | | |
sp._ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Mahogany, | 4,153|12,259| 2,622| 6,291| 13| 17| 57| 331
Meliaceæ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Mbang, | 1,428| 3,103| 3| 13| — | — | — | —
_Chlorophora | | | | | | | |
excelsa_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Momangi, | — | 27| — | — | — | — | — | —
_Chlorophora | | | | | | | |
excelsa_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
African | 545| 472| — | — | 21| 20| 152| 12
Walnut? | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Okumme, | 8,847| 4,881| — | — | 690| 526| — | —
Gaboon | | | | | | | |
Mahogany, | | | | | | | |
_Okumea | | | | | | | |
Klaineana_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Odiki | 24| 16| — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Olina | 12| 5| — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Olong | 10| 9| — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Owango | 3| 6| — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Palmwood | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Poana-Poana | 1| 3| — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
African | 7| 2| — | — | — | — | — | —
Lignumvitæ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Redwood, | 76| 260| — | — | — | — | — | —
Pterocarpus | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Soppo | — | 18| — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Satinwood | 24| 7| — | — | 8| 13| — | —
| | | | | | | |
Terminalia | 25| 176| — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | | | |
Choraschora, | 1| 20| — | — | — | — | — | —
_Chlorophora | | | | | | | |
excelsa_ | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
Zimengela, | 157| 127| — | — | 2| 2| 54| 7
_Terminalia | | | | | | | |
superba | | | | | | | |
Combretaceæ_ | | | | | | | |
--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
TOTALS |17,716|34,815| 3,123| 9,131| 834| 1,069| 264| 351
--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
[Continued]
--------------+-------------+-------------+-------------
| America. | Belgium. | Total.
Kind of +------+------+------+------+------+------
Timber. | Qu., |Value,| Qu., |Value,| Qu., |Value,
| Tons.| £. | Tons.| £. | Tons.| £.
--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------
Abochia | — | — | — | — | 40| 17
| | | | | |
Arajon | — | — | — | — | 100| 500
| | | | | |
Afzelia, | — | — | — | — | 13| 32
_Afzelia | | | | | |
Africana_ | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Pear-tree | — | — | 26| 40| 327| 266
(Orella), | | | | | |
_Mimusops | | | | | |
Djave_ | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Cotton-tree, | — | — | — | — | 14| 6
Ceiba and | | | | | |
Bombax | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Bilinga | — | — | — | — | 53| 149
| | | | | |
Bongossi, | — | — | — | — | 700| 1,814
_Lophira | | | | | |
alata_ | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Bimbwa, | — | — | — | — | 2| 4
_Irvingia | | | | | |
Barteri_ | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Ebony, | — | — | — | — | 1,753|13,994
_Diospyros | | | | | |
sp._ | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Mahogany, | — | — | — | — | 6,845|18,900
Meliaceæ | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Mbang, | — | — | — | — | 1,431| 3,116
_Chlorophora | | | | | |
excelsa_ | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Momangi, | — | — | — | — | — | 27
_Chlorophora | | | | | |
excelsa_ | | | | | |
| | | | | |
African | — | — | 180| 180| 899| 685
Walnut? | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Okumme, | 513| 1,199| 941| 236|10,991| 6,842
Gaboon | | | | | |
Mahogany, | | | | | |
_Okumea | | | | | |
Klaineana_ | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Odiki | — | — | — | — | 24| 16
| | | | | |
Olina | — | — | — | — | 12| 5
| | | | | |
Olong | — | — | — | — | 10| 9
| | | | | |
Owango | — | — | — | — | 3| 6
| | | | | |
Palmwood | — | — | — | — | — | —
| | | | | |
Poana-Poana | — | — | — | — | 1| 3
| | | | | |
African | — | — | — | — | 7| 2
Lignumvitæ | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Redwood, | — | — | — | — | 76| 260
Pterocarpus | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Soppo | — | — | — | — | — | 18
| | | | | |
Satinwood | — | — | — | — | 33| 21
| | | | | |
Terminalia | — | — | — | — | 25| 176
| | | | | |
Choraschora, | — | — | — | — | 1| 20
_Chlorophora | | | | | |
excelsa_ | | | | | |
| | | | | |
Zimengela, | — | — | 50| 8| 263| 144
_Terminalia | | | | | |
superba | | | | | |
Combretaceæ_ | | | | | |
--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------
TOTALS | 513| 1,199| 1,200| 66|23,651|47,033
--------------+------+------+------+------+------+------
[Illustration: FIG. 99.—=The temporary Wooden Bridge over the Imo, on
the Eastern Division, Nigerian Railway. Note, only native, locally grown
timber used in its construction.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 100.—=Medium-sized African Pearwood (Mimusops Djave)
standing in the middle of the road outside Degema Station, on the road
to Illimema, since felled, and logs sold in England.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 101.—=Inoi Tree (Poga oleosa) standing at the edge
of the Degema Station grounds.=]
To face p. 446.
CHAPTER XI
THE OIL BEANS, SEEDS AND NUTS OF THE FOREST
In a separate chapter the Oil Palm and its produce are more fully
considered, so that we give here a detailed account of the other
important Oil Seeds and Nuts. Oil-bearing nuts and seeds are usually
found in great profusion in the Tropics, and West Africa is no exception
to the rule.
Amongst the botanical families in which the plants yield oil-seeds or
nuts are the Palmæ, Leguminosæ, Euphorbiaceæ, Ochnaceæ, Sapotaceæ,
Rhizophoraceæ, Meliaceæ and Guttiferæ. As far as the Protectorates of
Nigeria and Sierra Leone are concerned, the “Oil Bean” (_Pentaclethra
macrophylla_) is one of the most important. According to the data in the
Niger district, oil beans have been bought for some ten years from the
natives. They are also known as Owala beans. The natives prefer a price
of 1s. per case, but the minimum of 6d. and the maximum of 9d. per case
was about the limit for the nuts in pre-war days. Even then only a small
profit was made by the European merchant at the prices then ruling for
the nuts in England. With the much greater, almost universal demand for
all kinds of oil-nuts and seeds, it is probable that higher prices will
be paid for these nuts now that the war is over, provided a reasonable
charge for freight can be arranged. The natives themselves say that the
nuts should be cooked for twelve hours to be good for eating. There are
six or seven beans in each pod.
Now that many roadsides in the Owerri province and other districts have
been planted with Oil-bean trees as a shade tree, there will be a
continual supply of nuts each year. The tree starts bearing in the tenth
year, and almost every year bears a fair crop. An example of one of
these avenues is seen on the Ikpoba Road, just outside Benin City. The
pods are used as a firewood, which makes a hot, rapid fire. In Sierra
Leone they are known as Fai beans. The beans are large and flattened,
covered with a hard brown seed-coat. They may be from one and a half to
two and three-quarter inches in length, and from one to one and three-
quarter inches in breadth, and one-third to nearly half an inch in
thickness. The kernels are white and soft and contain a quantity of oil.
According to the very valuable investigations of the Imperial Institute:
The proportion of hard seed-coat (by weight), 20·7 per cent.
The proportion of kernel in bean (by weight), 79·3 per cent.
The amount of oil contained in the whole, 31·2 per cent.
The amount of oil contained in the kernels, 39 per cent.
When the oil is left to stand it deposits a quantity of solid fat. On
trial, the oil was found to yield rather a soft soap, and was stated to
be worth only about £21 per ton. The cold-pressed oil was of a golden
yellow colour, and the hot-drawn oil a dull yellow and rather thick.
From analysis it was found that the meal was very nutritious, containing
over 39 per cent. of proteids, and if it could be used as a feeding-cake
it would be worth from £5 to £5 10s. per ton (pre-war rates).
The constants of the oil from the Southern Nigerian seeds are:
Iodine value 87·07
Acid value 14·3
Titer test 50·15° C.
The composition of the meal after extraction of the oil is as follows:
Per cent.
Moisture 12·9
Ash 3·5
Proteins 34·8
Fibre 6·8
Sugar (dextrose) 6·2
Carbohydrates (other than sugar) 33·7
The oil on analysis gave the following results:
Specific gravity at 15·5° C. (60° F.) 0·9194
Saponification value 184·2
Free fatty acids, per cent. 0·7
Analysis of pressed cake:
Per cent.
Oil 12·0
Moisture 9·9
Crude proteins 33·2
Carbohydrates 34·8
Fibre 5·7
Ash 4·5
The oil would make a first-class edible oil. The value of the beans is
stated to be about £6 per ton c.i.f. London, August 1909, and subject to
being shipped in lots of fifty to one hundred tons at a time. No regular
plantations have been made with this tree, but it is probable that with
cultivation an earlier and quicker yield of nuts could be obtained, also
with further grafting and seed selecting the thickness of the shell over
the kernel could be considerably reduced, and also the thickness of the
pod, and thus make the product more valuable in proportion to its size.
A small tree will bear half to one bushel of beans, and a large tree
will bear two. On the smaller and younger trees the pods are narrower
and shorter than on the older trees, and the beans are much smaller,
being only about half the size and a third of the bulk of those from
fully-grown trees. The pods, which also contain a certain amount of oil,
are not to be despised as a source of fuel, especially as time goes on
and the population increases.
In this place also should be considered the beans of _Xylia Evansii_.
This is also a Leguminous tree. The natives apparently have no use for
the small, flattened round beans, which are about half to three-quarters
of an inch in diameter and an eighth of an inch thick, and sometimes
less. The beans have not been collected or sold, neither have they been
examined chemically as to their oil or other content.
Another oil-bean-bearing tree of this family is _Berlinia acuminata_,
which has large beans rather more than an inch and a half long, an inch
broad, and a third of an inch thick. Further examination would show
whether the oil content is such as to justify their commercial
exploitation. The Benin name is Ekpagoi and Yoruba Apado.
Closely allied to this one is _Macrolobium palisoti_, the Ogaba of the
Benis, which also yields a flat, almost square-shaped bean, nearly an
inch in length and an inch in width. The exact oil content of this bean
is unknown.
The beans of _Cynometra Afzelii_ and _Cynometra Mannii_ are much larger
and stouter, but also contain a certain amount of oil of unknown value.
The Benin name is Upakeka and Yoruba Eggi or Ekku.
Then we have the small, almost black, button-like beans of _Brachystegia
spicæformis_, which, despite their large quantity, have remained
uncollected and unused. A proper chemical examination would reveal the
oil or other content of the beans. The Benin name is Okwan and the
Yoruba Ako.
Still considering this same family of plants, the Leguminoseæ, there are
the brown beans of _Erythrophlœum Guineense_ and _E. micranthum_. These
are of a brown colour, about half an inch long, one-third of an inch
wide, and an eighth of an inch thick, and of a more or less round shape.
Here, again, further investigation would reveal the oil content of these
beans. The Yoruba name is Oginni or Inyi and Yoruba Erunor Obo.
It is also not known whether the nuts of the various Afzelias, known as
Apa by the Yorubas and Aligna by the Benis, contain a valuable oil or
other commercial product.
It has been stated that the beans and pods of _Pithecolobium altissimum_
have been used as a kind of “Dividivi” for tanning leather, but further
experiment with these would prove or disprove the point.
Finally, there is the Calabar bean or Eseri bean, _Physostigma
venenosum_. It is known to the Efiks as Eseri. The deep furrow on the
upper side of the bean is most typical of it, and differentiates it thus
from the various Mucuna species. It contains two alkaloids, Calabarine
and Eserine. These beans are comparatively well known. Besides being
used locally as a medicine and for witchcraft, they are collected and
sold for export. The bean used in games, _Mucuna urens_, has yet to be
examined as to its value.
Amongst the other important families containing nut-bearing trees are
the Rhizophoraceæ. The Inoy nut, _Poga oleosa_, is obtained from a
common tree in the Owerri and Calabar provinces of Nigeria. The local
people of the Oban and Calabar districts are very fond of the nut, and
leave the tree standing when making their farms. The nuts sell in the
Calabar market at the rate of 250 for 3d. They were examined in England
and favourably reported on by the Imperial Institute in June 1905. The
hard shell is against their general use, as it is so particularly tough
and hard to crack. The shell on the nut itself is about one-fifteenth of
an inch thick. The kernel is soft, white, and very oily. It has a better
flavour than even the Brazil nut, and is pale-yellow in colour. The
kernels were valued in May 1906 at from £9 to £10 in England. They
contain about 60·8 per cent. of oil, which showed the following
constants according to the investigations of the Imperial Institute:
Specific gravity of 15° C. 0·896
Saponification value 184·49
Iodine value 89·75
Hehner value 93·00
Reichert-Meissl value 1·45
Acid value 39·7
Titer test 22° C.
After extraction of the oil the meal gave the following result:
Expressed on Dry Material.
Per cent.
Proteins 41·51
Sugars, reducing 1·32
„ non-reducing (sucrose) 2·50
Other carbohydrates 36·92
Crude fibre 9·00
Ash 8·75
“Inoy” kernels would yield a nutritious cake for feeding cattle.
Thus far no use has been found for the round small, pear-shaped, nut-
like fruits of the Red Mangrove, _Rhizophora racemosa_. Considering the
large quantity found floating about in the creeks and rivers, further
investigation seems warranted.
In the Euphorbiaceæ family the Nsa-sana (Efik) or Okkwen nuts of the
Benis have been found to contain 45·2 per cent. of oil by the Imperial
Institute.[17] This nut is obtained from _Ricinodendron Africana_ and
_R. Rautenii_, and is known to the Yorubas as Erimado. In each fruit
there are two, three, or even four nuts. The flesh of the fruit soon
dries or rots away, leaving the uncracked nuts among the debris. The
shell of these is hard and thick, and the inside a bright white colour.
In some experiments carried out on a comparatively large scale at the
end of 1907 and at the beginning of 1908, in Benin, it was found that
more than half the kernels were broken in the cracking of the nut.
However, in the Cameroons, where the nuts are used for alimentary
purposes, they are boiled for a short time, and then it is possible to
crack them quite easily without damaging the kernel inside. Further
experiments at Benin showed that six boxes (gin cases) of green fruit
yield one box of nuts containing actually 7,528, which weigh 35 lb. 4
oz. One box of fruit contains 418 seeds and yields 720 nuts. An average
of 7,419 seeds is contained in each box, 155 nuts weighing 1 lb. Each
fruit contains on the average two and one-ninth seeds. On the average
9d. per box was paid for fruit, and 1s. per box for uncracked nuts.
Twenty boys cleaned and got ready 2½ boxes of uncracked nuts per day at
the cost of 5s. Paying at the rate of 1s. a case for the uncracked nuts,
the cost would be £17 per ton. However, with regular quantities being
brought in, no doubt this cost could be reduced. In a similar way, if
the nuts were boiled in quantity and immediately cracked, the kernels
would be got out at a cheaper rate. The native working for himself, as
with the palm nuts, would turn out greater quantities in a shorter time.
The yield of the oil pressed from the kernels was 47 per cent., or 14
per cent. on the whole nut. It is light yellow in colour and has a
pleasant taste, very much like that of the ground nut. The chemical
examination showed a resemblance to Tsung oil (Chinese wood oil). It
possesses the same property of drying on exposure to air under ordinary
atmospheric pressure. The oil could be used for similar purposes, or for
the making of soft soap, and would be worth from about £18 to £20 per
ton for this purpose, and it appears that the oil would have a ready
sale in England, and have a value, equal to linseed oil, of about £21
per ton. According to the investigations at the Imperial Institute, the
analysis of Nsa-sana kernels and Tsung oil showed:
---------------------+-------------------+--------------------------
| Oil from Nsa-sana | Commercial Tsung Oil.
| Kernels. |
---------------------+-------------------+--------------------------
Specific gravity |0·9320 (at 20° C.) |0·933-0·942 (at 15·5° C.)
| |
Saponification value | 191·6 | 190-197
| |
Iodine value | 147·7 | 149-165
| |
Hehner value | 95·2 | 96·3
| |
Titer test | 35·7° C. | 37·1-37·2° C.
---------------------+-------------------+--------------------------
Despite the large quantities of nuts available, especially in the
Abeokuta, Benin and Calabar provinces, the difficulty of cracking the
nuts satisfactorily and buying them cheap enough has so far precluded an
export trade from being built up. Owing to the low percentage of oil in
the whole nut it is evident that it would not pay to ship the uncracked
nuts. So far no plantations have been made with this tree, but it comes
up very readily and plentifully in old abandoned farms of the mixed
forest zone. In open localities, with plenty of light, the tree begins
to bear between the seventh and tenth year, and almost each year there
is a large crop of fruit. From larger trees the yield appears to be over
one bushel of nuts per tree per annum.
The curious nut-like fruits of Ubellu, Benin, supposed to be a species
of Microdesmis, have not been examined as to their oil or other content.
Soon after falling to the ground they break up into a white putty-like
substance, which has a very peculiar, almost sulphurous, smell, and
sometimes rather phosphoric. The nuts are spherical and rather more than
half an inch in diameter. The tree is found chiefly in Benin, also in
the Abeokuta and Calabar provinces.
Among the Euphorbiaceæ is the creeper, _Manniphyton sp._, known as Okwe
to the Benis. The spherically shaped fruit with four raised ribs on its
surface is cut open and contains one large round nut. It is about one
inch in diameter. This is boiled for a few hours and is then edible,
after the thin dark-brown husk has been removed. It can be peeled off
with the fingers. The nut has a pleasant mealy taste and is very
satisfying. Further examination would show whether it contains a
valuable oil, and in what quantity. So far it has not been cultivated.
Of the Cucurbitaceæ, the seeds of _Citrullus vulgaris_, known as Ikpan
by the Efiks or Egusi bara by the Yorubas, have been examined at the
Imperial Institute[18] and found to contain from 40 to 41 per cent. of a
pale-yellow oil. It is a common plant in the more open farms of the
forest and does not demand a very high rainfall—45 inches. The natives
use the kernels, after they have removed the hard skin, for making soup.
It makes an excellent dish with rather a sweet taste. According to the
investigations of the Imperial Institute[19] an analysis of the oil gave
the following results:
Specific gravity at 15° C. 0·9184
Acid value 5·5
Saponification value 194·0
Iodine value 106·0
Hehner value 95·5
Titer test 36·0° C.
The oil could be used for soap-making, and was valued at £29 per ton.
In the family Moringeæ there is _Moringa pterygosperma_, the Ben oil-
seed tree. It is a common tree of the upper part of the Oyo, Benin and
Ogoja provinces of Nigeria. It is also found in Borgu and other of the
Northern Provinces. On examination by the Imperial Institute the kernels
were found to contain 38 per cent. of oil, pale-yellow in colour and of
a pleasant taste. The kernel is difficult to extract. At the Imperial
Institute[19] the analysis showed:
--------------+---------------------+---------------------+-----------
| No. 1 from | No. 2 from |No. 3 from
| Extracted Oil. | Decorticated Seed. |Undecorti-
| | |cated Seed.
+----------+----------+----------+----------+-----------
| Liquid. | Solid. | Cold | Hot | Hot
| | | Pressed. | Pressed. | Pressed.
--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+-----------
Specific | 0·914 | — | 0·902 | 0·898 | 0·913
gravity at | | | | |
15/15° C. | | | | |
| | | | |
Acid value | 15·3 | — | 49·7 | 100·5 | 2·3
| | | | |
Saponification| 189·2 | 194·4 | 179·2 | 178·7 | 186·0
value | | | | |
| | | | |
Iodine value | 70·7 | 68·3 | 100·3 | 88·0 | 67·7
| | | | |
Unsaponifiable| — | — | 1·67 | 2·69 | —
matter | | | | |
--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+-----------
COMPOSITION OF CAKE FROM BEN SEEDS.
--------------------------------+-------------+---------------
| No. 2, | No. 3
|Decorticated.|Undecorticated.
--------------------------------+-------------+---------------
| Per cent. | Per cent.
| |
Moisture | 5·96 | 7·5
| |
Albuminoids | 24·12 } |
| } | 30·8
Other nitrogenous substances | 34·81 } |
| |
Fat | 11·27 | 14·5
| |
Fibre | 4·32 | 21·9
| |
Ash | 5·66 | 4·5
| |
Other non-nitrogenous substances| 13·86 | 20·9
--------------------------------+-------------+---------------
From the Simarubeæ there is _Balanites Ægyptica_, Betu oil-tree of the
Northern Provinces of Nigeria. Although it yields 58·7 per cent. of oil,
the exploitation of it is almost impossible, owing to the difficulties
in removing the husk, the external sugary pulp, and then the thick
fibrous shell under the pulp. At the Imperial Institute,[20] Betu oil on
analysis showed:
Specific gravity 0·919
Acid value 5·0
Saponification value 196·7
Iodine value 92·5
Hehner value 92·5
Reichert-Meissl value —
Unsaponifiable matter 0·6
Titer test 34·6° C. (approx.)
The oil is a mixture; the results of analysis are as follows:
Per cent.
Olein 33
Linolein 33
Stearin and palmitin 34
The family of Simarubeæ also contains the trees _Irvingia Barteri_ and
_I. Smithii_. These yield the Dika nut, or, as it is sometimes called,
Gaboon chocolate. The sun-dried kernels keep in a perfectly good
condition for some time. According to the investigation of the Imperial
Institute[20] the kernel contains about 43·5 of “Dika fat.” It would be
useful either for soap or for candle making, and be worth from £25 to
£27 per ton, and the Dika kernels are valued at from £10 to £12 per ton.
Locally, however, they are often worth as much as this, but no doubt
increased production would mean a reduction in price. So far the tree
has only been planted in isolated instances, and otherwise is a forest
tree which has been protected by the native for the value of its fruit.
The decortication usually takes place near the tree, or in an open place
where the nuts are split in half with a sharp matchet, which releases
the kernel in the centre, and though often cut in half by this method,
it apparently does not mean a large loss of oil to the kernel. According
to the analysis of the Imperial Institute[20] the kernel showed:
------------------------------------+---------+---------+--------
| Sample | Sample | Sample
| No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3.
------------------------------------+---------+---------+--------
Yield of fat (on kernels) per cent. | 54·3 | 60·1 | 66·3
| | |
Specific gravity at 100/15° C. | — | 0·863 | —
| | |
Acid value | 6·6 | 12·6 | 1·8
| | |
Saponification value |244·5 | 250·0 |243·8
| | |
Iodine value | 5·2 | 3·3 | 4·2
| | |
Unsaponifiable matter | 0·7 | — | —
| | |
Titer test | 34·8° C.| — | —
| | |
Melting-point of fat | — | — | 39·2°C.
------------------------------------+---------+---------+--------
Apparently an oil seed, probably Philiodiscus, a member of the
Sapindaceæ family, has been examined at the Imperial Institute and has
been found to contain a non-drying oil, which was free from taste and
smell. It should, therefore, be of value for eating or for making a
white soap.
Sapotaceæ, _Butyrospermum Parkii_.—In recent years larger quantities of
Shea nuts, which are the product of this tree, have been exported from
West Africa, especially Nigeria, as also Shea butter, which is
manufactured locally from the nuts. In the varieties Tengba and Bomo the
quantity varied from “54·5 per cent. to 48 per cent.,” and these were
obtained from the Southern Provinces of Nigeria. In the two varieties
exported from the Northern Provinces, those known as Eko showed a length
of nut varying from 1·5 to 2·5 inches, and the Giddouchi variety 1·4
inches long. Owing to the wide prevalence of this tree much larger
quantities could be exported, but many of the forests containing it are
situated far away from means of transport, and no very suitable method
has yet been found of manufacturing the butter on a big scale locally.
At present it is made by certain women who know the process, which takes
nearly three days to complete. According to the Imperial Institute the
results of the analysis of Shea butter are:[21]
---------------------------------+---------+----------+-----------
| From | Fat from | Fat from
| Lagos. |Untreated |Kiln-dried
| | Kernels. | Kernels.
---------------------------------+---------+----------+-----------
Specific gravity at 100/15·5° C. | 0·862 | — | —
| | |
Acid value | 18·0 | 33·9 | 26·2
| | |
Saponification value |179·0 | 181·2 | 180·2
| | |
Iodine value | 58·7 | 59·4 | 55·8
| | |
Hehner value | 96·5 | — | —
| | |
Unsaponifiable value | 1·7 | — | —
| | |
Titer test | 52·0° C.| — | —
---------------------------------+---------+----------+-----------
The fat obtained from the Northern Provinces and the Gold Coast shows
very similar contents.
_Mimusops, sp. Djave?_.—The nuts of this species closely resemble those
of the Shea Butter Tree. The nuts are a light-brown colour, about two
inches long, and one to one and a half inches in diameter, with roundly
pointed ends. Rather more than half the surface of the nut is smooth and
shiny, and the other half is rough and dull, and the whole of it is very
hard. When dry it is, however, comparatively easily separated from the
kernel. The fresh kernels are cream-coloured. According to the Imperial
Institute[21] the yield of fat extracted by solvents is 60·2 per cent.,
or 37·7 per cent. from the whole nut. The fat is solid at ordinary
temperatures. In 1913 some of these nuts were shipped from the Cross
River and were valued in Liverpool as Shea nuts, only at a rather lesser
rate. According to the Imperial Institute the analysis showed:
Specific gravity at 100/15·5° C. 0·860
Acid value 25·3
Saponification value 187·6
Iodine value 56·2
Hehner value 95·4
Reichert-Meissl value Nil
Unsaponifiable matter 2·6 approx.
Titer test 47·8° C.
_Dumoria Heckeli?_ (Baco or Abaku).—Although the Gold Coast name is
given, these nuts are also found in the Oban forest. The nuts are large,
considerably longer than those of Mimusops, but rather thinner. They are
of a pale-brown colour, with a thick, hard, woody shell, most of which
is smooth and shiny, only one small part of the surface being rough and
forming almost a nodule. According to the Imperial Institute[22]
analysis of the Gold Coast samples, the whole nuts contain 21 per cent.
of fat or 60·5 per cent. in the kernels alone. The fat is solid and of a
creamy white colour. The soap-makers reported that it was about equal to
middling quality palm oil. It is also stated that dried kernels in good
condition would be worth £13 per ton. According to the Imperial
Institute[22] analysis the fat showed:
Specific gravity at 100/15·5° C. 0·855
Acid value 34·7
Saponification value 188·4
Iodine value 51·3
Titer test 51·2° C.
Unsaponifiable matter 1·3
The small nuts of _Mimusops multinervis_ and _M. lacera_ have not been
examined as to their oil or other content. The hard nuts of _M. lacera_
appear to contain a fair proportion of oil.
In this family, too, are the nuts of _Chrysophyllum Africanum_ and other
species, for which a use has yet not been found. Finally, there are the
numerous and fine seeds of _Omphalocarpum elatum_, known as Ikassa by
the Benis, which are probably also oil-bearing.
The next important family is the Olacaceæ, _Heisteria parvifolia_, known
as Ikereoha by the Benis. It yields an edible nut which is white on the
exterior and has a black-coloured shell over the actual nut inside. It
has not yet been exported or valued. The Benin and other natives are
very fond of eating it.
Then there is the nut of Ivialegbi (Benin), which is edible and has a
pleasant taste. It is rather smaller than the Gaboon nut, and its
surface is slightly striated from the sharp point of the nut to the
base.
In this family is found, too, _Coula edulis_, or the Gaboon nut. This is
chiefly found in the Cameroons, but owing to similarity in the
vegetation it is very probably growing in the Oban forest of the Anom
range. The shell of the nut is very rough, and the outside is smoother
than the inside. The shell can be cracked comparatively easily with a
somewhat powerful blow with a hammer or axe-handle.
From the Anonaceæ:
_Monodora tenuifolia_, African Nutmeg.
_M. myristica_, var. _grandis_, Calabar Nutmeg.
_M. brevipes_, Yellow-flowering Nutmeg.
None of these nutmegs have yet been placed on the European market.
Although they are all much smaller in size than the nutmeg of commerce,
a proper examination would reveal any value they might possess.
Although the Myristicaceæ, _Pycnanthus Kombo_, yield fat-bearing nuts,
they have not been exported to the English market. The nut is the size
of a small oval plum. The outer husk is hard and thick, but is
comparatively easily broken. The inner nut is covered with a red aril
spread out over it, similar to the mace over the common nutmeg
(_Myristica fragrans_). The kernel is white inside, with dark rays
penetrating it from the outside. The tree is very prevalent, and yields
a large number of nuts. According to the investigation of the Imperial
Institute[23] “the yield of solid fat was 54 per cent. It has an orange
colour and a bitter taste.” The fat was stated to be suitable for soap
and candle making and the meal as a manure. In Sierra Leone the nuts
were known as Kpoye, and are identical with those known as “Kafu.”
According to the chemical analysis made at the Imperial Institute the
following results were obtained:
Specific gravity at 100/15° C. 0·886
Melting-point 48·5° C.
Saponification value 235 to 245
Acid value 21·0
Hehner value 90·8
Iodine value 48·9
Titer test 45·8° C.
ANALYSIS OF FAT FROM SIERRA LEONE KOMBO SEEDS.
---------------------+--------+----------------
| | Fat Extracted
| Fat as | from Kernels
| Sent. | at Imperial
| | Institute.
---------------------+--------+----------------
Specific gravity | 0·887 | 0·880
| |
Acid value | 33·0 | 31·4
| |
Saponification value |231 | 236
| |
Iodine value | 67·6 | 59·0
---------------------+--------+----------------
Of the Meliaceæ there is _Carapa Guineensis_ (_C. procera_, D.C.), which
yields the Carapa oil. The nuts are roughly tetrahedral in shape, having
a rough reddish-brown shell enclosing one large kernel covered with a
pale-brown papery skin. Good kernels yield about 57 per cent. of oil by
extraction with solvents and 46·7 per cent. by pressure (27 per cent. on
cold and 22 per cent. on heating); it is of a pale-yellow colour and has
a bitter taste. The commercial value of the oil was stated in 1907 to be
£20 10s. per ton according to the valuations made by the Imperial
Institute,[24] and from the same authority we find the Carapa cake is of
a very low manurial value, and is only stated to be worth about £2 per
ton. Some dark-coloured kernels were bought in 1909 at £11 5s. per ton,
and light kernels at £11 10s. per ton. According to the Imperial
Institute the results were as follows:
---------------------------+-----------------+----------------
|Cold Pressed Oil.|Hot Pressed Oil.
---------------------------+-----------------+----------------
Specific gravity at 40° C. | 0·9179 | 0·9174
| |
„ „ 15° C. | 0·9272 | 0·9327
| |
Saponification value | 197·1 | 196·4
| |
Iodine value | 75·6 | 71·2
| |
Reichert-Meissl value | 3·5 | 3·1
| |
Unsaponifiable matter | 1·5 | 2·0
| |
Titer test | 35·4° C. | 36·1° C.
---------------------------+-----------------+----------------
CARAPA CAKE.
Per cent.
Moisture 9·8
Ash 5·9
Nitrogen 2·9
The ash contained:
Per cent.
(calculated on Cake).
Potash, K₂O 1·91
Lime, CaO 0·18
Phosphoric anhydride, P₂O₅ 0·51
Apocynaceæ.—Although the seeds of _Funtumia elastica_ yield oil, it was
not favourably reported on. Perhaps now, with the greater value of all
the oil seeds, some use could be made of it.
Ebenaceæ, _Diospyros Barteri_.—This yields the Ebony nut, which is
small, but edible. The Benin natives are very fond of it. It has not
been exported.
_Diospyros crassiflora_ or _Diospyros dendo_ have a fruit about the size
of a large green plum, which contains four long, thin, almond-like nuts,
which have rather a bitter taste. Although evidently oil-bearing, they
have not been properly examined or tested as to the exact content of oil
or other products.
Rosaceæ.—Although the _Chrysobalanus sp._, or Niko nut, is comparatively
well known, it is by no means fully utilized. Then there is _Parinarium
Gabunense_, yielding the Mahogany nut, of uncertain value.
Anacardiaceæ.—The _Anacardium occidentale_, yielding the Cashew nut, is
so far only utilized near Lagos, where it is growing as a garden escape.
No proper plantations have yet been made of this tree.
Amongst the Palmæ, besides the Oil Palm, we have the Bottle Toddy or Fan
Palm, _Borassus flabellifer_, yielding three or four nuts in each fruit.
These are oil containing, but of unknown value. Considering the large
areas in all the West African Colonies where the Fan Palm is found, some
use should be made of the large number of nuts produced.
Then we have Hyphæne, the Doum Palm, which yields a nut used for making
buttons. Here, again, the large quantities which are found in Africa
ensure a steady amount of produce being placed on the market, provided a
remunerative price is always paid for the nuts. Finally there is _Phœnix
dactylifera_, the Date Palm. Although this is more of a fruit than a
nut, it is included here, as it is found in the forest groves of the
North. Considering the value of its produce and the constant demand
there is for it, a wide extension of its area of cultivation is to be
recommended.
Ochnaceæ, _Lophira alata_.—This is the dwarf Red Ironwood tree, which
yields the “Niam” fat or “Meni” oil. The fruit is roughly conical,
consisting of a reddish-brown fibrous shell, enclosing one kernel. The
kernel is conical in shape, and about five-eighths of an inch in width.
The inside is a pale-yellow colour. The fruit has two uneven-sized
wings, the larger being over an inch in length and nearly half an inch
in width. According to the Imperial Institute[25] the fat is semi-solid
and of a yellowish colour. The kernel contains 31·1 to 43 per cent. of
fat. The fat is suitable for soap-making.
According to the analysis of the Imperial Institute the results were as
follows: For soap-making it is considered to be of the same value as
palm oil, i.e. in November 1911, at Liverpool, £30 to £31 per ton. The
cake obtained from it closely resembled Shea-nut cake and was of a
similar value, i.e. about £3 per ton in Liverpool. The decorticated
kernels, which contained about 40 per cent. of oil, were valued at about
£10 per ton c.i.f. at Liverpool in October 1911. These kernels should
find a ready market in Europe for soap-making, and the cake to be used
as a manure. As the tree is one of the commonest in the dry-zone
forests, ample supplies of the nuts should be always forthcoming,
providing an adequate price to pay for the cost of production is paid
for them.
TABLE I.
_Yield of Fat._
----------------------+--------+--------+----------+---------+--------
| A. | B. | C. | D. | E.
----------------------+--------+--------+----------+---------+--------
Product received | Fruits |Kernels | Fruits | Kernels |Kernels
| | | | |
Condition of kernels | Mostly | Good | Many | Good | fairly
| sound | | partly | | good
| | |decomposed| |
| | | | |
Yield of fat (per | 31·19 | 43·0 | 39·6 | 41·16 | 41·76
cent. calculated on | | | | |
weight of kernels | | | | |
used) | | | | |
----------------------+--------+--------+----------+---------+--------
TABLE II.
_Constants of Fat._
----------------------+--------+--------+----------+---------+--------
| A. | B. | C. | D. | E.
----------------------+--------+--------+----------+---------+--------
Specific gravity | 0·9105| 0·9044| 0·9044 | 0·9019 | 0·9016
| | | | |
Acid value | 18·54 | 25·9 | 33·2 | 47·5 | 48·0
| | | | |
Saponification value |195·6 |181·5 | 194·6 |180·7 |183·3
| | | | |
Iodine value | 68·4 | 69·8 | 70·3 | 72·1 | 72·5
| | | | |
Reichert-Meissl value | — | 0·9 | 0·9 | 0·8 | 0·8
| | | | |
Unsaponifiable matter | 1·49 | 0·5 | — | — | 0·86
| | | | |
Titer test | — | 49·0°C.| 47·0° C.| 47·5° C.| 48·5°
| | | | | C.
----------------------+--------+--------+----------+---------+--------
[Illustration: FIG. 102.—=Oil Palm (Elæis Guineensis), eight years old,
in bearing, showing nine out of the twenty-one bunches of fruit on the
tree.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 103.—=Seven-year-old Oil Palm in bearing, rather
over-pruned, showing male inflorescence just below boy’s finger and
bunch of fruit in the middle of the picture.=]
To face p. 460.
Closely allied to the above is _Lophira procera_, the Red Ironwood Tree,
which yields the Kaku or Ebba kernels. The fruit is usually more sharply
conical in shape than that from _L. alata_. The fruits are small, owing
to the fact that these large forest trees grow closely amongst others,
and the fruits are not so fully developed or filled out as those of _L.
alata_. _L. alata_ usually grows in the open freely, or at most only
just touching a neighbouring tree, and thus the fruit has ample light
for its development. According to the investigations of the Imperial
Institute, the nuts were found to yield 55·2 per cent. of fat, which was
solid and cream-coloured. Owing to the fact that this is a larger yield
than that obtained from the nuts of _L. alata_, the decorticated kernels
were valued at £12 per ton c.i.f. Liverpool. This tree is one of the
most prevalent in the evergreen forests of Nigeria, the Gold Coast, and
Sierra Leone, so that very considerable amounts of the seeds could be
obtained, provided a remunerative price is paid to cover the cost of
production. According to the analysis made at the Imperial Institute[26]
the kernels contain:
Specific gravity at 100/15·5° C. 0·859
Acid value 11·6
Saponification value 190
Iodine value 60
Unsaponifiable value 0·8
Guttiferæ, _Pentadesma Butyracea_.—The Tallow Tree. From this a large
number of fat-yielding kernels are obtained from each fruit. The nuts
are irregular tetrahedral shape. The shell is not very thick and easily
broken when the nuts are dry. When fresh the kernel is lightish-yellow
in colour, and the nut is brown. According to the investigations of the
Imperial Institute the fat obtained is of a pale-yellow colour, and has
a pleasant smell and taste. In smell, in fact, it is very much like Shea
butter.
On analysis it showed:
Specific gravity at 100/15·5° C. 0·859
Acid value 3·6
Saponification value 190·1
Iodine value 41·8
Titer test 50·7° C.
Hehner value 95·0
Unsaponifiable matter 1·7
Reichert-Meissl value Nil
The samples from the Southern Provinces of Nigeria showed rather a lower
saponification and iodine value.
From its appearance and chemical constants it seems possible that this
fat might be used in the manufacture of edible fats. The kernels were
valued, when in good and dry condition, at from £8 to £10 per ton in the
United Kingdom.
_Allanblackia floribunda_.—The numerous nuts or kernels from the large
fruits of this tree have not yet been used for any commercial purpose.
They appear to contain an oil. In this family, too, there is
_Ochrocarpus Africanus_, which has the large edible fruit known as the
African Mammee Apple. This also yields large nuts of an uncertain value,
which are apparently oil or fat bearing.
_Garcinia conrauna_.—The nuts of this, the false or bitter Cola, besides
yielding an edible fruit, are used locally, but further investigations
would show whether they would obtain a regular market as an export
product.
Polygalaceæ, “Cheyi” seed, _Polygala butyracea_, Heck.—This is a common
herbaceous plant of West Africa. The seeds yield a valuable edible fat.
They are about a fifth of an inch long and a tenth of an inch broad. The
seeds are of a brownish-black outside and a greenish-yellow inside.
According to the investigations of the Imperial Institute “the seeds
yielded 39·7 per cent. of a soft yellowish fat. The taste of it was
pleasant, and there was no odour.” According to the Imperial Institute
analysis the “Cheyi” fat showed:
------------------------+---------------+------------------
|Present Sample.|Results previously
| | Recorded.
------------------------+---------------+------------------
Melting-point | 36° C. | —
| |
Specific gravity at | 0·866 | —
100/15·5° C. | |
| |
Acid value | 1·24 | 11·4
| |
Saponification value | 251·0 | 253·0
| |
Iodine value | 52·5 | 49·4
| |
Titer test | 37·85° C. | —
| |
Hehner value | 85·6 | —
| |
Reichert-Meissl value | 45·6 | 45·5
------------------------+---------------+------------------
“The edible fat manufacturers stated that ‘Cheyi’ fat was suitable for
their purpose if it could be proved that it did not contain a poison,
and valued the seeds at £13 to £14 per ton. The oil-seed crushers valued
the seeds at £12 per ton in the United Kingdom.”
N.O. Bixaceæ, according to Thonner, Flacourtiaceæ, _Oncoba echinata_,
Oliver.—This tree bears a large number of seeds, which are known as
“Gorli” seeds. The seeds are long and irregularly shaped, and vary from
a quarter to three-eighths of an inch long, and from one-eighth to
three-sixteenths of an inch broad. The stiff husk is brown in colour.
The seeds without husks are white, waxy and soft. According to the
Imperial Institute investigations the seeds contain 46·6 of fat, which
is hard, white and crystalline. Although the soap made from it was
satisfactory, it did not lose the very peculiar odour which the fat has.
The cake and fat cannot be used as a food because of the large amount of
chaulmoogric acid contained in it, an acid which causes vomiting. The
fat might possibly be of value in candle-making. According to the
Imperial Institute analysis the seeds showed:
ANALYSIS OF “GORLI” SEEDS.
-------------------------------+---------+-----------
|Sample I.|Sample II.
-------------------------------+---------+-----------
|Per cent.|Per cent.
| |
Moisture | 5·8 | 5·8
| |
Fat | 46·6 | 46·6
| |
Crude proteins | 17·5 | 18·1
| |
Consisting of— | |
| |
True proteins | 11·3 | 10·2
| |
Other nitrogenous substances | 6·2 | 7·9
| |
Soluble carbohydrates | Nil | Nil
| |
Starch, etc. | 11·8 | 12·1
| |
Crude fibre | 15·6 | 14·7
| |
Ash | 2·7 | 2·7
-------------------------------+---------+-----------
ANALYSIS OF “GORLI” FAT.
-------------------------------+---------+-----------
| No. I. | No. II.
-------------------------------+---------+-----------
Specific gravity at 15·5° C. | 0·898 | 0·896
| |
Acid value | 4·5 | 22·4
| |
Saponification value |192·4 |193·9
| |
Iodine value | 99·7 | 96·8
| |
Titer test | 57·8° C.| 57·8° C.
| |
Hehner value | 96·5 | 96·5
| |
Reichert-Meissl value | Nil | Nil
| |
Unsaponifiable matter | 1·6 | 1·3
-------------------------------+---------+-----------
The nut of Ogbogo, a Benin tree, is as yet unvalued, though it appears
to be an oil-yielding fruit. There is, too, the long almond-shaped nut
of Oktobun. Although it has a somewhat hard shell, the nut is very large
in proportion, and the kernel seems to be rich in oil. So far no use has
been made of it.
CHAPTER XII
THE OIL PALM AND PALM KERNEL INDUSTRY
1. ÆSTHETIC ASPECT.—A most familiar sight to everyone visiting a farm in
the southern part of Nigeria is the charming grace of the fronds of the
Oil Palm in the clearings near the house. The long, straight,
cylindrical, undivided stem, crowned by a large tuft of broad green palm
leaves, easily distinguishes the Oil Palm (_Elæis Guineensis_) from the
Tombo (_Raphia vinifera_), which has a thinner stem, clothed from the
base to the top with 40-feet long heavy fronds, the undersides being
silvery and the upper part light green. In certain times of the year
huge bunches of yellow grape-like fruits hang quite 4 feet down from the
narrow crown of this tree. It is most noteworthy that the Tombo Palm is
found growing in or near a swamp, and only occasionally planted as an
avenue tree on drier land, whereas the Oil Palm is usually found in the
hard and drier ground and only occasionally in the swamp. The Oil Palm
is much larger than another Wine Palm, _Raphia Hookeri_, which is
similar but smaller than _Raphia vinifera_, the growth being similar but
the seeds smaller.
_Raphia Ruffia_ is a small swamp palm, with practically no stem, but a
large number of long, thin, and somewhat light, pendulous fronds.
Most visitors to West Africa are quite familiar with the huge casks of
orange-coloured or yellow oil, which often leaks on to the deck of the
ship, and the peculiar, rather nauseatingly pungent odour of the
“sweating” kernel bags.
1_a_. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE OIL PALM TREE, FRUIT AND NUT.—From the
railway carriage we can see numerous groves of Oil Palms, as well as
isolated specimens, almost continuously for the first 60 miles from
Lagos, and more isolated for the next 180 miles. With few exceptions the
Oil Palm is a single stemmed tree, one notable forked tree being seen on
the northern side of the Nigerian Railway, a little more than three
miles before reaching Ibadan. In this case an oil palm nut may have
become embedded in an old leaf stalk sheath and subsequently sprouted,
thus forming a separate tree growing on the other, which in the course
of time has become joined up.
It will be noticeable that in passing through the heavy forest near
Olokemeji few or no Oil Palms are seen. This forest, however, is
situated really within the area of the natural distribution of the Oil
Palm. The Oil Palm, however, needs a good deal of light for its
development, and those trees seen in the heavy forest are very tall,
often over 100 feet high, with comparatively short leaves and a small
number of them forming the crown of the tree (see illustration 102). On
the other hand, wherever a clearing has been made in the forest, for
instance near Awowo, the older Oil Palms are shorter in stem, often
being not more than 20 feet in height. Another instance of this is seen
in the farms near Badagry, where the trees are often only 15 to 20 feet
high, and the stem itself only 10 feet in length. In each of these cases
it will be noticed that the trees are standing quite free, with no
overhanging vegetation. From the first they have been in this position,
and the leaves have had room to spread almost 20 feet all round, thus
giving the tree the maximum amount of moisture and other food material.
Amongst these trees, Oil Palm seedlings will be seen to spread out over
the ground almost at once, even when only the secondary and tertiary
leaves have grown. In the forest, however, the leaves go almost straight
up, and only after some years have elapsed spread more as they dominate,
or try to overgrow, other seedling forest trees.
2. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF TREE, FRUIT, ETC.—An Oil Palm starts male
flowers when three years old, and these are borne one to three years
before the female flowers appear. The male and female flowers are both
found on the same tree, the male above the female in the axils of the
leaves. There are two cycles of leaves younger than the female flower.
The Oil Palm fruit is formed first by the kernel surrounded by shell,
then the fibrous pulp containing the palm oil. The ripe fruit is of a
brilliant brick-red colour, the unripe fruit being always black at the
point and only red near the base, where it is covered by neighbouring
fruits. When ripe they fall from the bunch, and it is especially
noticeable that each bunch of fruit grows out of alternate leaf axils,
alternating also with the whorls or cycles of growth (illustration 60).
The female flowers are very minute, and in the earlier years each bunch
is rather smaller than a man’s hand. The centre of the flower is orange,
coloured with a bluish tip, and scarcely lasts a week. On the other
hand, the male inflorescence is like a compact horse’s tail, composed of
closely packed pollenated stamens. Owing to the different years in which
the male and female inflorescence appear, it is probable that cross-
fertilization takes place.
2_a_. DISTRIBUTION OF THE OIL PALM.—The Oil Palm is found from Sierra
Leone to Lake Chad, down to Ambriz, and eastward to the borders of
German East Africa.
The Palm Belt, according to Millbourne, is 3,000 miles in length, and
varies from 150 to 300 miles in width.
It is estimated that there are six or seven million Oil Palms behind
Loanda inland, though this sounds rather exaggerated.
In Nigeria it is most widely distributed in the Southern Provinces, and
the densest “stands” are found in each of the river basins wherever the
forest has been cleared (see illustration 103).
Wherever the dry season is very prolonged and the locality shows a
shallow soil, overlying laterite or rock, the Oil Palm first of all
appears after the forest has been cut down. After a few years the trees
are subject to annual grass-fires, and while still bearing fruit they
begin to fail and scarcely last half the ordinary period of their life.
Localities of that nature are found in the Afikpo, Onitsha, Ifon, and
parts of the Ibadan districts.
The Oil Palm is also one of the first trees to appear after the mangrove
swamp and Tombo Palm region is passed in going through the forest zones
from the coast inwards.
2_b_. VARIETIES OF THE OIL PALM.—These, according to Professor O.
Beccari, of Florence, are as follows:
_Elæis Guineensis_.
Var. _albescens_. White Oil Palm. Abe-fita or Abe-fufu (Gold Coast).
_Angulosa_. Oleporo Eyop (Old Calabar).
_Ceredia_. Adi-be (Gold Coast).
_Communis_. Udin (Benin).
_Communis forma, dura_. Ade-pa (Gold Coast).
_Idolatrica_. Sacred Palm. Abe-Obene (Gold Coast).
_Intermedia_.
_Macrocarpa_.
_Macrocarya_. Abubube (Gold Coast).
_Pisifera_.
_Repandra_. Kessede.
_Rostrata_. Mbana Oyop (Old Calabar).
The Benin people differentiate the Udin or ordinary palm from Ogedin or
the King Palm on account of its having smaller bunches of fruit, each
fruit being longer and having a softer shell. They also treat
Evirommilla or the Palm of Everlasting Life as a separate species. The
Yorubas, however, consider that there are three species of Oil Palm.
According to the German experiments in the Cameroons, the Lisombe or
soft-shell Oil Palm does not come up true to type, approximately only 5
to 10 per cent. growing to the true variety. From the locality in which
the Lisombe Palm was and is found, it looks as if the high rainfall
(over 300 inches) had really been one of the main factors in evolving
this type of Oil Palm. In fact, natives who know the ordinary Oil Palm
and the soft-shell Oil Palm say it is rather a matter of taste as to
which is the better of the two. Apparently it depends on what commodity
the native is dealing in, kernels or oil, as to whether it pays better
to get plenty of oil, and obtain the kernels more easily from the soft-
shelled Oil Palm, or an average amount of oil and larger kernels
obtained with more difficulty from the ordinary Oil Palm. On the whole,
the Lisombe Palm does not seem to yield on an average more pericarp oil
than the ordinary Benin or Yoruba Oil Palm growing in a farm in the
usual moist-zone climate. Certainly the kernel of the Lisombe Palm is
much smaller than the ordinary Oil Palm. A further point to be
considered, too, is that the bunch of Lisombe Oil Palm fruit is smaller
on the average than the bunch of the ordinary Oil Palm.
However, it may be noted that the natives of the southern part of the
Ogoja district, especially the Ndeh and Befun people, plant a species of
soft-shelled palm near the villages. Of course, in this locality the Oil
Palm is not found in very large quantities, and the seeds for these
groves were obtained from a good distance away, probably near the Cross
River.
3. THE GROWING OF THE OIL PALM—DISTRIBUTION OF SEED BY FARMERS, PARROTS,
MONKEYS.—In the forest country a clearing is made some distance away
from the village by the native to make a new farm. In clearing and
cutting down the forest, few or no Oil Palms are met with, so that the
farmer’s wife brings palm fruit or oil to the new farm, in order that
they may have palm oil to eat. Having made the oil, the nuts are put out
in the open to dry, with the intention of their being cracked later on.
However, they lie about some months, and rodents of various kinds, such
as rats and the hyrax (a squirrel-like animal), carry some of these away
into the farm. Some farmers, too, pick up a few and scatter them over
the farm. In the course of a year or two Oil Palm seedlings appear,
where they are left amongst the other vegetation when the farm is
abandoned. In this way, instead of the original thick forest there is a
more or less dense grove of young Oil Palms. In other places the parrots
may bring nuts from the neighbouring forests or other old farms, and
these, falling in the clearing, also help to make a palm forest.
The native also, after he has picked the bunches of fruit, puts them
down in some convenient place on the roadside. Some of the nuts become
scattered, which subsequently sprout and form additional groves of
palms, especially where the larger trees near the roadside fall, or are
cut down, thus giving more light to the young seedlings.
Again, when the bunch of fruit is ripe on the tree, it is not often
immediately cut off, and many of the ripe nuts thus fall to the ground.
These subsequently grow, forming almost thickets of Oil Palms, instead
of the one from which the original seed was obtained. A similar process
takes place on a bigger scale in the more distantly situated forests,
where the natives do not collect the fruit at all. Here, all the nuts
gradually fall off the tree, more or less forming a circle 10 to 15 feet
away from the trunk. If any clearings take place in these localities,
they rapidly appear to become filled up with Oil Palms, which in reality
were already there as little tiny seedlings amongst the herbs and
undergrowth, ready to make use of any additional light or growing space
to develop fully.
4. FRUIT-BEARING AGE OF OIL PALM.—Under these conditions, where the
seedling Oil Palms stand only a few inches, or at the most 4 or 5 feet
apart, the growth is very constricted, with the result that no flowers
or fruit appear before the fifteenth or twentieth year. Each stem is
excessively thin, and tends to grow upwards like an ordinary forest
tree, rather than forming a very short, almost negligible length of
stem, but nearly 1 foot in diameter, as is typical of the palm family in
the earlier years of its growth. Contrary to the above, where the Oil
Palm comes up in a more open place the leaves do not tend upwards, but
outwards, arching over with the leaf stalk at an angle of about 45° to
the ground. The leaves themselves, instead of being long and thin and
with a long length of green stalk, soon spread out fully 20 inches on
either side of the main stalk, thus giving the plant more food material
and making it grow more quickly. Then, in the fourth or fifth year,
bunches of fruit, each containing from twenty-five to thirty nuts, are
formed out of the female flower. Each bunch, which is the size of a
man’s fist at this age, increases to nearly 2 feet in length and 1 foot
in diameter at maturity. However, each bunch of fruit, having been
formed against the stem of the palm and in the axil of the leaf stalk,
is very much compressed, especially at the base. As an experiment, when
the fruit is beginning to ripen, the leaf stalk just immediately below
the base of the fruit stalk is removed; gradually then the bunch of
fruit droops a little and develops more fully at the base, owing to
having more space. More light thus reaches the fruit sideways, and the
period of ripening is accelerated by three weeks.
5. OIL PALM PLANTATIONS AND CROPS.—As a result of the greater spreading
out of the leaves of the young palm and the more sessile habit of the
stem in the earlier stages of growth, light penetrates more intensely
into the fruit-bearing axils of the tree, thus increasing the size of
each bunch.
In the Calabar Arboretum, some Oil Palms were cleaned and the ground
thoroughly cultivated in two successive years. In the first year one
tree bore fourteen bunches of fruit, and in the second year it bore
twenty-two bunches. No manure was placed on the ground, and the soil was
distinctly poor and sandy—in fact, the natives in the locality said the
land was of no use and could not be used for farms (see illustration
102).
In another case, in Benin, the Oil Palms, which were first sown at stake
and subsequently transplanted, bore fruit in the fifth year. Contrary to
expectation, the transplanted Oil Palm seedlings developed the secondary
and tertiary leaves within a few months after the transplanting had
taken place, whereas those sown at stake continued with only two spiky
leaves for almost the first year of their growth. As the tree gets
older, the number of bunches of fruit borne gets less, though each bunch
is fully five times the size of the first fruiting bunches of the fifth
year.
In most districts about five bunches of fruit ripen each year, and each
bunch bears from 1,200 to 2,000 nuts (from the best trees). It is always
noticeable that the palms growing in the open, free from surrounding
trees, produce the finest bunches and the greatest number of nuts. On
this point of the yield of bunches per annum further investigations are
necessary, as it is by no means proved that an average of five bunches
per annum is the maximum number for a mature Oil Palm.
In the Togo Plantations (251 acres), it was noticeable that in the more
favourable climate of Atakpame and Bassari the Oil Palm bore in the
fifth year, whereas in the drier climate of Jendi the trees first bore
fruit in the seventh year. In illustration No. 19 the amount of growth
shows clearly from year to year, more especially in the difference in
the size of the leaf. The relative shortness of the stem is distinctly
seen, showing up when compared with the natural forest-grown Oil Palms
in illustration 20. In addition, there is the Agu Plantation in Togo.
Thus far very few Oil Palm plantations have been made, those in the
Cameroons being the most extensive. However, these are almost too young,
or to some extent mixed up with the original forest-grown Oil Palms, for
conclusive results to be shown.
In the Central Circle in 1906 a communal plantation was made at Okokwo,
but the natives have not yet found the necessity of extending it.
Between the Kwa and the Akwayefe Rivers, going along the Akpaboyo Road,
the Oil Palms are so evenly distributed that they almost appear to be
one great plantation. However, the locality is very favourable to the
Oil Palm; the original forest has been largely cut down and the natives
have allowed the Oil Palms to stand wherever they did not hinder farming
operations. Owing to the fact that the Oil Palm has spread, and is
spreading, in those parts of the Southern Provinces of Nigeria and
elsewhere where the rainfall is between 60 and 150 inches per annum,
there has thus far, from the native point of view, been no incentive to
plant more Oil Palms. In fact, with the increasing amount of general
work going on, combined with the comparatively high price obtained for
palm oil and kernels, there is less necessity for the native to gather
all the palm fruit that has grown. It has been noticed that the
cultivated Oil Palm, or Oil Palms growing in an open place, only reach
about one-quarter the height of the forest-grown Oil Palms, which attain
a height of over 100 feet (see illustrations 60).
With cultivated trees it is possible in the earlier fruiting years to
stand on the ground and gather the fruit from the palms, and even in
later years only a short ladder is necessary in order to reach it. It is
really on this problem of the height of the palm-tree that the chief
collection of the fruit depends, and also the total output from the Oil
Palm forests. Further investigations are necessary to decide as to how
far it is possible to retard the height-growth of the Oil Palm for as
long as possible, while accelerating the radial growth, or at any rate
increasing the thickening of the stem. Varying planting distances have
been tried, such as 16 feet 3 inches each way, 17 feet 9 inches in the
German experiments in Togo, but 23 feet each way in the Cameroons. In
one case teak (_Tectona grandis_) had been mixed with it. On the whole,
in ordinarily favourable localities, a planting distance of 24 feet each
way appears to be the most suitable. For the first five to ten years at
least agricultural crops could be grown in between, until the Oil Palms
had spread out so as to cover the ground almost entirely. Few or no
experiments have yet been undertaken in selecting and planting only the
biggest nuts of the most prolific variety, which, according to Mr.
Farquhar’s report, _The Oil Palm and its Varieties_, is the A-sog-e-jub,
which contains 48 per cent. of pericarp oil.
It has at any rate been demonstrated by the natives that Oil Palms which
have been tended yield bigger bunches and bear larger nuts, but only by
actual experiments in selected areas or plantations can it be proved
exactly how much more produce is obtained, and the extra financial yield
over and above the increased cost of cultivation, etc.
According to various commercial calculations, it has been estimated that
only £1 per ton can be paid for the ripe fruit at the oil or kernel
crushing mill.
Owing to the comparative wide distance (24 feet) at which the Oil Palm
should be planted, for the first few years it is possible to plant some
catch crops. One of the cheapest ways of forming Oil Palm plantations
would be to take over an area fairly well covered with self-sown Oil
Palms up to 12 or 15 feet in height. After choosing the best and marking
these, the rest should be gradually thinned out by tapping them for palm
wine, which could be sold. A crop of water-melon, or Egusi bara
(_Citrullus vulgaris_) of the Yorubas, could be planted over two-thirds
of the ground between the Oil Palm plants and trees, leaving sufficient
space for their growth and about equal to the spread of their foliage in
each case. After this crop has been gathered in August or September, a
crop of Awuje (Yoruba name) beans could be planted, which would again be
ready for picking by December. In each case the haulms and dried leaves
of the plants, after the crop is gathered, should be burnt in small
heaps and the ashes scattered over the soil. At the beginning of the
following year the ground could be got ready again and a crop of maize
sown in a similar way, covering a half to two-thirds of the ground
between the plants. This could be followed by another crop of water-
melon, which would act as soil-covering during the rainy season, and
again another crop of beans in the autumn. In turn this could be
followed, after similar treatment as before, at the beginning of the
third year, by a crop of yams (_Dioscorea sp._). Probably owing to the
growth of the palms it would only be possible to have one row down the
middle of the line between the palms. The species of yam should not be
too large, so that the ridges or yam heaps could be heaped up if
necessary with a plough and not by hand, as is usually done. The
following autumn another crop of beans could be planted, and the next
year, if the soil was light and suitable, a crop of ground nuts could be
grown as a double row between the Oil Palms. In the following autumn a
crop of beans could be grown again. In the following year, the fifth,
some of the Oil Palms would be in bearing and yield the first returns.
Bananas could then be planted as a single row between the lines of Oil
Palms and would bear in the following year, thus supplementing the
second yield of oil and kernels. By these means the whole cost of
cultivation should at any rate be covered by the sale of the produce
grown, partially to the labourers and otherwise outside, for export, and
perhaps even a profit made over and above the cost. In the eleventh or
twelfth year the bananas would be practically or entirely covered by the
Oil Palms, and thus have to be cut down and to some extent uprooted.
Their leaves, however, would form a good mulch for the soil, and at any
rate act as an effective soil-covering, thus preventing the growth of
weeds.
It is doubtful whether it would be wise to plant bananas right from the
start in even one line, not to speak of two amongst the Oil Palms, owing
to the extraordinary amount of moisture taken from the ground by the
banana. In some cases, on the better soils, they might be introduced in
the third year. Cassava, _Manihot utilissima_, is rather too exacting a
crop to be suitable for planting amongst the Oil Palms. It is very
liable to impoverish the soil. Then, too, as far as Nigeria is
concerned, it is not a very paying crop, yielding at the most about 14s.
per acre after all expenses have been paid. In all the above cases we
are taking it for granted that the Oil Palm has been planted at, or
thinned out to, a distance of 24 feet between each tree. On the poorer
soils the distance might no doubt be 18 to 20 feet, and on the very best
probably a distance of 30 feet will not be found excessive. Where lime
or other manure is available and comparatively cheap, and in some cases
heaps of humus from the outskirts of villages, it would pay to put this
on the land in the late autumn when the ashes from the previous crops
are being spread on the land. In addition to these crops, careful
surface cultivation round each Oil Palm is essential, not only to
prevent the growth of weeds but also to keep the aeration of the soil
good, prevent the desiccating effects of the dry season, and accelerate
the growth of the Oil Palm. Besides planting these crops by directly
paid labour under European supervision, using as many modern labour-
saving appliances as possible, parts of a plantation could no doubt be
let out at a nominal rent to the natives, even to some of the labourers,
to work it in their own time, but only planting such crops as would fit
in with the rotation and not lead to the impoverishment of the soil.
Apparently the greatest danger to the tropical soil is to leave it bare
for any length of time. In the rainy season all the mineral matter and
tilth is liable to be washed away, and in the dry season fissures are
formed in it, and if it is at all argillaceous it is liable to be dried
out for a depth of over 2 feet. Constant covering is thus necessary to
ensure the growth of the Oil Palm.
6. DESTRUCTION OF OIL PALMS.—This is carried out for the following
purposes: For farming (Onitsha) and making palm wine. Sometimes many of
these trees are destroyed by fire in the Ahoada Okigwi, North Owerri,
Afikpo, Abakaliki, Ogaya, and Obudu. Grubs, too, are a very frequent
source of destruction among them. The trees are tapped in the Yoruba
country to obtain palm wine, but it is not known exactly to what extent
this reduces the yield of palm oil and kernels. On the whole it is
harmful, owing to the fact that insect and other pests can obtain
entrance to the tree through the holes made in tapping it. With the
steadily rising price of gin the tapping of the Oil Palm is increasing
annually, resulting in a destruction of many thousand trees each year,
chiefly in the Obubra and Ikom districts, and to a lesser extent by
tapping the trees in the Yoruba country. Wherever the rainfall does not
exceed much over 50 inches and the soil of the locality is shallow over
laterite or some rock formation, the fires become usually an annual
occurrence. The Oil Palms which at first come up on the clearing of the
forests then get burnt, and after a few years cease to grow faster than
the leaves are burned each year, and subsequently die. In a similar way
the young seedlings which may come up are very easily killed by these
annually recurring fires, and thus the whole district is impoverished.
This process can be seen going on in parts of the Afikpo, Owerri,
Abakaliki, Onitsha, Ifon and Ibadan districts. It is a serious menace to
the future development of the Oil Palm industry.
[Illustration: FIG. 104.—=Mature Brachystegia spicæformis standing at
the side of the Calabar Road, Calabar, showing the typical shape of the
crown and branches.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 105.—=Base of Mature Brachystegia spicæformis
standing at the side of the Calabar Road showing both the scaly
untouched bark and the wounded section covered with nodules.=]
To face p. 472.
6_a_. NATIVE METHOD OF COLLECTING FRUIT.—The native, to collect the
fruit, climbs the tree with a specially made rope round his waist, by
which he gradually hoists himself up. With a rough chisel, like a piece
of iron with a handle, he first cuts off the leaf just above the fruit
and then severs the bunch, letting it fall to the ground. Many of the
fruits drop out in the transit, but these the native does not trouble to
gather up.
It is usual for the Chief to close the forest for a certain time until
the Oil Palm fruit is more or less ripe, and then the natives can gather
it all at the same time. Owing to the difference in the time of the
ripening of the individual fruits at the top of the bunch and those at
the base, many fall to the ground before the bunch is actually cut off
the tree. These are not gathered up, and are taken away by rodents or
birds, or come up in the same place.
7. NATIVE METHOD OF MAKING OIL AND KERNEL INSPECTION.—The native cracks
the palm kernel almost entirely by hand, the nuts being first dried in
the sun on the ground in open spaces, surrounded roughly with little
billets of wood, or in small sheds. When dry, they are taken out and
cracked on rocks (if they happen to be in the neighbourhood) with a
piece of stone in the cracker’s hand. Should the spot be devoid of rock,
a piece of wood or stone takes its place, and then a piece of iron or
stone is used by him in the right hand. Good workers, usually small
girls or women, can crack about 15 to 20 lb. a day in this manner.
An inspection fee on palm kernels and oil has undoubtedly helped to
improve the product immensely and not reduced the output.
The kernels are picked out at the same time, the shell remaining more or
less where the nut is cracked. A certain amount of shell adheres to the
kernel, and if it is an excessive amount the native picks it off.
Anyhow, when he reaches the factory the shell contents must not exceed 5
per cent. Although they are not actually dried, they are usually kept in
a dry, cool place, until sufficient have been collected to sell either
in the local market or straight to a European factory. The inspection of
the palm produce, both oil and kernels, takes place at the factory,
where the produce is bought by the Inspectors of Produce under the
Customs Department.
7_a_. KINDS OF OIL.—Most of the oil is soft, but as some hard oil is
made which is worth £3 or £4 less per ton than the former, owing to its
having about 8 per cent. less of glycerine, and both are made by a
different process, both methods will be described.
_Hard oil_ is made chiefly near Onitsha and Ikpa markets, east of the
Niger, by the Ibos, and the following is the process employed in those
districts.
The fruit is left on the bunch in the bush, covered with leaves, for ten
days; it is then brought into the village or place where the fruit is
cut or knocked off the bunch. Large earthenware pots with a little water
in the bottom are then filled with the fruit; this is then heated, but
the water does not actually boil, or even steam very much. The fruit is
then taken out and beaten in an old canoe or hard mud trough until all
the fibre is fairly well macerated and detached from the nut. The whole
mass is then placed in a shady place for four days to enable the oil to
“get strong,” as the local people say. On the fifth day the oily fibre
and nuts are placed in the trough again, and cold water is poured in
until it is about a foot deep. The whole mass is pounded with the bare
feet of children, girls or women, so that gradually the oil becomes
detached from the fibre or from adhering to the nuts, and floats on the
surface of the water, especially near the edges of the trough. It is
then skimmed off with the hand and put into calabashes. The nuts and
fibre having sunk to the bottom of the trough, the oil is left
comparatively free from impurities. The oil in the calabashes hardens to
much the same degree as dripping, and is ready for sale.
On the banks of the Niger, where it is sold to European firms, the
natives are often obliged to boil it to purify it still further, and to
enable it to be poured into the puncheon in which it is shipped to
England. This oil, even when cleaned and boiled, has a bitter taste,
which the natives do not like when they have been accustomed to soft
oil. When this oil arrives in England it is quite hard again.
Soft oil is made in Nigeria, as well as in Sierra Leone and the Gold
Coast Colony. The Lagos and Benin oil is the best, so the method
employed in that part of the country will be described. The fruit is cut
off the tree in much the same way, but the loose fruit is generally
collected from the ground as well as the bunches, which are then carried
to the oil-making place, which is usually situated near a running stream
for the convenience of the manufacture of the oil. The fruit is cut or
knocked off the bunch, cleaned of any extra stalk or dirt, and placed in
earthenware pots, in the bottom of which is a little water. These pots
are then put over a bright fire until the water not only boils, but has
quite steamed away. It is then considered that the fruit is thoroughly
soft and ready for crushing, when it is placed in earthen troughs or old
tree trunks which are used for this purpose. Cold water is then poured
over the fruit to about a foot in depth, and the fruit is pressed by the
feet of women or girls standing in the trough. The oil rises to the
surface of the water, is skimmed off with the hand or a flat piece of
wood, and put into earthenware calabashes; all fibre is thoroughly
squeezed and rinsed to obtain the oil out of it. The oil is now
thoroughly boiled, and when quite thin and of a reddish-orange colour is
poured off carefully into clean pots. A fine residue of fibre and
particles of dirt remain in the pot in which the oil was boiled; this is
used for native lamps by dipping a twisted fibre into it.
The clean soft oil is now ready for sale, and is carried in old kerosene
tins or other receptacles to the nearest market. Despite the very large
loss which occurs, owing to the breaking of calabashes on the road to
market, still very large amounts are carried in vegetable calabashes or
earthenware pots. By the time this oil reaches Europe it is partially
hardened in the cask, though usually there is a certain amount of liquid
on the top.
_Sale of Produce._—The palm oil is sold by the kerosene tin (one
gallon), by the keg, or by the puncheon. It is also sold by the bottle
in the markets for local use.
The palm kernels are sold by the calabash in the districts further away
from the markets, but more usually by the coulah (Jekri). They are also
sometimes sold by the bag, weighing either 25 lb. or nearly 50 lb. in
weight. The natives find old salt bags of different sizes very
convenient for this purpose, more especially when the kernels are to be
conveyed some distance to the nearest factory.
7_b_. At the beginning of 1915 hard oil was worth £32 per ton, and soft
oil £36 10s. per ton, whereas at the beginning of 1918 soft oil was
being sold at £36 5s. to £47 10s. per ton, whilst the official maximum
price for unbleached palm oil is £44 per ton, and £50 per ton bleached.
7_a_ and 11. UTILITY OF THE OIL PALM.—From the Oil Palm are obtained the
following products: Palm oil, palm kernels, palm wine and yeast from the
fermented palm wine. The shells of the nuts are used by blacksmiths, as
they give out great heat. The growing head of the palm is used as a
vegetable—palm cabbage. The stems of the leaves are useful as rafters or
house posts in the Yoruba country, the leaves for making mats for
roofing, and the midribs as brooms.
To obtain the wine, the tree is either tapped below the male
inflorescence in Ibadan, Yoruba, etc., or when the tree is felled and
the crown cut off. A calabash is placed so as to catch the outflowing
sap, which is the palm wine.
The natives frizzle the kernels in an iron pot and obtain an oil which
is used as an emollient for wounds and rubbing on bruises or sprains. It
has a burnt smell. Only small quantities of kernels are used for this
purpose in Nigeria.
Tapping is sometimes effected at the base of both inflorescences, but
this is a more unusual method.
So far no use has been found for the wood, though it is uncommonly tough
and very fibrous.
8. AMOUNT OF PRODUCE USED, EATEN, AND AMOUNT GROWING.—There is probably
only 5 per cent., or at most 15 per cent., of the total possible trade
done in this product from West Africa.
The amount of the oil used by the natives per annum is as follows:
Three gallons of oil per head per annum for food.
Half-gallon of oil per head per annum for illuminant in the Eastern
Circle, according to Gilman, and half-gallon used mixed with camwood for
rubbing on the skin per head per annum.
Allowing this amount for the total population of 8,000,000, we have a
total of 32,000,000 gallons used locally per annum. This means the
produce of at least 128,000,000 trees, taking into consideration the
very poor or underbearing state of many of the trees. Some also are
immature and not in full bearing when utilized. Even so, this represents
only a part of the total possible crop, which might be 100,000,000
gallons and 500,000 tons of kernels. Although the above small percentage
of the amount of trade done will eventually prove to be an exaggeration,
partly owing to the cutting down of Oil Palms in making farms, there is
nevertheless clear evidence that a great many more palm kernels
especially could be obtained if there were an increased number of plants
available for cracking the nuts in various parts of the country. Then,
too, in those places where the trees stand too closely together, an
increased yield would be obtained after they had been thinned out.
Allowing for an area of about 7,000 square miles in the dry zone, where
the Oil Palms are not found, and 12,000 square miles for mangrove
swamps, rivers, roads, railways, town and village sites, also where
there are no Oil Palms, and about 10,000 square miles of heavy evergreen
and mixed deciduous forest areas where there are few or no Oil Palms,
this leaves an area of about 50,000 square miles on which they are found
growing. The density varies from over 200 per acre down to only one, or
in isolated cases to one to ten acres. With the increased amount of the
tapping of the Oil Palm, as well as cutting it down both to get the palm
wine and for making farms for food as well as cocoa crops, there is a
great danger of the total amount being reduced. Everywhere on the West
Coast of Africa where other produce has been introduced, such as in the
Congo and in the Gold Coast, the export of palm produce tends to fall
very rapidly. Owing to the fact that such a large amount of palm oil is
used for alimentary or other purposes locally, and a great deal is
exported to the Northern Provinces, the export of palm kernels to Great
Britain and Europe generally forms the better basis in calculating the
amount of palm produce now actually produced in the country. The small
number of kernels used for making an oil for local use is really quite a
negligible quantity, and will no doubt almost die out when there are
larger amounts of pomade and other skin emollients available for the
natives to buy.
9. EUROPEAN MACHINERY FOR EXTRACTION (PERICARPING).—Mr. E. W. J. Trevor,
of 87, Maida Vale, claims two machines for detaching and removing the
pericarp of palm fruit with abrading, and has devised also a means by
which the fruit is held in place and has along in line, an endless band
or chain. It is not stated, however, if this is successful.
Another apparatus with knife-blades for decorticating the pericarp has
been patented by Mr. H. Beckwith, of 2, Rumford Street, Liverpool. It is
called the depericarping machine. Dr. Hupfeld’s oil process is carried
out at Agu (Togo).
Haake, a Berlin firm, constructed a machine called the wet process. The
fruit is heated with water and freed from the pulp in special machines.
The pulp is allowed to drain, and then heated again and put under
presses. The nuts are cracked in a large centrifugal machine, and the
shell is separated by a drum-like sieve or by brine. With this process
100 lb. of fruit yield 15 lb. of oil and 14 lb. of kernels. Four or five
tons of fruit can be treated daily by fifteen or twenty men. The natives
only extract 7 per cent. of the pericarp oil. This oil contains over 30
per cent. of fatty acid and is only used for soaps.
The Government has set up kernel-cracking machines in various places in
West Africa.
10. EUROPEAN NUT-CRACKING.—Several plants have been put up latterly to
deal with the cracking of kernels by machinery.
One of the first of such factories was started at Benin River, Warri
province, where the shells after the nuts had been obtained from them
were used for firing the engines of the machinery. Another factory
exists at Abonnemma, Owerri province, and yet another was started at
Yenagoa in 1914. The natives seem very willing to bring in the nuts to
be cracked, especially where the population is not large enough to both
make the oil and crack the kernels, as in the Brass and Degema
districts. Brine is often used for separating the kernels from the
shell.
Some hand-machines have been brought out by Miller Brothers which crack
the nuts, but both shell and kernels fall to the ground at the same
time. A certain number of the kernels are broken in the process, but of
recent years an improvement has been made in this respect. The cost of
the hand-machine, amounting as it does to £30, is almost prohibitive for
the native, unless a system of hire-purchase were to be adopted. Only a
few of these machines (comparatively) have been sold to them.
_Yield of Oil and Kernels from Whole Fruit by Machinery._—It has been
variously estimated that out of a hundred tons of whole fruit the native
obtains by his methods:
7 tons of oil worth (pre-war rates) £12 per ton = £84.
15 tons of kernels worth (pre-war rates) £6 per ton = £90.
Again, out of the whole fruit, the result of various investigations
shows that the pericarp comprises 30 per cent., shell 56 per cent., the
kernels 14 per cent., and that there is 50 per cent. of oil in the
pericarp. It has also been estimated that out of a hundred tons of whole
fruit, a maximum of 15 tons of oil and 14 tons of kernels can be
obtained by machinery. These at the pre-war rates would be worth
approximately £600 and £200—in all, £800. It has also been estimated
that the crushing of the fruit, the various freights, the carriage by
rail and ocean, cost of bags, shipping, landing charges, insurance and
general expenses would amount to £4 per ton, or in all about £400. This
leaves about £400 to pay for the fresh fruit and allow for a profit;
thus, paying £1 per ton for the fresh fruit, there would still be £300
left for profit, or in the case of paying £2 per ton there would be £200
left. However, so far £1 per ton has proved too low a rate for the
natives to accept, and in most places it has been refused. It is
doubtful whether £2 per ton will attract them sufficiently to bring in
the large bulk of farm produce which is available. From an average
closely stocked Oil Palm area the fruit could not be collected at a cost
of £1 per ton, and it is very doubtful if it could be done for £2 per
ton. So far, it appears that the native working for himself in his own
time will always do things at a cheaper rate than paid labour under
European supervision. Further investigations will, however, prove what a
high price can be paid for the fresh fruit at the factory and yet leave
sufficient margin to make a profit on the extraction of the pericarp
oil, and also of the cracking of the nuts. In this connection the
crushing of the kernels is considered rather a separate economic
problem, as several other market factors come in which do not apply to
the case of the pericarp oil and the uncrushed kernels. The machinery
for the crushing of the kernels on the whole is much more intricate,
costly, and requires much more highly-trained European supervision.
10_a_. PERCENTAGE OIL AND KERNELS.—According to the investigations of
the Imperial Institute, the composition of the fruit is as follows:
Per cent.
Pericarp oil 18
Fibre and moisture 12
Shell and disk 58
Kernel 12
Cake for fattening hogs 100
The kernel contains 46 to 53 per cent. of oil.
10_b_. PERICARP PALM OIL ANALYSIS.—This is as follows:
Specific gravity 15/15° C. 0·9209-0·9245
Melting-point 24°-42·5° C.
Saponification value 196·3-205·5
Iodine value 53-57·4
Reichert-Meissl value 0·86-1·87
Hehner value 94·2-97
The solidifying-point of fatty acids varies from 35·8° to 46·4° C.
usually 44·5° to 45° C.
(See also 7_a_, Uses; see also 12_a_.)
11. EUROPEAN USES OF OIL AND KERNELS, PALM WINE, PALM CABBAGE, ETC.—From
46 to 53 per cent. of oil is contained in the kernel.
Palm oil is used in Europe for making margarine, vegetable butters,
chocolate and cooking fats. It makes a good butter-substitute. Palm oil
is chiefly used for making soap and candles in England, according to Mr.
Dennett’s paper. Tin plates are covered with palm oil to prevent
oxidization. The leakage from the casks of oil on board ship is used for
making metal polish. Railways use it for greasing axle-boxes on railway
carriages.
11_a_. NIGERIAN EXPORTS, OIL AND KERNELS.—The exports of palm kernels
have been increasing almost continuously for years, owing to the gradual
opening up of the country to trade, and also to the natives finding out
the value of the kernel as an article of barter; nevertheless, more
still could be obtained if hand-cracking machinery and more nut-cracking
mills were introduced at suitable spots.
The following table shows the exports for the years 1909 to 1916 of
PALM KERNELS.
Year. Tons. £ Price.
1907 — 1,658,000 —
1908 — 1,425,000 —
1909 158,869 1,815,967 —
1910 172,998 2,450,814 —
1911 176,389 2,574,405 £18 6s.
1912 184,624 2,797,411 £19 15s.
1913 174,720 3,109,820 £23 5s.
1914 162,452 2,541,149 —
1915 153,319 1,692,712 —
1916 161,439 1,739,706 —
PALM OIL FROM COLONIAL REPORT, NIGERIAN EXPORTS.
Year. Tons. £ Price.
1911 79,000 1,696,875 £13 15s.
1912 77,000 1,654,933 £29 18s.
1913 83,000 1,854,384 £32 15s.
The following is quoted from Sect. 2, Mr. R. E. Dennett’s paper on
British Trade in Nigeria. Valuable notes have been obtained from this
paper with regard to the palm products.
PALM KERNEL EXPORTS TO GERMANY.
About £5,000,000 worth went to Germany before the war.
Year. Tons.
1911 262,680
1912 283,536
1913 241,961
12. VALUE OF OIL AND KERNELS.—Since the war, the price of oil first went
down £5 per ton and kernels £15 per ton up.
With kernels at £17 to £18 per ton, the oil is worth £36 15s. per ton.
Glycerine is worth £50 per ton, and pericarp oil contains about 8 per
cent.
At the beginning of 1918 the price of palm kernels varied from £25 to
£26 per ton, the latter figure being the official maximum for it.
12_a_. DESCRIPTION OF KERNEL OIL.—It is white or pale-yellow in colour,
with a pleasant nutty taste. By suitable treatment kernel oil can be
divided into liquid oil, olein, and solid palm-kernel oil, stearin. It
is used for soap and candles, edible fats—such as palmine,
margarine—cooking fats, vegetable butters and chocolate fats.
13. IMPORT PORTS IN ENGLAND AND U.S.A. FOR OIL AND
KERNELS.—_Hull._—Congo kernels go to Hull by the Cie Congo du Belge
line, run by Elder Dempster & Co. In the first six months of 1915,
20,821 tons of kernels were imported into Hull. In most statements on
Hull the price of palm kernel cake is omitted, whilst those of linseed,
Bombay cotton-seed, and Saga Bean are always quoted. Hull imported
between 40,000 and 50,000 tons in 1915 (from January to November only,
31,723 tons); 200,000 tons were taken by Germany before, and hence are
available now.
_Bristol._—Bristol as a port is prepared, according to its seed-
crushers, to try kernels, but they asked the Colonial Office for
protection from Germany.
_Liverpool._—For the first six months of 1915, 87,366 tons of palm
kernels were imported into Liverpool, against 73,000 tons in 1914.
_U.S.A._—In 1915, 4,000 tons of kernels were shipped direct to the
States.
14. THE CRUSHING OF PALM KERNELS IN AFRICA AND ENGLAND.—The largest
seed-crushing and oil-extracting centre in Great Britain is at Hull.
Most of the crushing used to be done in Harburg, near Hamburg, Germany,
and only a little at Liverpool—some 70,000 tons out of 300,000 tons.
Since the war began Hull and London (Erith) have taken up the crushing
of kernels. Bristol and Manchester have both thought about it.
Crushing has been tried in Africa, but has not been very successful so
far, the cost of the operations having proved too high. In the Congo,
however, it is still being done.
The crushing plants in Nigeria are situated at Opoba and Apapa, near
Lagos.
14_a_. OTHER METHODS OF KERNEL CRUSHING—SOLVENTS.—Commercially, kernels
are heated with solvents or pressure is used to extract the oil.
According to Mr. Dennett the first expression takes place at a
temperature of 45° to 50° C., and the second at 55° to 60° C. The double
pressing is necessary owing to the amount of fat in the oil. By
solvents, all or only a part can be taken out of the kernels. If all is
taken, then they are almost valueless as cake, owing to its lack of oil.
15. PALM-KERNEL PRODUCE.—Palm-kernel cake used to contain 20 to 22 per
cent. of fibre and 10 per cent. of oil, which went rancid, so was not
liked here.
This was the main reason why palm-kernel cake was not used to any extent
by farmers in England before the war.
15_a_. YIELD OF OIL, KERNELS AND CAKE.—From 46 to 53 per cent. of palm-
kernel oil is obtained from the kernels.
Roughly speaking, a ton of kernels yields half a ton of cake, according
to Mr. R. E. Dennett.
According to the _Bulletin_ of the Imperial Institute 1 ton of kernels
yields 1,000 lb. of oil.
_Palm-kernel Cake and Oil Exports._—Palm-kernel cake was exported to
Denmark in September 1915-18, 863 bags.
15_b_. ANALYSIS OF KERNEL CAKE.—This, according to a recent analysis in
the _Field_ by Frank J. Lloyd, is:
Per cent.
Fibre 14·80
Mineral matters 3·55
Nutrients—
Oil 6·17
Albuminoids 16·12
Carbohydrates 48·51
Water 10·85
------
100·00
A further analysis shows:
Per cent.
Oil 5·5-10
Albuminoids 15·8-18·5
Carbohydrates 36-50
or per food unit it works out to £4 16s. per ton. Indigestible fibre
reaches 10 per cent., or in older samples of ten years ago 28 per cent.,
which is far too high. As a unit it costs 1s. 4d., against 2s. 7d. for
cotton-seed meal.
According to E. D. News the analysis is:
Per cent.
Albuminous matters 17-30
Fatty matter 10-18
Gum, sugar and starch 30-40
15_c_. KERNEL ANALYSIS.—According to the investigations the analysis
showed:
Specific gravity at 90/15° C. 0·873
Iodine value 10·3-17·5
Saponification value 242-255
Titer test 20·0-25·5° C.
Hehner value 91·1
Reichert-Meissl test 5·0-6·8
16 and 17. VALUE OF PALM-KERNEL OIL AND CAKE.—Palm-kernel cake is sold
at 7s. per cwt., and only 10 per cent. of the food ration is given to
cows or calves for the first time.
According to the _Oil and Colours Journal_, in September 1915 palm-
kernel oil was worth £37 10s. per ton first hand, and £48 in March 1916.
According to this journal it is the lowest priced of all the cakes.
The price of the cake is £7 to £7 5s. per ton.
The cake is sold at £7 5s. free on rail per ton at Hull. At the
beginning of 1918 it was worth £13 15s. per ton, but in Surrey it could
not be obtained under £21 per ton.
Palm-kernel oil is worth about £40 per ton.
At the beginning of 1918, palm-kernel oil extracted by solvents was
worth £51 per ton; crushed, £52 per ton; refined, £67 per ton—which were
the official maximum prices.
17. USES OF PALM-KERNEL CAKE.—Kernels worked by solvents make a more
digestible meal—80 per cent. against 73 per cent. of crushed kernels,
and containing 19 per cent. of protein and 2 per cent. of fat, against
18 per cent. of protein and 8 per cent. of fat for crushed kernels. It
is used for feeding young pigs and milch cows in Germany.
18. RESULTS OF FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH KERNEL CAKE.—The weekly gain in
live weight with kernel cake ration was 8 lb. at the West of Scotland
Agricultural College. The cost worked out at 4½d. per lb., and 3 lb. of
kernel cake gave better results than 4 lb. of bran.
At the East of Scotland College, a gain of 2·04 lb. per day was
recorded, the cost being £6 6s. per ton.
Experiments conducted in Scotland showed that cattle increased 1·95 lb.
per day with palm-kernel cake, against only 1·84 lb. with linseed cake.
No difficulty was found in keeping the cake, and it did not go rancid.
The cattle fed on palm-nut cake were stated to look glossier, carry more
bloom, and have a looser skin than those fed on cotton-seed cake. It is
also claimed that the fat content of the milk is increased, though the
amount of extra butter-fat produced per day cannot be demonstrated.
A mixture containing 3 lb. of palm-nut cake is recommended per day for
milch cows, and one containing from ¼ lb. to ½ lb. for sheep and pigs.
Ten per cent. of the ration should be given to cows or cattle the first
time. Only 2 lb. of cake per day is given to animals.
According to the Cambridge University Department of Agriculture the
feeding value of palm-kernel cake for bullocks is practically the same
as that of linseed cake.
The feeding experiments demonstrated that the palm-kernel cake gave
equal results to linseed or cotton-seed cake, and paid better because of
the lower price of palm-kernel cake for milch cows and cattle. It is
recommended for pigs too. The cost of feeding for eighty-four days was
43s. 4d. for palm-kernel cake against 51s. 6d. for linseed, and a gain
of 164·5 lb. in weight against 167 lb. flesh weight with linseed cake.
Cattle do not take to it readily at first, but afterwards like it.
According to Wyndham R. Dunstan, palm-kernel cake costs 1s. 5½d. per
food unit as compared to 2s. 4d. for hay, hay being £5 per ton.
According to Thomas Fawcett, L.M.R., A.S.E., it is a question of what is
relatively cheaper. British farmers have always bought linseed cake at
£10 10s. per ton, when beef was only 10d. to 1s. per lb. Relatively, it
would be better to go in for more cows being fed with palm-kernel cake.
He also states that kernels only came in irregular quantities.
The cake, according to Lancashire County experiments, must be given as
part ration, as milk yield goes down with kernel cake alone.
18_a_. PALM-NUT MEAL: EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS OF FEEDING.—In 1879, in
_Agricultural Chemistry_, by Johnson and Cameron (2nd edition), palm-nut
meal from England and the Continent is mentioned and recommended as the
cheapest meal for cattle, especially calves. The Royal Agricultural
Society of England in 1878 also published a pamphlet for the Paris
Exhibition, in which a mixture including a large proportion of palm-nut
meal is recommended, and the experience in feeding young animals is
given, showing that it is far cheaper and that linseed cake is really
very expensive. Fourteen beasts fed on linseed cake averaged at eighteen
months old 13·5 lb. live weight the week, or only ¾ lb. less than the
heaviest at the show, on less food, especially using palm-nut meal.
According to others, meal is not recommended owing to its going rancid
and its indigestibility.
19. MANURIAL VALUE OF KERNEL CAKE.—The manurial value of palm-kernel
cake is £1 4s. for the ration as given per ton.
20. WEST AFRICAN SHIPPING IN RELATION TO FARM PRODUCE.—Before the advent
of the German line, the West Coast was at the mercy of the Shipping
Combine, as it is now, freights being arranged accordingly.
Since the Government has fixed maximum freight rates, shippers now know
the largest amount they will have to pay, but even so freights are
extremely high, and with no outside competition are unlikely to be
brought down very much.
21. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE OIL PALM.—Monsieur Chevalier’s _Les Végétaux
Utiles de l’Afrique tropicale française_, Fasc. VII (1e partie),
“Documents sur le Palmier à Huile,” contains a great deal of valuable
information on the subject of the Oil Palm. _The Oil Palm_, by J. H.
Farquhar, summarizes the results of a year’s investigations as to the
growth and yield of the Oil Palm in the Southern Provinces of Nigeria.
In the monograph _Oil Seed and Feeding Cakes_, issued by the Imperial
Institute, a complete account is given of the new British palm-kernel
industry.
CHAPTER XIII
THE FOREST IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE
The intimate and very important connection between Agriculture and
Forestry is not at all widely recognized, so it is desirable to bring
out more fully exactly how the one reacts on the other: the value of
forests from the climatic point of view to agriculture, the economic
effects on it, as well as the population connected with it.
In all the older civilized countries, such as France, England and
Russia, and the United States and Canada of the newer ones, definite and
almost exactly fixed quantities of land are used for agricultural
purposes on the one hand and for Forestry on the other.
In the Gambia, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast and Nigeria, however, with
the exception of about 1,500 square miles of forest reserves and certain
native land planted with rubber or cocoa, all the land (even when
covered with finest mahogany forests) is liable to be farmed for a time
and then abandoned for another piece of forest-land under the system of
shifting cultivation. In practice, this means that every year thousands
of square miles of forest are ruthlessly cut down, in order that the
land may be used for agricultural crops, for one, two, or at the most
three years’ crops. In the drier parts of the countries named, through
such forests as exist, grass-fires annually burn, and destroy many trees
in order to provide poor grazing for herds of the nomads’ cattle.
It might be argued that in the comparatively damp and hot climate which
attains in a great part of the Gambia, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast and
Nigeria, which are also to some extent still covered with forest, it
would be most advantageous to clear as much land as possible. This,
however, is a delusion resting on false impressions, notably that the
countries named are so much covered with thick forest. In most places
this so-called “forest” is in reality an almost worthless secondary
growth, consisting chiefly of umbrella trees (_Musanga Smithii_), soft-
wooded Hannoa, creepers, grass, with isolated half-burnt or decayed
trees from the original forest. Again, too, this system of clearing new
land is quite haphazard, so that, after the first crop has been taken
off, the land may be found to be too poor to be planted again; the
natives then abandon it. In some places, chiefly in the Benin and Oban
districts, they even go so far as to put a “Ju-ju” on the land, which is
in effect a notice to say that the land is of no use for a farm.
However, this is usually forgotten in a generation, so that the same
thing may happen again, only that insufficient time has elapsed for a
proper forest to be grown, as the cutting of the original forest may
have so altered the climatic factors of the locality that not only
different species of trees but also grasses have come in, and choked
nearly all the self-sown forest-tree seedlings. The main beneficial
effects of the forest may be summarized as follows:
1. The rainfall of the locality is increased, according to the figures
of the Indian rainfall stations. This may amount to as much as 16 to 28
per cent. increase on the annual rainfall.
Afforestation on the Russian steppes has shown that more rain now falls
on the planted area than in former years.
In Western Canada it is generally said that its climate is altering, and
a general increase of rain has been noticeable since plantations have
been made on thousands of farms and what forests there were originally
have been rigorously protected from annual fires.
2. The rainfall both above and in the ground is more regularly
distributed.
First of all, nearly 23 per cent. of the rain which falls on the trees
in a forest is re-evaporated into the air and does not reach the ground
at all. This in itself increases the humidity of the atmosphere, tends
to form clouds, and thus induces further rainfall. The clouds tend to
protect the plants from excessive sun at what may be a critical period
in the growing season. The extra humidity of the atmosphere does not
necessitate the plants transpiring so much moisture as they would
otherwise have to do, to keep them in growing condition. Compared to
that in the open, only 22 per cent. of the amount of evaporation takes
place in the forest, added to the fact that it occurs under the canopy
of the trees, thus creating the more humid atmosphere which is so
suitable, for instance, for the growth of cocoa and other such crops. In
other words, we can take one hundred parts as the amount evaporated in
the open, of which not a quarter is evaporated in the forest. Again, as
we have seen, twice as much of the rainfall soaks into the ground in the
forest as in the open, and owing to the tree-roots and general covering
of the soil the water can only flow away gradually. On the other hand,
in the open, if the ground is at all sloping, more than half of the rain
which falls to the ground runs away immediately, or lies on the land,
flooding it and making planting impossible.
[Illustration: FIG. 106.—=Rest House Teak Plantation at Ndeh, showing
rows of trees 9 feet apart and 4 feet between.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 107.—=View between the lines of one-year-old Teak
Plantation at Ndeh, in which trees were planted 4 feet apart.=]
To face p. 486.
The trees then act as a rainfall distributer and also as a rainfall
regulator. The roots of the trees act like a sponge, absorbing a great
deal of the rainwater besides preventing it from running away. It has
been calculated that it takes nearly six months for the rainfall to come
out in the springs of a forest. This also to some extent accounts for
the saying that if the wells are full in October in the Temperate Zone,
or at the end of March in the Tropical Zone, there will be sufficient
water the whole year round. With a varied distribution of forests in the
country, the above two effects are naturally felt on neighbouring
agricultural land, and in many cases make possible the growing of
certain crops, such as cocoa, Cola and rubber, which otherwise could not
be attempted. An interesting example of this is seen in the way in which
the natives of Ilobe, in Nigeria, have planted Cola trees just inside
and on the edge of the Ilaro Forest Reserve boundary.
3. The forest protects the land against corrosion. In most countries,
wherever the ground is sloping and bare the annual fall of rain washes
away large masses of good soil as well as stones and other debris, in
many cases destroying pasturage or agricultural land, and in any case
silting up the rivers with sand-banks and bars, thus hindering
navigation. It has often been said that, for its size, the Cross River
carries in the rainy season much more material in suspension and rolled
along its bed than many other African rivers. The main reason apparently
for this fact is that several of its tributaries, such as the Mbu, the
Fi, the Mfu and the Bago, rise at what are now partially grass-covered
mountain slopes, but which no doubt were a short time ago covered with
fine evergreen forests.
The immediate effect of clearing such slopes is that the water, to the
extent of nearly 90 per cent., rushes unchecked down the mountain slope,
gaining momentum with every mile and taking grass, soil and even whole
mountain slopes (1,500 feet in height) along with it. On the other hand,
if such slopes are covered with forest trees 25 per cent. of the
rainfall is re-evaporated into the air before reaching the ground, 10
per cent. is evaporated from the ground into the air of the forest, and
fully 65 per cent. soaks into the ground.
An instance of this last effect can be seen in the Cross River Divide
from the Bambuto Mountains, on the Nigerian border. In a few places the
native farmers understand this effect and make the terraces on which
they plant parallel with the contour of the hill-side; however, this is
insufficient when the whole mountain slope has been cleared of forest.
Only a definite distribution of the land between forest and farm would
prevent the undue corroding of hill-sides. The unrestricted rush of the
rainwater off the hill-sides has yet a further effect on the lower
ground of the country, in that it causes the streams and rivers to flood
and overflow their banks. This, in turn, prevents huge acreages of land
from being cultivated for many months in the year, and other large areas
lower down from being cultivated at all.
Yet another effect is that a vast mass of water hurries down into the
sea where it is not required, and where there is already plenty of
evaporation; whereas the greater part of it might have been stored up in
the forest to form perennial, almost unaltering springs, streams and
rivers. Two interesting examples of this are seen in the slight, almost
negligible rise in the Okwo and the Igbagon streams of the Benin
province. Both of these rivers rise in thick forest, and thick forest is
also found on their banks.
In a similar way, instead of the water of the rivers being used for
irrigating land which is sandy and dry in the dry season, it rushes away
into the ocean for nothing. The flooding of much of the land near the
rivers also kills many large forest trees and causes a rank growth of
shrubs, creepers and grass, which form the breeding-places for tsetse
and other harmful flies. It is rare to find any infected tsetse flies
near a clear perennial stream in the forest.
4. The forest improves the soil of a locality, whether in the primeval
or the planted forest. The trees stand at least eighty years, and
sometimes for several hundred, on the same land, before being cut down.
During this period the tree roots with their root-hairs are penetrating
far and wide into the soil, subsoil, and even underlying rock, gradually
causing the two latter to weather into finer and better constituent
parts. For instance, nothing appears so solid as a mountain of granite;
nevertheless, at the base and to the lee-side of each boulder, more
especially if there is any tree-growth there, a beautiful little bed or
pocket of blackish soil will be found. Then, again, besides this
weathering of the subsoil and rock, the tree leaves, even from evergreen
trees, fall down, gradually decay, and form a thick layer of humus. This
in itself forms an almost ideal seed-bed. At the edge of forests this
humus is washed out on to the agricultural lands and thus enriches them;
furthermore, dry leaves are blown out of the edge of the forest on to
neighbouring agricultural land, become dug in, or drawn into the land by
insects, and so tend to enrich it. In many civilized countries a regular
business is done in taking litter and leaf-mould out of the forest to
neighbouring garden and farm lands.
It is a well-known fact that when a forest is cut down after some
hundreds of years many plants appear in the clearing which did not exist
in the forest before, or, in fact, were not known in that locality, the
seeds having lain dormant during the whole period of time. This clearly
shows that the forest soil is an ideal medium for preserving seeds, and
that it improves rather than deteriorates, which is the case with bare
land. An instance of this from the Tropics is seen in the way in which
the Corkwood or Umbrella Tree (_Musanga Smithii_) comes up after the
mahogany and evergreen forest has been cleared. No Musanga trees are
usually found in the primeval forest. A parallel example from Europe is
seen in the way in which _Atropa belladonna_ almost invariably appears
when a beech forest is cut down.
Planting trees and thus forming a forest, though expensive, is another
way of clearly proving the beneficial effect of the forest, or
ameliorating the condition and plant-food content of the soil. On the
comparatively worn-out and poor soil near Ibadan a firewood plantation
was started some years ago; now already, in the shade of the Ayin,
_Anogeissus leiocarpus_ and _Cassia Siamea_ trees, the fallen leaves
have decayed and formed a layer of humus, killing out the lalang grass
at the same time. Needless to say, it is a very expensive method to wait
until the forest has been destroyed, the soil impoverished, and trees
again planted, before an improvement in the soil conditions can be
expected.
5. Individual trees, and thus trees in the aggregate, viz. forests, take
less mineral matter out of the soil than agricultural crops covering a
similar area. It has been calculated that the trees on an acre of land
only take one-twelfth of the amount of mineral matter out of the ground
which is required by an agricultural crop on the same area. It follows
from this that trees, and in the same way forests, may be left standing
upon or be grown on land which is nearly or absolutely worthless from an
agricultural point of view. In the more civilized countries this is
seen, for instance, in the way in which the mountain ranges of Germany
have remained covered with forest and the sandy Landes district of
France has been planted with forests of pine. In Canada, the Spruce
Hills Reserve, near the Canadian Pacific Railway in Manitoba, is another
example of the setting aside of poor, almost worthless agricultural land
as a permanent forest area. In Nigeria, the Oban Forest Reserve and the
forest-covered hills of Olokemeji are further examples of the practice
of this principle.
Generally speaking, in fact, in most civilized countries there are
really three types of land, viz.:
(_a_) Absolute farm-land, which comprises the very richest and best land
of the country, in which forests should only be allowed to stand, as an
exception.
(_b_) Relative forest-land, comprising land which can be used
permanently for agriculture, but requiring a great deal to be spent on
improvements or manures to make it suitable for the purposes, but which
in its natural state carries a heavy stand of timber, could be used for
forests indefinitely.
(_c_) Absolute forest-land, comprising land which, owing either to its
elevation, aspect, soil or position, cannot be used for the permanent
cultivation, or in some cases even the temporary cultivation, of crops.
6. The forest protects agricultural land against storms and insect
pests. In many places, owing to very strong winds, certain crops cannot
be grown. For instance, it is said bananas cannot be grown at Zaria
owing to the prevalent strong winds. In the Chang district of the
Cameroons the natives only plant plantains near their houses or behind
the very high fences or hedges which mark off one man’s compound from
another. Apparently this is done in order to protect the plants from the
wind, which otherwise tears their large leaves into shreds and prevents
their proper growth.
Some years ago, in the Ibadan district, a fierce tornado cut a path
about 100 feet wide and nearly a mile long through a forest, but the
agricultural land beyond was untouched. It goes without saying that had
all the land been under crops in this locality most of them would have
been destroyed, whereas the forest took the brunt of the storm, and the
force of the wind outside was thus weakened and comparatively harmless.
7. The forest protects the soil and its physical properties. In the open
it is noticeable that the native rarely clears the land properly, many
stumps both of forest trees and shrubs being usually allowed to remain
standing. It is true some of the shoots from the stumps are left on
purpose to be used as supports for the yam tendrils or other crops which
may be grown. Nevertheless, it is a fact that the native always says
that the land must not be absolutely cleared of all stumps and roots or
it will be useless for the growing of crops. Then, again, the native
speaks of a piece of ground as being “spoilt,” and that he cannot stay
there any longer. As an example of this, in the Oban district, the
people of Ekong left the village site because they said the ground was
too stony and was no good, and they went right away into the forest. On
an examination of the land being made, it was found that where they had
cleared the forest and farmed for a few years all the humus, tilth and
other soil had been washed away, with the result that boulders as well
as the underlying rock had to some extent come to view. Needless to say
no attempt had been made at farming under a rotation of crops, nor had
any manure, green or otherwise, been applied to the soil. On the other
hand, in the forest the soil is not washed away, the aeration of it is
almost perfect, the mineral content is always high, and it usually has
considerable depth, even where there are rock outcrops, for these become
covered with dead leaves or humus, which in their turn help to weather
the rock and thus make more soil.
8. The forest tends to regulate the temperature, almost preventing
extremes of heat and cold. Accurate measurements taken over a period of
forty years have established the fact that in the warmest season the
temperature of the forest is 5° to 10° lower, according to species
(altitude taken to be the same), than the air in the open over
agricultural land. In a similar way, in the coldest season of the year
the temperature of the forest is 5° to 10° higher than in the open over
agricultural land. Most readers will have experienced the feeling of
freshness and coolness in passing through the forest zone near Olokemeji
on the Nigerian Railway, or, if on leave in England, in passing through
the New Forest on the Bournemouth road. This is only the effect which is
expressed in this difference of temperature: as with other effects, so
this one affects the neighbouring lands near the forest. Even a dry wind
on reaching a forest must take up some moisture, and thus be less dry
when it reaches agricultural land farther on. It can often be seen how
the grain in the drier parts of the country planted near the edge of a
forest sprouts up sooner than that right in the open. Again, certain
crops, such as cacao-yams, cocoa, and Cola trees thrive best amongst
trees. Without the forests the Cola plantations of the Ilesha district
would cease to exist, or at any rate bear very small crops.
9. The forest increases the humidity of the air. According to accurate
measurements taken over a period of forty years, it has been proved that
the forest increases the humidity of the air up to 10 per cent. No doubt
in many of the Southern parts of Nigeria and the Gold Coast, people
travelling in the forests have often thought that there was far too much
moisture, not only coming from above and below, but also in the air
around them. However, this should not blind us to the fact that further
up country this greater humidity of the air of the forest is spread over
the adjacent lands, and thus makes possible the growth of agricultural
crops, such as cocoa, Cola, yams, and cacao-yams, which would not
otherwise be possible. This greater humidity also tends to induce local
minor rainstorms, which in their turn benefit the adjacent agricultural
land. This greater humidity of the air also tends to prevent the
excessive drying in the dry season of the land situated very near, and
taken in conjunction with the other factors, such as the regulating of
the temperature and the rainfall, makes it possible to put in crops
earlier and almost ensures their growing successfully.
10. The forests prevent the spread of insect and fungoid pests. So often
we read that the crops in South Africa or the Argentine have been
destroyed by locusts, and on the Gold Coast we read that various pests
are destroying cocoa-trees in large numbers. Here, again, a forest or a
belt of forests with large numbers of different species of trees
interpose a living barrier of green leaf food or woody tissue which
these pests may attack, owing to the diversity of the species of trees.
Most pests only find a few trees on which they can thrive or reproduce
themselves; thus on reaching the forest the scourge tends to lessen, or
even die out. Even in the worst case of large hordes of locusts, it is
cheaper to allow them into a forest, perhaps sacrificing it, rather than
they should spread further and further over agricultural lands.
Having shown that it is necessary in a new and comparatively unsettled
country to preserve a certain proportion of the forests, it remains to
be considered what proportion is desirable and necessary to fulfil the
conditions outlined before and give free play to all the beneficial
effects of the forests.
Taking the proportion of permanent forest to other land in the more
civilized countries, we get the following ratios:—
Forest per cent.
Finland 80
Russia in Europe 42
Austria 33
Hungary 29
Germany 26
France 16
Sweden 42
Switzerland 19
Norway 25
U.S.A. 10
India 38
Special note should be made of the fact that in all these countries the
agricultural development has gone hand in hand with the preservation of
the forest, and especially with no detriment to the development of
agriculture in any direction in which it seemed desirable. Russia has,
for instance, enormous exports of timber and enormous exports of wheat.
Austria-Hungary had before the war considerable exports of hardwood
timber, such as oak, as well as grain, both wheat and other kinds.
Judging by the experience gained in Germany with its hundred and seventy
years of forestry practice, a proportion of 25 to 33 per cent. of the
land area of any country can reasonably be retained under forest, or
afforested if bare. Such a proportion allows sufficient timber trees to
be grown to cover the large quantities of wood used in industrial
development and also a considerable surplus for export to other
countries.
Turning specifically to the West African Colonies, it would mean, out of
a total land area of 4,500 square miles, that in the Gambia, for
instance, an area of between 1,100 and 1,500 square miles should be
permanently set aside as Forest Reserves or Forest Reserve Afforestation
Areas. In the latter case, when all were planted up they would gradually
become forests.
In Sierra Leone, with a total land area of 34,000 square miles, the area
would vary from 8,500 to 11,000 square miles.
In the Gold Coast, out of a total land area of 80,000 square miles, the
permanent forest area would vary between 20,000 and 26,000 square miles.
In the Southern Provinces of Nigeria, with a total area of 79,000 square
miles, the permanent forest area would reach between 19,000 and 26,000
square miles.
In the Northern Provinces of Nigeria, out of a total area of 250,000
square miles, the permanent forest area, including the afforestation
areas, would reach between 62,000 and 83,000 square miles.
Large though these forest or afforestation areas appear to be, it can,
however, be shown that most of them do not at all trench on existing
farm-land. First of all, in Nigeria, taking the protective forests,
comprising all those lands or forests situated in most inaccessible
places on mountain ranges and hill-sides and the sources of streams,
they cannot be said to be desirable localities for extending farming
operations. Typical instances of this kind of land are seen in the Boji
Hills (Ogoja province), and on the rocky hills near the Cross River in
the Afikpo district (Owerri province). In Sierra Leone the peninsular
mountain forests and the hills near Kennema are similar typical examples
of this type of land or forest.
At the other extreme we have the dry-zone or desert formation, with its
sandy soil or bare rock outcrops. In either region, in order to make
agriculture possible and permanently profitable, afforestation areas are
most necessary. Near the sea, especially in Nigeria and to some extent
in Sierra Leone, there are the mangrove forests standing on land which
is never used for agricultural purposes. In Nigeria alone these comprise
several thousand square miles of land. Again, in Nigeria there are the
freshwater swamp forests, either near rivers or in other localities.
Although such lands produce quite a profitable amount of timber from
many excellent species of trees, no farms have ever been made in such
areas.
In other parts of the country, often comparatively level, there are
variations in the strata and soil formation, such as that of the
laterite formation. Over wide areas most of these lateritic soils are
nearly useless for permanent agricultural crops, so at any rate it would
certainly pay better in the long run if it were permanently covered with
forest. In a similar manner all forests found growing on or near rock
outcrops or otherwise stony formations, such as old gravel beds formed
by rivers, would be treated in the same way. One or two agricultural
crops may be raised on such land, but all the soil is soon washed away
in the rainy season each year, so that little is left after a short time
except boulders and stones. Many typical instances of this kind of
formation are found in the Ibadan and Oyo districts of the Oyo province.
In other parts of the country, where practically all the land is covered
with some sort of forest (either high forest, secondary growth or
scrub), the same proportion as before, viz. 25 to 33 per cent., should
be set aside in convenient blocks, well distributed over the area, as
permanent forests (so-called Forest Reserves).
Strange as it may sound, there is comparatively little, at the most an
area estimated at 7,000 square miles, of real high forest left in the
Southern Provinces of Nigeria. As is well known, the natives have a
special name for this type of forest; amongst the Efiks it is called
Ekai, the Yorubas term it Igbo, and the Benin people Egbo. Considering
the size of these last remnants of the real high forest, agriculture
cannot justly claim the right to clear and farm even this area when so
much (estimated at 28,000 square miles), apart from the area already
mentioned, has been cleared during the last fourteen years. In the above
estimate, areas even of 500 square miles for roadways and railways,
1,000 square miles for town, village and factory sites, and 2,500 square
miles for inland waterways were allowed for when computing the whole
area of forest land.
At the present time in Nigeria, with the exception of certain specified
trees, and less so in the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone and the Gambia, there
is nothing to hinder a native from cutting down any forest he pleases
for making a temporary farm. In fact, the difference between farming as
practised in civilized countries and in these tropical West African
Colonies is that the former partakes of a permanent cultivation of the
same land every year, whereas the latter is shifting cultivation of a
different piece of land almost every year. At the most, the Yoruba
returns to the land in five or seven years, and the native of Benin
after ten or twelve years.
Another point which bears on this question is really the comparatively
small amount of land which a native actually farms every year. For
instance, an energetic Yoruba farmer will make 2,000 yam heaps a year,
which, allowing for the distance of 6 feet between each heap, amounts to
1·6 acres per year. This also includes the help which he may receive
from his family.
Out of a total population of 8,000,000, at the most 2,000,000 are
actually men who make farms. It follows, then, that some 2,560,000
acres, or 4,000 square miles, are cleared and planted each year. Now,
allowing sufficient land for the native to be able to return to the
original piece cleared after seven years, the total amount of land
necessary for the existing farming population would be 28,000 square
miles, or rather more than a third of the total area of the country.
Even after allowing 19,000 or 26,000 square miles of forest in the
country, there would still remain nearly a third, or 25,000 square
miles, for the future development of agriculture and the natural
increase of the population. It should be especially noted that it is
under a system of shifting cultivation that this 28,000 square miles is
required. No doubt under permanent cultivation less would be necessary.
Quite apart, however, from this consideration, owing to the greater
heat, moisture and humidity in the Tropics generally, and in the
Southern Provinces of Nigeria particularly, agricultural crops grow much
more rapidly and are much more prolific than in the more temperate
zones, even without manures. Yet in another way there is not such an
enormous demand on the amount of land required per unit of population,
in that over an area of fully 30,000 square miles it is possible to
raise two crops a year on the same land, and over roughly an area of
10,000 square miles of the country it is possible to raise three crops
per year (in each case under a rotation of crops). In this manner less
land is required per person than in a temperate climate in order to grow
food either for local consumption or for export.
So far we have dealt with shifting cultivation. However, in most
civilized countries, sooner or later a system of permanent cultivation
is started instead of shifting farms. In England this was begun at a
time in which the population was less dense to the square mile than it
is now in the Southern Provinces of Nigeria (average 101 persons per
square mile). In Germany the density of population is 323 persons per
square mile, yet they had (before the war) 25 per cent. of the land area
of their country covered with permanent forests. If it were possible to
start permanent cultivation with a rotation of crops in England when the
population was less dense than in the Southern Provinces of Nigeria, it
should be feasible in Nigeria now. Again, if it is found possible for
Germany to retain 25 per cent. of the land area under permanent forest
crops, with a density of population three times greater than that of
Nigeria, at the same time maintaining a prosperous system of permanent
agricultural cultivation, it should also be much easier to have a
similar proportion of permanent agricultural cultivation in the Southern
Provinces of Nigeria; at the same time, taking into consideration the
more favourable climatic factors, it should be possible not only to grow
sufficient foodstuffs for local use, but also to grow sufficient to
develop into a large export trade for ground nuts, maize and beans,
besides cocoa and rubber.
CHAPTER XIV
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WEST AFRICAN FORESTS
1. HISTORICAL.
One of the first books was _Forestry in West Africa_, by Sir Alfred
Maloney, a former Governor of Lagos, which was published in 1887. This
is a most interesting and readable book, and, for the time it was
written, gives a very good account of many of the forest trees. It is
also much to Sir A. Maloney’s credit that teak, _Tectona grandis_, was
introduced into Nigeria at that time.
In _The Journal of an Expedition to Explore the Course and Termination
of the Niger_, by Richard and John Lander, only very vague descriptions
of the forests are given, and it is therefore not of much value from the
Forestry point of view, though it is a most entertaining description of
the people and their doings at that time.
2. BOTANICAL.
From 1868 onwards, _Flora of Tropical Africa_ appeared; so far eight
volumes have been published. This work was planned by the late Sir
William J. Hooker and edited first of all by Daniel Oliver, and
subsequently by Sir W. T. Thistleton-Dyer, K.C.M.G., C.I.E., and now by
Lieut.-Colonel D. Prain, the Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
It is, of course, very scientific, accurate and botanical, but has very
dry descriptions of many of the African trees and plants and no
illustrations are contained in these octavo volumes. What also makes it
harder to use this _Flora_ is the fact that since 1868 many new plants
have been named, and some of the names of the old plants have been
altered. A most useful chapter on Elementary Botany is contained at the
beginning of Vol. I. This is to some extent also a glossary of botanical
terms, but of course it cannot take the place of _A Glossary of Botanic
Terms_, by D. G. Jackson, 1905.
In many ways a much more useful book to the forester is Engler’s
_Monographien der Pflanzenfamilien_, of which eight volumes have
appeared:
I. Moraceæ, excluding Ficus.
II. Melastomaceaæ.
III. Combretaceæ Combretum.
IV. Combretaceæ, excluding Combretum.
V. Sterculiaceæ.
VI. Anonaceæ.
VII. Strophanthus.
VIII. Sapotaceæ.
The full-page black-and-white drawings of the various plants are very
valuable, and as they are all done on the same system, comparison both
with the plants and with other books is not very difficult. The expense
of these volumes is not excessive, considering the very large number of
illustrations and the authority of the text. It is a pity that this
series has for the time being come to an end.
In Engler’s _Pflanzenfamilien_, of course, a very complete account of
all plants is given, and the additions to it made almost monthly make it
quite possible to find out the latest-named additions to the plant-
world. The only disadvantage to these volumes is their number, size, and
lack of illustrations.
[Illustration: FIG. 108.—=Shinglewood (Terminalia scutifera), 12 feet in
girth, standing in the Ikrigon Forest Reserve, Eastern Circle.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 109.—=Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa), 15 feet in girth,
standing in Ikrigon Forest Reserve.=]
[Illustration: FIG. 110.—=Mahogany (Khaya Senegalensis) standing at the
edge of Ikrigon Forest Reserve, showing base of trunk with old bark
wounds already healed over.=]
To face p. 496.
In a similar, though in a less complete way _The Kew Bulletin_ gives the
latest list of plants identified at Kew, amongst which are usually some
from Nigeria, and occasionally special bulletins appear on the plants
from Nigeria—as, for instance, _Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information_,
Additional Series No. 9; _The Useful Plants of Nigeria_, Part I, 1908,
Part II, Additional Series No. 10, 1912, Part III.
_The Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, edited by Sir W. Dunstan,
which appears quarterly, always contains the most recent information
with regard to tropical products, including those of the forest. In
recent years, too, much more has appeared on the subject of the timber,
gum and oil-seed resources of Nigeria.
_Die Blütenpflanzen Afrikas_, by Franz Thonner, 1908, arranged as it is
in the form of a key, is most useful in identifying many of the plants
and trees. The black-and-white illustrations add immensely to its value.
Additions and corrections to this have also been made in _Die
Blütenpflanzen Afrikas_, 1913. The last edition is in English, and
entitled _The Flowering Plants of Africa_.
Among more recent books is a _Catalogue of Plants_ collected by Mr. and
Mrs. Talbot in the Oban district, South Nigeria, identified by A. B.
Rendle, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., and others, and brought out by the British
Museum in 1913. In this book the flora of Oban is specially dealt with,
and clearly shows the difference between it and the rest of the flora
and silva of Nigeria. Although this is mainly a description of newly
discovered plants, the black-and-white illustrations by Mrs. Talbot show
most accurately their salient features.
_Notes on Nigerian Trees and Plants_, by E. W. Foster, late Senior
Conservator of Forests, contains accurate descriptions of the most
useful trees, and the native names from the Yoruba country will be most
useful to anyone working timber in that part of Nigeria.
_The Agricultural and Forest Products of British West Africa_, by G. C.
Dudgeon, Director-General of Agriculture in Egypt, 1911, gives a short
description of the main forest and agricultural products of the country,
which is more useful to the trader than the forester or timber merchant.
The illustrations showing the making of palm oil and other country
products are very interesting, but Fig. 21, p. 112, supposed to be of an
Iroko tree, is in reality that of _Terminalia superba_.
For reference purposes Dr. Adolf Engler’s _Syllabus der
Pflanzenfamilien_, 1904, which takes special account of the medicinal
and useful plants, is most valuable.
For a proper introduction to Botany, Strasburger’s _Text Book of Botany_
is hard to beat.
_Kulturgewächse der Deutschen Kolonien_, by R. Sadebeck, 1899, gives a
very good account of most of the useful West African forest products;
the very clear illustrations add immensely to its value, although the
book is now somewhat out of date.
3. TIMBERS.
In _The Timbers of Commerce and their Identification_, by Herbert Stone,
F.L.S., F.R.C.I., 1904, a few of the West African timber trees are
mentioned, but only very cursorily, with but few illustrations.
In _Timber_, by J. R. Baterden, A.M.I.C., a few of the West African
timber trees are described, and a few photographs show how the timber is
worked. Their inclusion amongst the South African timbers does not
exactly enhance their value or give a true view of their place in the
economy of the timber trade.
_Wood_, by G. S. Boulger, gives an excellent system for classifying
woods by using all their various characteristics, such as taste, smell,
hardness, structure of the timber, and the various pith rays and other
peculiarities. A very complete list of all the various timbers used in
commerce is given, together with the various synonyms of each, and the
botanical names of each so far as they are known. The uses of the timber
and the supplies of each country are given, and in this way it is a most
important book of reference for any Forest Officer.
4. FORESTRY GENERALLY.
In _Sylviculture in the Tropics_, by A. F. Broun, Director of Woods and
Forests, Soudan, 1912, some references are made to West African trees.
Some very typical photographs of forest vegetation in various parts of
the Tropics are very useful, and demonstrate several forest theories far
better than pages of words.
_A Dictionary of the World’s Commercial Products_, by J. A. Slater,
B.A., LL.B., 1907, is very useful for looking up the lesser known forest
products. The descriptions have to be used with discrimination, as some
of them are rather cursory and no authorities for botanical names are
given.
_Gold Coast Report of Forests_, by Mr. H. N. Thompson, Chief Conservator
of Forests, South Nigeria, 1910, is the authoritative work on the
Forestry problems of the Gold Coast. Full descriptions of the chief
forests are given, together with the important plants and trees found in
each. The laws of South Nigeria as modified to suit Gold Coast
conditions are also quoted. Forest policy as suitable for this country
is given; the different types of forest and their relation to the
climatic formations are also mentioned at length. A suitable
establishment carrying out these suggestions is laid down. The black-
and-white drawings which illustrate this book, especially those of
mahogany, are invaluable to either the Forestry student or the timber
merchant.
_The Oil Palm and its Varieties_, by J. H. J. Farquhar, Conservator of
Forests, Nigeria, is an interesting and useful preliminary monograph on
that most valuable tree. It gives a summary of all the information of
the Forest Department on that subject up to that date.
_List of Trees, Shrubs and Climbers of the Gold Coast, Ashantee, and
North Territories_, T. F. Chipp, B.Sc., F.L.S.; _Der Tropenwirt_, by Dr.
S. Loskin, Hinstorff’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Wismar i. U., 1913; _The
Principal Forest Trees_, by H. N. Whitford, Ph.D., Bulletin No. 10,
Manila Bureau of Printing, 1911, are three useful books.
_The Kew Bulletin_ and the _Journal of the Imperial Institute_ always
contain most valuable notes on the botanical and technical qualities of
the various African trees and plants.
_The Indian Forester_, which appears monthly, is a most necessary
periodical for every Forest Office or Timber Camp, containing as it does
not only original articles on sylvicultural and other forest problems,
but also much information on the uses of timbers, similar kinds of which
are found here, and thus gives one an indication in what direction to
exploit new timbers.
_In the Guiana Forest_, by Jas. Rodway, is a very readable book on the
tropical forest scenery found in Demarara. It is, of course, written in
very popular style, but gives one a very good introduction to the
tropical forest, showing both by beautiful descriptions and good
illustrations what one should observe in these forests. Much tropical
scenery is very similar, and therefore, though this book deals with
British Guiana, much of it is applicable to West African forests.
_Forestry_, by Dr. Adam Schwappach, gives a short, concise account of
what is included under the term Forestry in Europe. One obtains a clear
view of the divisions under which this subject is treated.
_The Trees, Shrubs, Herbs and Climbers of Sierra Leone_, by C. E. Lane
Poole, Government of Sierra Leone, is the most important collection of
notes yet issued on this subject. It should prove of greatest use to
Forest Officers, and to all others interested in the forests and
afforestation.
Much useful information has been obtained from the annual Reports on the
administration of the Forest Department from the years 1906 to 1913,
more especially from that of 1906, which practically summarized the
results of the Department’s work up to that date. Data on Togo are
contained in the report of the afforestation of Togo with teak and other
African timber trees. This was the result of a long tour in that country
made by the author in 1911. From Sierra Leone much valuable knowledge
was acquired as a result of a five months’ tour made in 1908-9, and this
was embodied in a report which appeared in 1909. Very useful information
is contained in the reports by the Conservator of Forests there, which
have appeared since. A most extensive account of the forest trees and
plants, including the Oil Palm, is given in _Les Végétaux utiles de
l’Afrique tropicale française_, by M. Chevalier, Parts I and II, 1909,
1910 (A. Challamel), chiefly in connection with the Ivory Coast.
In the _Notizblatt_ of the Berlin Botanical Station are some useful
notes on _Die Nutz Holzer der Kamerun_, 1909. Also in the pamphlets _Die
Nutz Holzer Togos_, Parts I and II. In this manner it is possible to
make a comparative study of the timber trees found in the different
parts of West Africa. The addition of the native names in most cases is
also very valuable.
INDEX
Abá, (Tschaudjo), 127
Ababele (Appolonian), 96
Abache (Benin), 392
Abadan (Yoruba), 251
Abafe (Yoruba), 298
Abakaliki District, 472, 473
Abange (Jaunde), 442
Abara (Yoruba), 340
Abari (Appolonian), 108
Abba, or Abbo Rubber (Lagos), 251
Abbis (Mendi), 441
Abe (Fanti), 93; A. fita or A. fufu (Gold Coast), 466; A. Obene, 466
Abeletia (Appolonian), 93.
Abeokuta Province, 152, 154, 158, 160, 236, 240, 243, 246, 247, 249,
251, 252, 259, 260, 262, 263, 266, 269, 270, 275, 277, 279, 280, 282,
284, 286, 287, 288, 291, 294, 296, 299, 300, 303, 306, 309, 310, 313,
317, 322, 325, 329, 330, 333, 335, 336, 339, 340, 342, 343, 345, 347,
348, 350, 353, 362, 366, 370, 371, 374, 381, 383, 389, 391, 395, 400,
401, 409
Abere (Yoruba), 269
Abi or Yar River, 82
Abilu (Tschaudjo), 145
Ablari (Fanti), 107
Abo (Attie), 86, 262, 366; (Yoruba), 334; (Efik), 390; A. Asha
(Ibadan), 337; A. Idofun (Yoruba), 269; A. jaga (Yoruba), 344; A.
Lakosha (Yoruba), 265; A. oganwo (Yoruba), 317
Aboboë (Atakpame), 144
Abochia, 445, 446
Abolo (Benin), 343
Abonnemma (Owerri Province), 477
Abono (Mbonoi), 83
Aborkpor (Benin), 385
Aborpor (Benin), 230
Abragba, 168
Abubube (Gold Coast), 466
Abue (Egbado, Yoruba), 267
Abugie (Mendi), 57
Abura (Yoruba), 230
Aburese baka (Agni), 89
Aburuhi (Fanti), 88
Abuwe (Yoruba), 326
Abwang (Bare), 425
Acacia, 19, 204, 212, 232, 234, 299
Albida, 199; (_var._ saccharata), 191, 208, 220
Arabica, 132, 148, 202, 208, 219
Ataxacantha, 301
Benin Rope, 301
Caffra, 220
Campylacantha, 191, 199, 208, 220, 300
Catechu, 98, 122, 125, 131
de Gabon (Colons), 85
Farnesiana, 300, 418
Forests, 197
macrostachys, 220
pennata, 299
Senegalensis, 199, 208
Seyal, 198, 199, 208, 220
Sieberiana, 98, 191, 199, 201, 202, 208, 219, 220, 299
Suma, 131
Thorny, 220
Whitethorn, 208
Acalypha, 193
Acantha montana, 113, 197
Acanthaceæ, Gold Coast, 113; Nigeria, 194, 197, 401; Cameroons, 441
Acrocephalus polytrichus, 195
Adabi (Yoruba), 400
Adadasé (Ewe), 144
Adadawa (Wassaw), 96
Adani (Akwa), 393
Adansonia digitata, 53, 105, 116, 118, 138, 190, 210, 223, 347, 435
Adder’s tongue, 196
Adema or Baba (Ewe), 132
Adenium Honghel, 199
Adenocarpus Mannii, 430
Ade-pa (Gold Coast), 466
Adere (Lagos), 367; (Yoruba), 374
Adiantum lunulatum, 196; A. Schweinfurthii, 196
Adi-be (Gold Coast), 466
Adido (Ewe), 138
Adina microcephala, 145, 192, 214, 225, 231, 232, 233; A. macrophylla,
441
Adja or Adza (Ewe), 137; (Ibo), 228; (Ibo, Asaba), 292; Adja tree, 445
Adjonde (Ebrie), 83
Adom (Jaunde), 442
Adowa (Appolonien), 94; A. and Dupain (Ashanti), 94
Adua or Aduwa (Hausa), 198, 210
Adube (Fanti), 93
Adudze (Ewe), 135
Adugbin (Ibadan, Yoruba), 281
Aduruku, 192; A. _syn._ Ba reshe, 225
Adyanyapeso (Tschaudjo), 135
Adyokŭkola (Tschaudjo), 129
Adzadze (Ewe), 137
Ægle Barteri, 312
Æolanthus, 195
Aeyedi (Quitta), 94
Afana (Twi), 101
Afara (Yoruba), 179, 230, 263, 371
Afe (Yoruba), 233, 262
Affi (Ibadan and Oyo), 248
Affram (Twi), 96; A. River, 98
Afikpo District, 466, 472, 473, 493
Afoforo (Egba) or Abo-fero (Yoruba), 249
Afoma (Mistletoe-like parasite), 170; (Yoruba), 246
Aforwa (Wassaw), 103
Aframomum, 128
Africa, British East, 189; Forest, Central, 189; Forest escape, 175;
Africa, 293
African (West) Allspice, 374
Apricot (Colons), 88
Barwood, 178
Blackwood, 26, 46; W. African B., 297
Brazil nuts, 368
Bread fruit, 123, 256
Cabbage Tree, 62; Big leaf C.T., 409
Catechu, 300
Coffee, 63
Copaiba Balsam Tree or Copaivi, 205, 221, 307
Ebony, 192, 214
“Elemi Tree,” 221, 315
Elm, 248, 249
Greenheart, 48, 153, 269; Light G., 279, 286, 287, 384, 416, 419
Indigo, 221
Kapok, 345
Kino, 206
Lignumvitæ, 446
Lilac, 222
(West) Locust Bean, 207, 282, 283
Mahogany, 20, 120, 135, 149, 175, 205, 222; Togo Plantations of M.,
149; Nigeria, 175
(West) Mahogany, 211, 422, 423
Mammee or Mammy Apple, 29, 55, 363, 462
Maple, 351
Mistletoe, 259
Myrrh, 198, 211
Nutmeg, 264, 457
Oak, 26, 27, 32, 42, 51, 54, 67, 70, 75, 77, 86, 179, 209, 253, 255,
342, 356, 358, 403
Padowk, 273, 274
Palm, 236
Pearwood, 28, 29, 57, 67, 68, 375
Pepper, 219
Redwood, 178
Rosewood, 31, 34, 221, 273, 299
Rubber tree, 58, 68, 395
Satinwood, 371; Dry Zone Satinwood, 309, 311
Star apple, 58, 69, 381
Strychnos Tree, 389
Teak (English name), 86, 253, 256; small-fruited, 256
(West) Timbers, 293
Tragacantha, 54, 348
Tulip tree, 400
Violetwood, 26, 46
Walnut, 28, 49, 67, 74, 75, 101, 177, 328; West African W., 178,
293, 326, 445, 446
Whitewood, 418
Wisteria, 302
Wood-oil nut, 163, 332, 333 418
Yellow wood, 259
Afrormosia elata, 271, 352; A. laxiflora, 66, 73, 97, 119, 158, 191,
201, 202, 221, 230, 251; A. sp., 219
Afzelia, 19, 117, 124, 125, 132, 290, 450; Calabar A., 291; Forest A.,
291
Africana (Rhodesian Mahogany), 17, 26, 47, 97, 117, 118, 120, 121,
159, 179, 190, 191, 202, 205, 220, 229, 271, 290, 291, 292, 418,
422, 430, 445, 446
bella, 291
bracteata, 47, 67, 292
Brownei, 97
Cuanzensis, 290, 291
fastigiata, 97
(Kontah), 32
microcarpa, 82, 84
Nov. sp., 291
pachyloba, 291, 416, 419
red-arilled, 290
sp., 47, 290
Zenkeri, 430, 417
Aga (Yoruba), 233 or Agbawo, 252
Agan Aparo (Yoruba), 408
Aganokwi (Benin), 17, 375, 378; A. No. I, 376
Agave rigida, 117; A. Sisalana, 128
Agba, 159; A. of the Benis, 229; (Ikale, Benin), 304, 353; (West
Side), 361, 393
Agbana (Ewe), 129
Agbara (Ikale), 278
Agbarin (Yoruba), 299
Agbede, 298
Agberibede (Yoruba), 232; Agberigeddi, 277
Agboin (Yoruba), 229, 279
Agbon (Benin), 244
Agedegbo (Benin), 260, 263
Agege (Yoruba), 396; A. Yoruba Country, 396
Agelæa obliqua, 96, 196
Ageratum conyzoides, 194
Aggan Egbo (Egba), 383
Aghaghe (Yoruba), 267
Aghako (Yoruba), 262
Agiekpogo (Benin), 325
Agkwokhau (Benin), 266
Agniere (Ebrie), 83
Agnon (Abe), 83
Ago (Quitta, Krepi, Accra), 93
Agoma (Benin), 381
Agome Mts., 142
_Agricultural Chemistry_, by Johnson and Cameron, 483
Agricultural College, E. and W. Scotland, 482
Agricultural land fixed by the older civilized countries, 485
Agricultural Society of England, Royal, 483
Agu (Togo), 477; A. Plantation, 469; A. Valley, 125
Aguana (Benin), 400
Aguaya (Ebrie), 86
Agui (Ebrie), 83
Agumua (Tschaudjo), 132
Agutesi (Krepi), 105
Aguwa, 199
Ahedua (Twi), 97
Ahoada District, 173, 255, 472
Ahon or Ahun (Yoruba), 231, 390
Ai-da (Yoruba), _cf._ Kalango daji and Sandan Mayu, 220
Aiko (Yoruba), 235
Aini (Egba), 394
Ainyere (Appolonian), 100
Ainyesan (Benin), 230
Aiomiti (Kirikiri), 141
Aiu (Krepi), 94
Aiveygbo (Egbado, Yoruba), 335
Aiye (Ondo), 230; (Yoruba), 267
Aiyeni (Egbado, Benin), 267
Aiyo (Egba), 249; (Yoruba), 290, 370
Aja-igi or Aja-iji (Yoruba), 229, 286
Ajama (Krepi), 95; (West Coast), 95
Ajasso Reserve, 160
Ajia (Yoruba), 278; (Ibo Asaba), 281
Ajumkobi (Ashanti), 99
Ajurlo (Krepi), 103
Aka (Yoruba), 285, 340; A. Ishin, 340
Akak (Timani), 46
Akaka (Jaunde), 442
Akala (Yoruba), 382
Akapano (Benin), 407
Akara (Atakpame), 141
Akassa (Warri Province), 410
Akata (Twi, Denkira), 105; (Benin), 393
Akbo (Ibo, Asaba), 345
Akboro (Benin), 419
Ake or Akhe (Mbonoi), 83; (Atakpame), 146; (Benin), 392
Akede (Abe), 83
Akee (Tree), 61, 69, 76; A. Apple, 222, 341; Bush A., 342
Akhuro (seed, Benin), 298
Aki (Asante), 137
Akika or Aka, 338, 340
Akiko or Agliko (Atakpame), 136
Akilla Timber Works, 160
Akinale (Tschaudjo), 144
Akinrankiri (Benin), 257
Akion (Ebrie), 83
Akiti (Ibo Owerri), 336
Akiye or Akwiye (seeds), 220
Akkihien (Benin), 295
Akkun (Yoruba), 339, 340
Aklo (Anecho), 133
Ako (Benin), 260, 263; (Yoruba) 179, 229, 236, 270, 277, 315, 330,
366, 375, 489; A. bolobolo (Yoruba), 344; A. gbogbonshe, 264; A.
Idofun (Yoruba), 269; A.-ire, 233, 395; A. ledo (Yoruba), 396
Akodiombi or Zakuebiembi (Attie), 88
Akodo (Mbonoi), 85
Akoima (Agni), 88
Akoko (Benin), 350; (Yoruba), 401
Akokotsua (Fanti), 88
Akomu (Yoruba), 231, 266
Akondog (Jaunde), 442
Akoriko (Yoruba), 231
Akorüe (Indenie), 88
Akosica (Abe), 88
Akoso (Benin), 372
Akotompo (Fanti), 84
Akouibia (Fanti), 88
Akpaboyo Road, 469
Akpakpa (Ibo), 229
Akpakossa (Benin), 406
Akpakpla (Anago), 139
Akpaku (Ibo, Asaba), 328
Akpanagya (Benin), 272; Akpan Etuidiwi (Efik), 274
Akpanya (Efik), 277, 278
Akpe (Ibo), 231
Akplẽ or Loloẽ (Ewe), 138
Akpo, 413
Akpoklo or Bofuti (Ewe), 138
Akposso, 131
Akronkron (Accra), 105
Aku (Atakpame), 136; Akus, 61
Akuana (Agni), 85
Akũgre (Kpedyi), 133
Akukan (Quitta) (Krepi), 103
Akukobasa (Ewe), 146
Akumasse (Fanti), 86, 87
Akume (Benin), 273, 311
Akun (Yoruba), 231
Akuosi, Ambi (Fanti), 85
Akure Province, 322
“Akushi” (native basin), 212
Akushunmajadin (Ikale), 285
Akwabohori (Fanti), 100
Akwabu (Mbonoi), 85
Akwankusuma (Fanti), 85
Akwantanuro (Fanti), 101
Akwarri (Ibo, Asaba), 392
Akwayefe District, 415, 416, 419; A. River, 151, 152
Akwekwe (Benin), 313
Ala (Ewe), 127
Alabata (Atakpame), 131
Alabenum, 87
Alabeta Province, 275
Alade (Ikale), 285
Alãfe (Ewe), 134
Alafia Landolphioides, 395
Alale (Hausa), 222, 228, 229
Alambo, 219, 221
Alangiaceæ (Cameroons), 438
Alangium begonifolium, 438
Alapari (Yoruba), 312
Alasko, 263
Alati (Quitta, Krepi), 93
Alayafu, 195
Albert Lake, 189
Albizzia, 26, 48, 73, 125, 172, 293, 294, 295
Albruana, 98
Amara, 148
Angolensis, 98, 131
Boji, 290
Brownii, 48, 78, 98, 163, 175, 178, 229, 293, 294, 296
Cæsalpinia, 123
Chevalieri, 191, 199, 208
fastigiata, 48, 73, 84, 98, 131, 229, 293, 294, 296
ferruginea, 84
Lebbek, 29, 175
rhombifolia, 84, 295
sp., 73, 293, 294, 295, 296, 418
stipulata, 148; A. Welwitchii, 429
Alchornea cordata, 197, 203, 204; A. cordifolia, 136, 434; A.
floribunda, 434; A. sp., 86
Alembole (Tschaudjo), 139
Alensuneku (Atakpame), 138
Alepo (Yoruba), 325
Aleurites Moluccana, 421
Ali (Timani), 46
Aligna (Benin), 79; A. (or Adya), 229, 282, 290, 291, 292, 450
Alikongeba (Yoruba), 419
Aliliba or aliliba, 215, 224, 230
Alinyan (Benin), 301
Alismataceæ (Nigeria), 195
Allahbanunu (Agni), 88
Allanblackia floribunda, 55, 107, 363, 461; A. parviflora, 87
Allerle (Benin), 396
Alligator apple, 71, 262
Allophyllus Africana, 76, 137
Almeidina, 277
Almond Tree, 122; A. wood (Coula edulis), 33; Indian A. Tree, 421
Alobla (Kpedyi), 134
Alode (Benin), 413
Aloe Barteri, 128, 195; A. Buettneri, 128
Alofin (Jebu), 230
Alongua (Bondoukou), 89
Alsodeia, sp., 55, 108
Alstonia Congensis, 26, 58, 88, 111, 119, 143, 231, 390, 419, 440
Alu (Ewe), 135
Alukon raba (Yoruba), 230
Alum bark, 61
Amaké (Ewe), 146
Amanoa bracteata, 51
Amaranthaceæ (Nigeria), 195
Amaranthus caudatus, 195; A. viridis, 195
Amaryllidaceæ (Togo), 128; (Nigeria), 195
Ambriz, 465
Ameliki (Timani), 62
Amellaky (or Egbessye of S. Leone) (Benin), 401
Ameme (Benin), 252
Amerere (Agni), 85, 88
America (S.), 185; A. exotics, 175; A. “whitewood,” 260
Amhio (Bondoukou), 87
Amizi Agni, 84
Ammannia Senegalensis, 192
Amorphophallus Barteri, 195; A. dracontioides, 196
Amoyin (Egba), 289
Ampelideæ (Nigeria), 193, 197, 203
Ampelocissus, 193
Amphiblemma polyneuron, 438
Amu-ati (Ewe), 144; A. Ne (New Calabar), 361
Amuan (Attie), 85
Ana River (Togo), 117
Anacardiaceæ (S. Leone), 52; (Liberia), 75; (Ivory Coast), 86; (Gold
Coast), 103; (Togo), 136; (Nigeria), 191, 196, 198, 212, 222, 338,
459; (Cameroons), 434
Anacardium occidentale, 136, 222, 338; A. sp., 340
Anaküe (Mbonoi), 84
Anamolum (Tschaudjo), 130
Anamomila or Anamomilla (Benin), 226, 228, 412
Ananas, 127
Anane (Axim), 107
Anaphe Moloneyi (Wild silkworm), 206; A. sp., 207, 216
Anaphrenium, 191
Anchi (Fanti), 101
Anchomanes Dalzielii, 196
Ancistrophyllum, 70; A. sp., 93
Andira inermis, 134
Andoni River, 151
Andropogon apricus, 201; A. Gayensis, 201; A. sorghum, 127; A.
tectorum, 201
Andropogoneæ, 196, 199
Aneilema, A. lanceolatum, A. sinicum, 195
Anglo-French saw-mills, 159
Anglocalyx ramiflorus, 296
Angowma, 422
Angular pod, 284
Anikantuhu (Yoruba), 315
Anikiba (Benin), 407
Anisophyllea laurina (monkey apple), 33, 54
Ankent (Timani), 41
Ankump (Timani), 41
Annatto (orange dye), 364
Anogeissus, 56; A. leiocarpus, 108, 120, 123, 140, 167, 179, 192, 212,
223, 232, 234, 373, 489; A. sp., 88
Anona, 342; A. afzelii, 263; A. Mannii, 263; A. muricata, 71; A.
palustris, 71, 95, 262; A. Senegalensis, 59, 190, 201, 202, 219, 262;
A. sp., 130
Anonaceæ (S. Leone), 43; (Liberia), 71; (Ivory Coast), 84; (Gold
Coast), 95; (Togo), 129; (Nigeria), 190, 196, 219, 259, 457
Anopyxis ealænsis, 108
Ansellia, 201; A. Congoensis, 195
Ant Trees (Musimba), 437
Anthericum, 195
Anthocleista Kerstingii, 142; A. magnifica, 110; A. nobilis, 58, 88,
110, 203, 224; A. parviflora, 58, 224; A. sp., 110; A. Vogelii, 197,
224
Antholyza Zenkeri, 425
Anthostema Senegalense, 51
Antiaris, 70, 249; A. Africana, 95, 129; A. sp., 95, 250; A. toxiaria,
83, 129, 231, 250, 426
Antidesma anbryanthum, 103; A. laciniatum, 51, 103, 434; A. sp., 336;
A. venosum, 103, 336
Anwai District, 392; A. River, 353, 392
Anyan (Efik), 229
Anyeran (Benin), 158, 271, 352
Anyesan (Benin), 271
Anyi (Anago), 140
Anyo, 391
Anyolo (Timani), 60
Apa (Rhodesian Mahogany), 120, 159; (African Oak, Yoruba), 179, 229,
291, 292; A. oro (Yoruba), 389, 450
Apado (Yoruba), 230, 449; (Abeokuta), 281
Apagban (Yoruba), 269
Apakka (Anago), 132
Apapa (near Lagos), 481; A. Saw mill, 159, 160
Apapo (Yoruba), 302
Apara (Yoruba), 178, 231, 303
Apassa, 159; (Efik), 229, 379
Apata, 336, 343, 379; A. Wood (Benin), 336
Ape (Attie), 87
Apepe (Yoruba), 231, 273
Aphania, 104
Aphanocalyx sp., 84
Apiko (Yoruba), 344
Apobo (Jekri, Ijor), 326
Apocynaceæ (S. Leone), 58; (Liberia), 78; Ivory Coast, 88; (Gold
Coast), 110; (Togo), 142; (Nigeria), 192, 197, 199, 224, 390, 394,
459; (Cameroons), 440
Apodytes Beninensis, 104
Apokpo (Anecho), 138
Appapayi or Wausauwah (Twi), 101; (Fanti), 101
Apple tree compared with Fagara, 134
Appolonia, 95; Appolonians, 109
Apukur (Mbonoi), 88
Apurro (Twi), 101
Aqua egbua (Agni), 88
Ara (Yoruba), 231, 273
Arab, 217
Araba (Yoruba), 231, 345, 346
Arabmetu (Adionkron), 84
Arac Palm, 244
Arachi (Ibo, Asaba), 275, 292
Arachis hypogæa, 192
Aragbaihi (Benin), 401
Arajon, 445, 446
Arakpa (Benin), 275
Araliaceæ (S. Leone), 56; (Togo), 140; (Nigeria), 192, 213, 224, 375;
(Cameroons), 438
Aramoho (Benin), 400
Aranhe (Mbonoi), 85
Ararabi (Hausa), 221
Arasa (Yoruba), 337
Arasha (Ondo), 335
Areca catechu, 177
Arenga saccharifera, 177
Arere (Appolonian), 93; A. Tree, 153, 178; (Yoruba), 230, 351, 352
Argemone Mexicana, 193
Argentine, 491
Aridan (Yoruba), 231, 284; A. Abatta, 282
Aril, yellow, 291
Aristida, 196, 202
Aristolochia alba, 195
Aristolochiaceæ (Nigeria), 195
Aroba (Mbonoi), 84
Aro Boro (Yoruba), 303
Aroid, 197
Aroideæ (Nigeria), 195
Arojoku (Yoruba), 400
Aroko (Onitsha Province), 297
Aroro (Benin), 335; (Yoruba), 336
Arquane (Mbonoi), 88
Arrow-poison climber, 192
Artabotrys sp., 264
Artocarpus incisa, 122, 148, 218
Arugbo, 412
Arundo donax, 201
Asa bogüie (Agni), 86; A. Gidi, 338
Asaba District, 189, 266, 353, 391, 392, 393, 395
Asama (Mbonoi), 85
Asana (Yoruba), 288, 330
Asclepiadaceæ (S. Leone), 59; (Gold Coast), 112; (Nigeria), 192, 199
Asclepias lineolata, 192
Ase (Jaunde), 442
Asemigniri (Mbonoi), 84
Ash (European), 316
Asha (Yoruba), 335; (Oudo), 335; (Ibadan), 337; A. omode (Yoruba),
331; A. ragha (Yoruba), 335
Ashanti, 95; A. natives, 105; Ashanti Report (Gold Coast and Northern
Territory), by Mr. H. N. Thompson, 91
Ashasha of the Yorubas, 231, 355
Ashuwole (Yoruba), 278
Asia, 185
Asihuë (Atakpame), 131
Askale (Ikale), 304
Asofeyeje (Yoruba), 393
Asogedaka (Atakpame), 136
A-sog-e-jub, 470
Asokoru (Apollonian), 102
Asologun (musical instrument), wood of Alstonia, 391
Asoma (Fanti), 102
Asoroa (Aowin), 102
Asparagus Pauli-Guilelmi (Tree), 42, 195
Aspidosperma Quebracho, 123, 124, 148
Aspillia, 194
Asre (Yoruba, Egbado), 304
Asses bread, 435
Assi (Benin), 335
Assihato (Agni), 85
Assinie River and Town, 81, 82
Assivi (Benin), 335
Assomah (Twi), 102
Assoro (Twi), 109
Assun (Benin), 407
Astragalus gummifer, 54
Astrochlæna, 194
Asuaindokun (Aowin), 107
Asukole (Ikale), 304
Asunwon (Yoruba), 270
Aswen (Benin), 288
Asystasia Coromandeliana, 197
Ata (Anago), 134; (Yoruba), 232, 233, 309; A. frifridi (Ibo, Asaba),
395
Ataka (Ibo, Asaba), 303; Atakapuresossi (Tschaudjo), 130
Atakpame, 117, 122, 123, 131, 469
Atakpati (Atakpame), 135
Atakpla (Atakpame), 132
Atawa (Ashanti), 103
Atawah or Altawah (Twi), 97
Atidje (Atakpame), 135
Atikuzẽ (Ewe), 131
Atillis (Hausa), 221
Atisiā (Ewe), 136
Atite (Ewe), 133
Atiyi (Ewe), 134
Atolaie (Mbonoi), 83
Atont (Timani), 46
Atore (Efik), 325
Atori (Oban, Ekoi), 323; (Yoruba), 324
Atropa Belladonna, 488
Atsan (Attie), 83
Atta (Eflk), 260, 363
Attagbo (Yoruba), 301; (Benin), 310
Attagura, 218
Attan (Benin), 408
Attenli (Aowin), 96
Atwen (Mbonoi), 83
Atwaba (Fanti), 103
Au River (Togo), 117
Aubrya Gabunensis, 308
Augor (Benin), 179, 235, 236
Augwameatee (Aowin), 97
Auro (Yoruba), 312
Ause (Yoruba), 265
Austria-Hungary, 492
Austrian Markets, 325, 326
Autopoi (Ibo, Asaba), 392
Auwolo (Akposso), 132, 138
Avenya (Ewe), 147
Avicennia Africana, 60, 113, 144, 234, 397; (allied to A.
officinalis), 144; A. tomentosa, 440
Avogola or Awogolu (Ewe), 129
Awa (Attie), 87
Awabima (Twi), 106
Awasse (Abe), 87
Awaw District, 394; A. (Yoruba), 297; (Benin), 297
Awe (Yoruba), 331, 337
Awenu (Yoruba), 287
Awesu (Jekri), 228
Awessu (Jekri), 402
Awewe (Yoruba), 342
Awewi (Lagos, Yoruba), 288
Awigbi (Benin), 358
Awin (Ib.), 289
Awipu (Benin), 299
Awka Plantation, 167
Awoa (Yoruba), 266
Awolo (Atakpame), 136
Awong (Jaunde), 442
Awow (Benin), 297
Awowo, 465
Awraw (Egbado), 347
Awshun, 170
Awun (Yoruba), 231, 390
Axim Forests, 17
Aya, 196; Aya Aya, 196
Ayagdo (Yoruba), 400
Aye (Yoruba), 256
Ayeye (Yoruba), 408
Ayibukpo (Eflk), 292
Ayin (Yoruba), 179, 232, 271, 373, 489
Ayinre (Yoruba), 178, 294, 295; Ayinre Ayinre (Yoruba), 296; A.
bonabona (Yoruba), 229, 294; A. eta (Yoruba), 229; A. langara (Egba,
Yoruba), 293, 295; A. ogo, 293, 295; Ayinretta (Yoruba), 296
Ayo (Yoruba), 370
Ayobo-Osuke Road, 297
Azimommon (Benin), 339
Azodo (Abe), 87
Ba-fini, 233; Ba-jini, _syn._ Jina-jina (Sok. and Zanf.), 219; Ba-
reshe, 225; Ba-ruwana, _syn._ Rimni (Sok.), 218; Ba-Zanfare (Katagum),
_syn._ Rai dore, 220
Baba (Ewe), 132
Bäbäle (Atakpame), 134
“Babool,” Indian, 208
Baboon Kola, 54
Babu (Yoruba), 266
Baccaurea Bonneti, 86
Bada, 193
Badagri, Trading Station, 151
Badagry, 465; Badagry District, 264
Bagarumar makka (Sok.), 219
Bagarwa (Hausa), 208, 219
Bagi (Mendi), 56
Bago, River, 487
Baka-biringui (Abe), 86
Bakahehessi (Agni), 85
Bakana (Port), 152
Bakasa (Attie), 88
Bakau (Fanti), 83
Bakbaboi (Mendi), 48
Bakbwi, or Bpakpei (Mendi), 48
Bakiesu (Atakpame), 134
Bakin makarfo, 220
Bakossi Road, 417; B. Forest, 417
Bākū (Tschaudjo), 133
Bakum (Timani), 55
Bakundu Natives, 417
Bälä (Afem), 136
Balakenta (Timani), 48
Balangi (musical instrument), 46
Balanites Ægyptica, 198, 210, 453
Balanophoraceæ (Nigeria), 197
Balata (rubber), 70, 252
Bale (Yoruba), 312
Baledia or Welengele (Tschaudjo), 130
Balong natives, 378, 417
Balsam Copaiba Tree, 97, 154, 205, 231, 307; B. apple, 193; B. of
Peru, 177, 421; B. of Tolu, 316; B. Tree, 221
Balsamodendron Africanum, 198, 211; B. pedunculatum, 198
Balsamodendron myrrha, 221
Balua (Attie), 89; Balua (Rosewood), 31
Balui (Mendi), 41
Bambi (Mendi), 41
Bamboos, 90; B. palm, 195, 216, 218; B. sp., 93, 117, 122, 127, 196,
234, 236
Bambus, 199
Bambuto Mts., 487
Bamenda District, 415
Bana (Attie), 83
Bananas, wild, 128, 147
Bandana River, 82
Bandonge (Duala), 440
Bang (Duala), 425
Banuke or Nje (Duala), 427
Baobab, 53, 105, 116, 118, 190, 207, 209, 223, 347, 435
Baphia, 430; B. Barombiensis, 430; B. nitida (Camwood), 31, 73, 84,
99, 133, 197, 204, 232, 287, 288; B. polygalaceæ, 48, 232, 288; B.
pubescens, 73, 197, 221, 232, 288; B. sp., 288
Bar nagoda (Hausa), 221
Bara (Tschaudjo), 145
Barabutu (Hausa), 218
Barambo (Gobir), 219
Barbaji _syn._ Tsibra or Tsura (Sok.), 225
Bariba or Biribi (Abe), 85
Barijuko, 189
Bark Bugs, 436; Bark exported, 444; Bark fibre, 128, 142
Baro, 189
Baro Kano Line, 159
Barteria aromatica, 437; B. fistulosa, 437
Barth, Dr., 198, 206, 207
Barwood or Nigerian Camwood, 31, 34, 35, 158, 229, 273, 417
Basamu (Sok. and Zanf.), 221
Basel Mission Timber Works, 443
Bassa-bassa (Benin), 232
Bassam, 423
Bassari (Togo), 117, 124; B. Savannah, 140, 143, 469
Batabue (Agni), 87
Batanga District, 429
Batwi (Mendi), 46
Bauchi (Highlands), 188, 190, 200, 204
Baugbaningbamu (Tschaudjo), 127
Bauhinia, 36, 169; B. Dry Zone, 298; B. Krughii, 148; B. reticulata,
97, 117, 133, 191, 201, 207, 252, 298; B. rufescens, 191, 201, 220,
298; B. Thonningii, 298
Bauji (E. Hausa), _syn._ Fara Raya, 219
Baulan Bolo (Degema, Calabar), 363
Bauren fadama; Bauren rafi, (Hausa), 218
Bauri (Hausa), 129
Baushe (Hausa), 192, 212, 222
Baut I. (Timani), 47
Bawie (Hausa), 193, 216, 218
Baya (Twi Kowin), 113
Bayama (Kontagora), _syn._ Gwazkiya, 220
Baywood, 20
Bazana (Hausa), 211; Banzano (Kano and Zaria), 221
Bead Head, 222; B. Tree, 331
Beari (Mendi), 57
Bebeti (Moyen Cavally), 89
Beckindanko (Hausa), 111, 393
Beckwith, Mr. H. (depericarping process), 477
Beech, 325; B. compared with Gum Copal, 36
Beef-Tree, Australian, 174
Beeswax, 226, 444
Befun people, 467
Begonia (rostrata), 197
Beguan (Attie), 84
Beibolei (Mendi), 53
Bek (Timani), 49
Belengbe (Kratschi), 139
Belgian Congo, 423, 424
Belvi (Mendi), 43
Bembe (Bambara), 87
Bembedo (Yoruba), 270
Bembu (Mangu), 134
Ben (seeds), 453
Bēnature (Mangu), 136
Bende, 19; B. noso (Tschaudjo), 130
Bendiguri (Mendi), 47
Bendwi or Bunduei (Mendi), 48
Benin, 153, 178, 236, 238, 240, 243, 245, 246, 247, 249, 250, 251,
252, 253, 254, 256, 257, 258, 260, 263, 264, 269, 271, 273, 276, 278,
279, 282, 284, 288, 289, 291, 297, 306, 310, 317, 324, 327, 329, 330,
333, 342, 343, 347, 348, 350, 367, 376, 381, 390, 393; B. arboretum,
177, 178, 243; B. cane or rattan, 240; B. City, 166, 175, 304; B.
Forests, 19, 168, 292; B. language, 185; B. market, 313; B. natives
and people, 163, 164, 243, 246, 249, 260, 264, 268, 278, 287, 298,
301; B. (North), 154, 158; B. nut, 258; B. Pearwood, 378; B. River,
151
Beniti (Agome), 131
Bentpod, 290, 307
Benué Region, 212, 215; B. River, 188, 189, 203, 204, 207
Beri (Mendi), 49
Berlinia, 19, 293
Berlinia acuminata, 47, 84, 99, 119, 133, 191, 230, 281, 282, 290,
418, 429, 449; B. auriculata, 68, 99, 230, 282, 429; B. Heudelotiana,
47, 99, 132, 197, 204; B. Kerstingii, 117, 118, 123, 133; B. sp., 416;
B. sp. near B. stipulaceæ, 47; B. tomentosa, 133; B. of the Waterside,
292
Berrya ammomilla, 176, 421
Bersama, Chippii, 104; B. Doeringii, 138
Bersama Paullinioides, 53
Bertiera glabrata, 61
Bessi, 44; B. (Ashanti), 106; B. Kpessei, 44
Betel nut palm, 177
Beteng (Aowin), 93
Betu oil or tree, 210, 453, 454
Beurre de Karité, 90
Bewa or Mano River, 69
Bewe-Bauban (Mendi), 52
Bibiabe (Attie), 86
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WEST AFRICAN FORESTS, 496-500
_Agricultural and Forest Products of British West Africa_, by G. C.
Dudgeon, Director-General of Agriculture in Egypt, 498
_Bulletin (Kew)_, 497-499
_Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information_, 497
_Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, ed. by Sir W. Dunstan, 497
_Catalogue of Plants_ collected by Mr. and Mrs. Talbot in the Oban
District, South Nigeria, 497
_Der Tropenwirt_, by Dr. S. Loskin, 499
_Dictionary of the World’s Commercial Products_, by J. A. Slater,
B.A., LL.B., 498
_Die Blütenpflanzen Afrikas_, by Franz Thonner, 497
_Forestry_, by Dr. Adam Schwappach, 499
_Forestry in West Africa_, by Sir Alfred Maloney, 496
_Glossary of Botanic Terms_, by D. G. Jackson, 496
_Gold Coast Report of Forests_, by H. N. Thompson, Chief Conservator
of Forests, South Nigeria, 499
_In the Guiana Forest_, by Jas. Rodway, 499
_Journal of an Expedition to Explore the Course and Termination of
the Niger_, 496
_Journal of the Imperial Institute_, 499
_Kulturgewächse der Deutschen Kolonien_, by R. Sadebeck, 498
_Les végétaux utiles de l’Afrique tropicale française_, by M.
Chevalier, 500
_List of Trees, Shrubs and Climbers of the Gold Coast, Ashantee and
Northern Territories_, by T. F. Chipp, B.Sc., F.L.S., 499
_Monographien der Pflanzenfamilien_, 8 vols. by Dr. Adolf Engler,
496-497
I. Moraceæ, excluding Ficus.
II. Melastomaceæ.
III. Combretaceæ Combretum.
IV. Combretaceæ, excluding Combretum
V. Sterculiaceæ.
VI. Anonaceæ.
VII. Strophanthus.
VIII. Sapotaceæ.
_Notes on Nigerian Trees and Plants_, by E. W. Foster, 497
_Notizblatt of the Berlin Botanical Station_, containing notes on
“Die Nutz Holzer der Kamerun,” 500
Pamphlets on _Die Nutz Holzer Togos_, 500
_Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien_, by Dr. Adolf Engler, 498
_Sylviculture in the Tropics_, by A. F. Broun, Director of Woods and
Forests, Soudan, 498
_Text Book of Botany_, by Strasburger, 498
_The Indian Forester_, 499
_The Oil Palm and its Varieties_, by J. H. J. Farquhar, Conservator
of Forests, (Nigeria), 499
_The Principal Forest Trees_, by H. W. Whitford, Ph.D., 499
_The Timbers of Commerce and their Identification_, by Herbert
Stone, F.L.S., F.R.C.I., 498
_The Trees, Shrubs, Herbs and Climbers of S. Leone_, by C. E. Lane
Poole, 499
_The Useful Plants of Nigeria_, 497
_Timber_, by J. R. Baterden, A.M.I.C., 498
_Wood_, by G. S. Boulger, 498
Bignoniaceæ (S. Leone), 60; (Liberia), 79; (Ivory Coast), 89; (Gold
Coast), 113; (Togo), 144; (Nigeria), 192, 197, 215, 225, 401;
(Cameroons), 441
Bijaje (Hausa), 218
Bilinga (Yoruba), 290, 292, 445; Benin Bilinga, 292, 417, 418, 422,
445, 446
Bimbi District, 429
Bimbwa, 445, 446
Bingeria Africana, 85
Biophytum sensitivum, 193
Biota trees, 420
Bipindi District, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 434, 438, 439, 440,
441
Bishiyapl, or Bishiyoyi generic (Hausa), 218
Bismarckburg sub-station (Togo), 126
Bissaboko (Attie), 87
Bissimi (Mendi), 50
Bitter Bark, 415; B. Kola, 55, 77; B. Leaf, 409; Bitter tomato, 194
Biunwe (Twi), 97
Bixa orellana, 122, 365
Bixaceæ or Bixineæ (Nigeria), 190, 196, 365
Black Tumbler, 47, 73
Blackwater Plant, 270
Blackwood, 26, 46; B. African W., 297; B. Benin N., 297; B. Indian,
386; Yoruba Blackwood, 298
Blepharis, 194
Blighia sapida, 61, 69, 76, 87, 104, 137, 196, 222, 229, 341, 342; B.
sp., 342, 343
“Blind” wood or Kapok, 345
Blita Resthouse (Togo), 117
Blood Plum of Sierra Leone, 136
Bloodwood, 221
Blue dye, 407
Blue gum, 174
Bo, 39; B. (Balong), 428
Boa (Bakundu), 428
Boanda (Buea district), 434, 436
Bobai (Duala), 429
Bobang (Balong), 425
Bobanja Duala, 428
Bobbyboya Water (Timani), 57
Bobby water, or Benin Mahogany, 78
Bobe ba ndiko (Bakundu), 433
Bobolo (Malimba), 430
Bodekadun (Yoruba), 395
Bodgei (Mendi), 47
Bœmbe (Bakundu), 426
Bofelei (Mendi), 50
Bofu (Fanti), 84
Bogi or Gbojei (Mendi), 52, 60
Bogo zage (Zanfau), 220
Bogüe (Agni), 83
Boi (Mendi), 50
Boi boi (Yoruba), 367
Boisima (Agni), 89
Boji, 311; B. Albizzia, 290; B. Hills, 18, 154, 290, 311, 385, 493
Boka or Boko (Bakundu), 433, 436
Bokata (Bakundu), 428
Bokeku (Duala), 426
Bokombo (Bakundu), 426
Bokome (Bakundu, Bafo), 438
Bokondo (Duala), 427
Boko-pupa (Yoruba), 344
Bokuk (Balong), 440; B. ba mhale (Duala), 440; B. (Etam), 432
Bokukulende (Bakossi), 426
Bokumia (Bakundu), 426
Bola (Bakundu), 440
Bolo (Ijaw and Brass), 230
Bolobolo, 345; B. fibre, 345
Bolondo (Duala), 428
Bolusila (Mangu), 138
Bomba (Duala), 440
Bombacaceæ (Cameroons), 435; (Gold Coast), 105; (Ivory Coast), 87;
(Liberia), 76; (Nigeria), 223, 346; (Sierra Leone), 53; (Togo), 137
Bombax, 231, 445, 446; B. brevicuspe, 105; B. Buonopozense, 53, 76,
87, 105, 138, 190, 196, 209, 223, 345, 435; B. sp., 105, 346
Bombay Blackwood, 176
Bombay cotton seed, 480
Bomoku (Agni), 85
Bon (Attie), 85
Bonabona (Yoruba), 178
Bongani (Mendi), 53
Bongele or Bopum ba nji (Duala), 435
Bongongi (Bakundu), 428; (Duala), 428; (Sanaga River), 428
Bongossi (Duala), 415, 436, 445, 446
Bonjabi (Bakundu), 438
Bonni (Yoruba), 300
Bonny River, 151
Bōnugú (Misahöhe), 140
Bonwula or Woula (Duala), 426
Bonyurome (Mbonoi), 86
Bonza (Bambara), 83
Booni (Mendi), 54
Boottia Abyssinica, 195
Bopalo or Bololo (Bakundu), 427, 432
Bopanda (Bafo) or Bopande (Bakundu), 427
Bope (Bafo), 431; (Duala), 427
Bopek (Balong), 431
Bopolo polo (Duala), 440, 442
Borassus Æthiopium, 70, 93, 233; B., _var._ Æthiopium, 195, 216, 218,
243; B. flabellifer (also called Fan or Bottle Palm), 39, 41, 70, 83,
93, 117, 122, 127, 195, 459
Borbor, 74
Borepore (Agni), 86
Borer attacks on Anogeissus, 374; on Dalbergia, 175; on Diospyros,
385; on Gum Copal, 36; on Mahogany (Leading Shoot Borer), 167, 175; on
Terminalia, 56
Borgu Province, 300, 453
Borimba (Bakundu), 442
Bornu, 190, 198, 206, 207, 209, 214, 215
Boro (Yoruba), 302
Borraginaceæ (sometimes Boragineæ) (Sierra Leone), 59; (Gold Coast),
112; (Togo), 143; (Nigeria), 192, 215, 224, 396; Cameroons, 440
Borri-borri (Yoruba), 287
Bosambai (Jaunde), 442; Bosambe (Bakundu), 427, 434
Bosav (Bakundu), or Sao (Duala), 432
Boscia, 190, 198; B. Senegalensis, 198
Bosenge (Duala), 426
Bosipi (Duala), 42
Bosole (Bondoukou), 84
Bossi (Twi), 101
Boswellia Dalzielii, 191, 210, 221; B. Klaineana, 100; B. odorata,
191, 221
Botapia (Attie), 87
Bōti (Dyakossi), 128
Bottle gourd, 193; Bottle palm, 39
Botuba (Bafo), 432
Boundary Tree, 245
Bowasa (Duala), 442
Bowiwasi (Fanti), 97
Bowiwunua (Twi), 97
Bowstring Hemp, 127, 128
Boxwood, 58, 79, 176, 394; compared with Cratæva religiosa, 130; False
B., 391
Boye (Mendi), 44
Brachystegia, 47; B. cynometroides, 416, 430; B. spicæformis, 68, 119,
229, 277, 449
Bräkrauku (Asante), 141
Brass District, 240, 405, 406; B. language, 185; B. natives, 358; B.
Port, 151; B. River, 151
Brazil nut, 368, 450
Bread fruit, 122, 138, 218
Bridelia atroviridis, 103, 335; B. ferruginea, 51, 103, 193, 202; B.
macrocarpa, 434; B. micrantha, 51, 102, 335; B. scleroneura, 193; B.
speciosa, 86; B. stenocarpa, 335, 417, 433; B. Zenkeri, 335
Brimstone, 31, 32, 60, 69; Bush B., 61, 79; B. Wood, 405
Bristol Port prepared to try Palm kernels, 480, 481
British West African Colonies and Protectorate, 17
Bromabima (Axim), 107
Bromeliaceæ (Togo), 127
Bubbuoi (Mendi), 59
Buboi (Mendi), 58
Buchholzia macrophylla, 84
Buda͡u (Tschaudjo), 132
Budyonū (Tschaudjo), 139
Buea District, 425, 426, 427, 430, 431, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438,
441, 442
Buesse (Mbonoi), 87
Buettneria, 353
Buffalo Horn, 222
Bugama Port, 150
Buini (Mendi), 46
Buittigirri (Mendi), 61
Buje nla (Yoruba), 407
Buji dudu (Yoruba), 407
Bulbostylis, 196; B. barbata, 93; B. laniceps, 93
Bullet-wood tree, 186
Bulokossa (Benin), 406
Bumbi (Mendi), 46
Bunbola Mountains, 25
Bundu dance, 51; Bundu devils, 51
Bundui or Bundwi (Mendi), 46, 60
Bunga (Timani), 45
Bungi (Mendi), 57
Buni (Mendi), 54
Bunja (Duala), 440
Bur-grass, 199
Bureh Mill, 35; B. River, 25; B. Town, 25, 36, 46, 56
Burkea, 302; B. Africana, 132, 191, 207, 220
Burma, 162, 168, 171
Burnatia enneandra, 195
Burogono (Mendi), 47
Burokossa (Benin), 406
Buronona (New Calabar), 364
Buro Nuro (Mbonoi), 88
Burseraceæ (Sierra Leone), 49; (Liberia), 74; (Ivory Coast), 85; (Gold
Coast), 100; (Nigeria), 191, 198, 221, 314; (Cameroons), 432
Bush Maple, 351, 353, 417; B. Oak, 420, 425; B. Pawpaw, 75; B. Teak,
417; B. Town, 56
Bussea Occidentalis, 99
Butter tree, 77, 107, 361
Butyrospermum Parkii, 109, 117, 119, 141, 179, 192, 202, 214, 224,
231, 358, 379, 439, 455
Buxus sempervirens, 176
Bwele ba Mbongo (Duala), 441
Bwembe (Bakwiri), 426
Bwiba ba mbale (Duala), 431; Bwiba ba njon (Duala), 443
Bwiwa (Bakwiri), 431
Byrsocarpus coccineus, 191
Cabbage Palm, 58; C. Tree of the West Indies, 134, 224
Cacao, 420, 421; C. bean, 163; C. yams, 421, 491
Cadaba farinosa, 198
Cæsalpinia arborea, 148; C. Bonducella, 197, 303; C. coriaria, 148; C.
regia, 148; C. rostrata, 148; C. sappan, 124, 148
Cæsalpiniæ (Nigeria), 269
Caindah Wood, 131
Calabar, 152, 153, 154, 157, 177, 235, 236, 237, 239, 240, 243, 249,
250, 251, 252, 256, 257, 259, 264, 271, 273, 275, 276, 279, 284, 288,
289, 297, 303, 306, 310, 312, 313, 315, 324, 327, 333, 340, 343, 349,
350, 371, 376, 382, 387, 390, 395, 396, 411; C. Arboretum and
Botanical Gardens, 166, 168, 174, 179, 410, 468; C. Beans, 80, 298; C.
Forest land, 17, 49, 154; C. Market, 368; C. River, 18, 151, 152, 154
Calabash nutmeg, 43, 72, 265
Calamus Barteri, 94; C. deerratus, 94, 240; C. sp., 41
Callichilia subsessilis, 58
Caloncoba Gilgiana, 139
Calonyction speciosum, 197, 203
Calpocalyx, 99; C. Dinklagei, 430
“Cam,” 287, 288
Cam River, 415
Cambridge University Department of Agriculture, 483
Cameroons, 17, 378, 387, chap. x, 415-446; C. exports, 444; C.
Mountains, 415, 416, 420, 436; C. (South), 425; C. Timber exports,
445, 446
Campanulaceæ (Nigeria), 194
Camps of Timber Firms, 187
Camwood, 31, 34, 35, 48, 84, 73, 80, 98, 158, 178, 221, 226, 229, 273,
287, 288, 416, 417, 418, 419; Benin C., 288; Cross River C., 274;
Large-fruited Camwood, 275; Spineless fruited C., 273
Canarium, 422; C. Auriculatum, 432; C. Mansfeldii, 317, 432; C.
occidentalis, 82, 85; C. Schweinfurthii, 29, 49, 67, 74, 82, 221, 229,
315, 416, 417, 425, 432; C. sp., 317
Canary Isles, 20, 177
Candle nut, 421
Canoe-making (Nigeria), 158; Oguta C., 159; C. Tree, 356; Twelve
puncheon C., 159
Canta Bark, 259
Canthium discolor, 61; C. glabriflorum, 408, 441
Capparidaceæ (Ivory Coast), 84; (Togo), 130; C. Vanguerioides, 197;
(Nigeria), 190, 196, 198, 213, 219, 266
Capparis, 190, 198; C. Thonningii, 266; C. viminea, 196
Caralluma Dalzielii, 199
Carapa cake, 458; C. Gayensis, 35; C. Guianensis, 102; C. microcarpa,
85; C. procera, 49, 74, 119, 135, 317, 419, 433, 458; C. velutina, 86
Cardiospermum Halicacabum, 191
Carissa edulis, 192, 395
Carludovica palmata, 127
Carpodinus Barteri (_syn._ Clitandra Barteri), 392; C. fulva, 393; C.
hirsuta, 111, 197, 392
Carpolobia alba, 50; C. lutea, 50, 288, 332
Carriers’ duties and treatment (Nigeria), 186
Caryophyllaceæ (Nigeria), 193
Casada, 421
Casearia sp., 230
Cashew nuts, 123, 222, 339
Cassada, 125
Cassava, 204, 471
Cassia, 269, 270; C. Alata, 99; C. Arereh, 201, 206; C. bicapsularis,
99; C. dwarf mimosoides, 191, 202; C. fistula, 99, 164, 270; C.
florida, 123, 124, 148; C. Goratensis, 201, 221; C. Kotschyana, 191,
206, 220; C. Lophira, 99; C. obovata, 199; C. occidentalis, 99, 164,
220, 270; C. podocarpa, 73, 270; C. Siamia, 163, 176, 489; C.
Sieberiana, 46, 99, 133, 206, 269; C. Tora, 99, 270
Cassytha Guineensis, 195
Castor-oil Shrub, 193
Casuarina, 125, 420, 421; C. equisitifolia, 122, 148, 173; C. sp., 183
Catechu, 98; Burmese variety, 98
Cauri (Mbonoi), 88
Cavally Port, 81, 82; C. River, 81, 82
Cawthorne River, 151
Ceara Rubber, 117; C. R. Plantation, 118, 123, 125, 149
Ceceru (Agni), 83
Cedar, 101, 416; Cigar-box Cedar tree, 122, 173, 420; Dry Zone C.,
211, 323; Cedar-like Lauro, 250; C. Mahogany hard, 26, 28, 323; Red
C., 29, 32, 50, 67, 74, 75; Scented Mahogany Cedar, 317, 318; White
Cedar, 418, 419
Cedrat (Colons), 86
Cedrela, 154, 420; C. odorata, 122, 123, 148, 173, 183, 420; C. Toona,
173
Ceiba, 445, 446; C. pentandra, 120, 122, 123, 125, 138, 435
Celastraceæ (Gold Coast), 104; (Nigeria), 191, 340
Celosia argentea, 195
Celtis, hard, 246; C. integrifolia, 83, 128, 193, 216, 217; C.
Prantlii, 128; C. soft, 247; C. solenostigma, 246, 248; C. sp., 247,
388
Cenchrus catharticus, 199
Cephalostigma Perrottettii, 194
Cerambix (Borer), 386
Ceratotheca sesamoides, 194
Ceredia, 466
Cestos River, 71
Ceylon, 420; C. satinwood compared with Eucalyptus, 174
Chad, Lake, 465
Chailletia floribunda, 332; C. toxiaria, 50
Chang District (Cameroons), 415, 489
Charcoal exported from Gambia, 20; C. making from Lophira procera, 77;
C. Wood (Blacksmith’s), 339
Charia indeniensis, 86
Che (Fõ), 134
Chediya (Hausa), 193, 199, 216, 218
Chedscho Valley, 125
Chen (Ibo), 229
Chenchen (Twi), 95
Chêne d’Afrique (Colons), 86
Cherry, 79
Chestnut (False), 347
Chevalier, Mons. Auguste, 81; Books by, 81, 198, 484
Chewstick, 55, 56, 77, 120, 167, 179, 194, 212, 223, 225, 234, 359,
360, 409
“Cheyi” fat, 462; C. seed, 462
Chichiwa (Hausa), 219
Chicue (Attie), 86
Chiriri, 213, 223, 224
Chleho (Fõ), 134
Chloris, 196
Chlorophora excelsa, 19, 26, 32, 42, 67, 70, 82, 83, 95, 117, 128,
158, 168, 171, 204, 215, 219, 228, 253, 416, 417, 418, 419, 422, 425,
445, 446
Chlorophytum, 195
Chocolate cream (from Shea Butter), 153; C. Gaboon, 454
Choka (Attie), 88
Choraschora, 446
Chrinika (Atakpame), 131
Chrysobalanus ellipticus, 72, 84, 96; C. icaco, 72, 233; C. sp., 269,
459
Chrysophyllum, 57, 232; C. Africanum, 69, 110, 381, 382, 419, 438,
456; C. Albidum, 110, 382; C. ellipticus, 57; C. Kainato, 381; C.
macrophyllum, 438; C. obovatum, 141; C. pruniforme, 57; C. sp., 57,
78, 381
Chuiansa (Appolonian), 103
Cissampelos Owariensis, 259; C. Pareira, 193, 259
Cissus, 193
Cistanthera sp., 343
Citron de la mer, 202
Citrullus vulgaris, 193, 242, 452, 470
Citrus aurantium, 74
Claoxylon Barteri, 337; C. Preussii, 434
Clausena Anisata, 312
Cleidion Gabunicum, 103
Cleistopholis, near C. patens, 43, 84, 130
Clerodendron, 113, 193, 441; C. scandens, 399; C. splendens, 400; C.
Thompsonii, 399; C. Thonningii, 399; C. volubile, 399
Clitandra cirrhosa, 393; C. elastica, 111, 393; C. Togoland, 393; C.
visciflua, 393
Cloth Shrub, 391
Clove, 224
Clynogyne, _syn._ Donax cuspidata, 246; C. filipes, 195; C. flexuosa,
128
Cnestis, 196; C. ferruginea, 96
Cochlospermaceæ (Gold Coast), 107
Cochlospermum tinctorium, 107, 190, 201
Cockburn Major, 177
Cockchafer Bugs, 436
Coco Fibre, 127; C. nuts, 63, 122, 226; C. nut Palm, 218, 237, 244,
421; C. oil (Touloucouna de palmiste), 90; C. yams, 255
Cocoa, 421, 444, 476, 487, 491; C. Industry (Gold Coast), 92; (Togo),
126; C. Plum, 72; C. seeds, 63; C. Tree, 436
Cocos nucifera, 94, 218
Cœlocaryon oxycarpum, 84
Coffea Liberica, 79
Coffee, 80; C. scions, 80; C. seed, 80; C. trees, 80
Cola, 232, 351, 354, 355, 356, 396, 487, 491
acuminata, 54, 77, 106, 354
Afzelia, 106, 138, 354
altissima, 436
Angustifolia, 54
astrophora, 138
Bitter, 359, 462
caricifolia, 106, 138
cauliflora, 354
common, 354
cordifolia, 87, 106
digitata, 77
False, 359
laterita, 418
Laurel-leaved, 354
laurifolia, 106, 138, 196, 204, 354, 355
leonensis, 54
mahogany, 354
marsupium, 436
mirabilis, 87
Cola nut, 71, 77, 90, 115, 116, 163
Cola proteiformis, 87
Simiarum, 54
sp., 354, 355, 436
sublobata, 106
sulcata, 436
supfiana, 138
vera, 87, 107, 124, 126, 148
verticulata, 107
Colonguli (Mendi), 54
Combretaceæ (Sierra Leone), 56; (Ivory Coast), 88; (Gold Coast), 108;
(Togo), 139; (Nigeria), 192, 197, 199, 203, 212, 223, 224, 369;
(Cameroons), 438, 445, 446
Combretum Afzelia, 108
cinerea, 438
constrictum, 197, 203
geitonophyllum, 223
glutinosum, 213, 223, 373
Hartmannianum, 213, 223, 373
herbaceum, 201
Kerstingii, 140, 223, 224
Lawsonianum, 372
leonense, 213, 223
micranthum, 373
mucronatum, 373
paucinervium, 373
racemosum, 197
Sokodense, 139
sp., 108, 192, 201, 212
sp. near C. altum, 199, 204
verticillatum, 223
viridiflora, 88
zenkeri, 108, 373
Combwood, 35
Commelinaceæ (Nigeria), 195, 197, 425
Commelyna, 195; C. nudiflora, 195; C. umbellata, 195
Commiphora Kerstingii, 191, 211
Communal Rubber Plantations, 179
“Compartments,” 169
Compositæ (Gold Coast), 114; (Togo), 147; (Nigeria), 194, 225, 409;
(Cameroons), 441
Conapharingia, 79, 233; C. Crassa, 59, 88, 142; C. durissima, 391; C.
longifolia, 59; C. pachysiphon, 35, 391
Confectioner’s Gum, 300
Congo, 476; C. Cie Congo du Belge Line, 480; Belgian C., 423, 424;
French and Belgian C., 189; French or Gaboon C., 422, 423; C. River,
423, 424; Upper C., 423, 424
Congo-Congo (Gabonais), 83
Coniferous trees, 162; Conifer, 177
Convolvulaceæ (Gold Coast), 112; (Nigeria), 194, 197; (Cameroons), 440
Convolvulus (Moon), 203
Coondi (Timani), 49
Copaiba Balsam Tree, 205
Copaifera Demeusii, 176, 417, 421, 428; C. Guibourtiana (Gum Copal),
35, 36, 37, 46; C. officinalis, 176; C. salikounda, 46, 99, 176
Copaifera of the Boji Hills, 198; _cf._ Copaifera, 298
Copal, 444
Copenhagen Market, 325
Copra exported (Nigeria), 226
Coral flower, 301; C. Tree, 221
Corchorus, 190; C. acutangulus, 344; C. olitorius, 344
Cordia Abyssinica, 192, 215, 224; C. (acorn-like fruited), 396; C.
(Drumwood), 396; C. Gharaf, 143; C. Irvingia, 112, 396, 440; C.
millenii, 230, 396; C. sp., 59, 230, 396; C. Yombomba, 440
Cordyla Africana, 133, 197
Coreopsis, 194
Corkwood, 42, 70, 83; C. Tree, 95, 252, 418, 419, 488
Corynanthe Johimbe, 408; C. paniculata, 61, 407
Corypha elata, 177
Cosomon (Bambara), 86
Costus afer, 195
Cotton tree, 26, 53, 76, 117, 153, 160, 177, 190, 204, 278, 345, 346,
445, 446
Coula edulis (Almond wood), 33, 43, 71, 83, 95, 258, 417, 426, 457
Counterwood (Afzelia Africana), 47; Counter-top Mahogany, 157
Cowhage, 203
Crab apple, 146; Crab-oil Tree, 318; Crabwood, 19, 74, 317
Cratæva Adansonii, 190, 213, 219, 266; C. religiosa, 130
Craterispermum laurinum, 61
Cratopteris Thalictroides, 196
Cream of Tartar, 53
Creepers, 172
Creole, 44, 45, 52; C. Damson, 53
Crinum yuccæflorum, 195
Cross River, 151, 152, 153, 156, 157, 159, 170, 179, 185, 273, 378,
415, 418, 456, 493; C. R. nut, 376
Crossopteryx Africana or Kotschyana, 61, 145, 192, 214, 225, 408
Crotalaria, 191
Croton penduliflorus, 61; C. pyrifolius, 434
Cryptolepis nigritana, 192
Cryptosepalum tetraphyllum, 47
Cucumis Melo, _var._ agrestis, 199; C. prophetarum, 194
Cucurbita Pepo, 193
Cucurbitaceæ (Nigeria), 193, 199, 452
Culcasia scandens, 195
Cupania akeesia, 343
Curculigo Gallabatensis, 195
Cussonia, 210; C. Barteri, 140; C. Djalonensis, 56; C. Nigerica, 192,
213, 224
Custard apple (wild), 262
Cutch Tree, 98
Cuviera acutiflora, 197
Cyanastraceæ (Nigeria), 245
Cyanastrum cordifolium, 245
Cyanothyrsus ogea, 97, 278
Cyanotis, 195
Cycad appearance of Palm, 243
Cycinium camporum, 400
Cylicodiscus, 280, 286; C. Gabonensis, 48, 97 (compared with
Piptadenia Africana, 99), 229, 295, 416, 419, 431
Cymbopogon diplandrus, 201; C. giganteum, 201; C. hirtus, 201; C.
rufus, 201; C. Ruprechtii, 201; C. Sennariensis, 199
Cynometra, 117, 120, 231; C. Afzelii, 98, 121, 132, 285, 449; C.
cryptosepalum, 84; C. Mannii, 98, 285, 429, 449; C. megalophylla, 132,
148; C. mitragyne, 19, 36; C. multynge, 429; C. sp., 98, 132; C.
Vogelii, 45, 84, 197, 203; C. Waterside, 285
Cyperaceæ (Gold Coast), 93; (Nigeria), 196
Cyperus esculentus, 196; C. Fenzelianus, 196; C. rotundus, 196
Cypress, 420; C. (Bald), 175; C. (Deciduous), 175; C. (swamp), 175
Cyrtosperma Senegalense, 197
Dabadogun (Benin), 267
Dabino (Hausa), 217
Dabudabu (Agni), 87
Dadafunde (Atakpame), 145
Dadie (Asante), 138
Dafara, 193
Dagbongbore (Tschaudjo), 138
Dagera (Hausa), 223
Dahomah (Twi), 97
Dahomey, 189
Dakwora (Hausa), 208
Dalbergia, 297; D. (False), 270; D. Hostilis, 298; D. Latifolia, 175;
D. Melanoxylon, 118, 134; D. Rosewood, 48; D. Saxatilis, 297; D. sp.,
20, 48
Dali (Hausa), 211; (Kano and Katsina), 221
Dalo, 213, 223
Dalu (Kana and Katsina), 221
Dalziel. Dr. J. M., on “Botanical Features of Nigeria,” 188-205; “Some
trees of Hausaland,” 205-219; “Nigerian trees,” 218-225, 244
Dambarra Village, 66, 69
Damerghu, 207
Dandana, 194
Daniellia, 231; D. Caudata, 278, 431; D. Fosteri, 278; D. oblonga, 84,
278; D. ogea (Blue Bessie), 32, 33, 35, 68, 74, 97, 230, 278; D.
Punchii, 278; D. sp., 74, 424; D. Thurifera, 205, 221
Danko (Hausa), 111
Dan marike (Hausa), 221
Danowa (Hausa), 231
Dan sarikin itatuwa (Sok. and Katsina), 221
Dantwi (Atakpame), 135
Danya (Hausa), 198, 212, 222
Dargaza, 190
Dashi (Hausa), 198, 211
Date, 200; Date, desert, 210; Date palms, 124, 125, 217; wild date
palm, 240
Datura Metel, 194
Daudawa (Hausa), 207
Dawa (Hausa), 196, 204
Dawo (Hausa), 220, 231
Debundscha (Cameroons), 416
Degema, 364; D. Arboretum, D. District, 405; D. Port, 152; D. Town,
179, 314
Deinbollia Indeniensis, 87; D. insignis, 104, 233; D. primata, 343;
D. pycnophylla, 434
Deleb palm, 41, 200, 216, 217, 218
Denbehawi (Mendi), 54
Dendo (Attie), 83
Dengma (Mangu), 130
Dennett, Mr. R. E., Quotation from Paper on “British Trade in
Nigeria,” 480, 481
Dennettia sp., 260, 263; D. tripetala, 260
Denya (Twi), 97
Depapāte (Tschaudjo), 132
Derris Stuhlmannii, 133
Desmodium, 191
Desplatzia Dewewrei, 434
Detarium, Guineensis, 119, 120, 132, 229; D. microcarpum, 132, 430; D.
Senegalense, 29, 69, 73, 97, 123, 132, 148, 191, 201, 202, 206, 221,
306; D. sp., 97
Dialium, Dinklagei, 73, 84; D. Englerii, 73; D. Guineense, 84, 99,
133, 197, 289, 418, 424; G. Senegalense, 47, 48, 73; D. sp., 48; D.
Staudtii, 417, 430; D. Zenkeri, 430
Diancangue (Attie), 83
Diangue (agni), 83
Dibanga (Jaunde), 442
Dibobonga (Duala), 434
Dichapetalaceæ (S. Leone), 50; Nigeria, 332
Dichrostachys nutans, 99, 131, 191, 201; D. platycarpa, 199
Didelotia Engleri, 74
Digitaria, 196
Digiten (Brass), 228
Digo (Anago), 140
Dika bread, 74; D. butter, 74; D. chocolate, 74; D. fat, 454; D.
kernels, 454; Dika nuts, 68, 74, 100, 179, 312, 454; Benin D. nuts,
313
Dikbere (Tschaudjo), 135
Diki (Hausa), 128
Dikir (Efik), 349
Dilifu (Tschaudjo), 135
Dilleniaceæ (Liberia), 77
Dillenia indica, 421
Dingi (Mendi), 56
Dinjongo (Bakundu), 440
Dinya (Kano), 215, 224
Dioclea reflexa, 299
Dioecious trees, 52
Dioscorea prehensilis, 195; D. sp., 471
Dioscoreaceæ (Nigeria), 195
Diospyros aggregata, 439
atropurpurea, 230, 383, 384, 385, 439
Barteri, 385, 459
Bipendensis, 385, 439
crassiflora, 230, 385, 459
Dendo, 230, 386, 439, 459
Gilgiana, 416, 439
incarnata, 439
Kamerunensis, 385, 415, 439
Mamiacensis, 439
Megaphylla, 439
Mespiliformis, 110, 118, 123, 125, 141, 169, 178, 185, 192, 214,
224, 230, 383, 439
Mombuttensis, 110, 142, 230, 383
Mombuttensis, _syn._ sinensis, 383
Multinervis, 384, 385
Nsambensis, 439
Sanza, 88
Species, 57, 118, 383, 385, 416, 417, 445
Suaveolens, 386, 420, 439
Tricolor, 142
Verrucosa, 385
Xanthochlamys, 110, 387
Dipcadi, 195
Dipcadi occidentale, 199
Dipterocarpaceæ (Togo), 139
Dirinshi (Ibo), 228
Discoglypremna caloneura, 103
Dissotis, 194
Distemonanthus Benthamianus, 100, 133, 301, 430; D. sp., 430
Dita (Detarium Senegalense), 29, 48, 69, 73, 120
Dituture (Tschaudjo), 135
Djave Nut, 420, 444
Djengu (Bakwiri), 428
Djo Arbi (Mbonoi), 87
Djombe (Bakwiri), 438
Djuna (Bondoukou), 84
Djutisha Station, 420
Do (Trepo), 84
Dodo (Yoruba), 391
Dodonæa viscosa, 76
Dodoriya, 193; D. or Dadori (Hausa), 223
Dodoya, 195
Dogo (Bondoukou), 85
Doka (Ashanti), 93; (Apollonian), 93; (Aowin), 93, 200; (Hausa), 220,
232
Dolichandrone lutea, 113
Dombeya Buettneri, 356
Dona (Abe), 85
Donax, Cuspidata, 246
Dongke on Jeti (Ewe), 141
Dorose Populu (Plapo), 89
Dorowa or Darawa (Hausa), 207, 220, 230
Doti (Ewe), 133
Doumane, 90
Dracæna, 22; D. arborea, 94; D. Cylindrica, 245; D. Mannii, 42, 94; D.
Perrottettii, 83, 246; D. sp., 245, 246; D. Surculosa, 70, 94, 245
Dragon’s blood, 70, 245
Droseraceæ (Nigeria), 193
Drosera indica, 193
Dschang Station, 420, 425, 426, 435, 436, 441
Duakobin or Duabayi (General West Coast), 97
Duala District, 428, 436
Dubiddi (Ashanti), 96
Dubiri Kegingo (Appolonien), 86
Dubon or Dubini (Twi, Wassaw, Fanti), 101
Duboscia macrocarpa, 87
Dubu (Brass), 231
Dudu (Appolonian), 103
Düdüreda (Tschaudjo), 129
Duika, 361, 378, 403, 422; D. Chop fruit, 360; D. Maxwell’s, 250; Red-
headed D., 250; Yellow-backed D., 250
Dukki (Hausa), 216; or Dunki, _syn._ Zuwo (Kano, Zaria, etc.), or
Dinkin, 218
Duko, Durgo, or Duroko (Bondoukou), 86
Dukuma Dugura (Agni), 86
Dum palm, 94, 200, 216, 217, 218, 244
Duma, 193; D. namé, 356
Dumoria Heckeli, 378; D. Heckeli (Baca or Abaku), 456
Dumya (Sok), 224
Dunkwah Reserve, 160
Dunstan, Prof. Wyndham R. (Opinion on feeding cattle), 483
Dupwi II (Mendi), 48
Duru Forest, 201
Durumi (Hausa), 193, 199, 216
Dushe (Kana), 220
Dussa (Hausa), 208; D. (East Hausa), 220
Duvui (Mendi), 41
Dworom (Asante), 128
Dye wood industry (Nigeria), 159; Dyewoods, 444
Dyschoriste Perrottettii, 194
Dzobellobe (Ewe), 127
Dzogbenyabo (Ewe), 128
Eba (Benin), 159, 356; E. District, 394
Ebakwe (Benin), 284
Ebar (Brass, Ibo), 230; (Brass, North Calabar), 406
Ebattan (Benin), 364
Ebba (Benin), 356
Ebbe (Mendi), 45, 159
Ebbo (Benin), 308
Ebbome (Oban, Ekoi), 279
Ebe (Jaunde), 442
Ebegogogbo (Benin), 343
Eben (Efik), 233, 314; (Jekri), 404; E.-etridon (Efik), 229; E. giku,
404
Ebenaceæ (S. Leone), 57; (Ivory Coast), 88; (Gold Coast), 110; (Togo),
141; (Nigeria), 192, 214, 224, 383; (Cameroons), 439
Ebenote (Benin), 399
Ebewaki (Benin), 259
Ebo (Ewe), 129; (Yoruba), 230
Ebon (Duala), 443
Ebonga evodi (Duala), 435; E. manyongo (Duala), 440
Ebony, 57, 110, 124, 226, 415, 417, 420, 445; Benin Ebony, 383, 385,
386, 387; Black E., 416; Brown E., 385; Calabar E., 387; Cameroon
Ebony, 385; Cross River E., 386; E. nut, 385; E. Plantations (Togo),
149; (Nigeria), 164, 169, 178, 186, 226; Walking-stick E., 383; Yoruba
E., 383
Eborodumuen (Agni), 87
Ebruke (Attie), 87
Ebubri etu (Efik), 386
Ebumen (Benin), 337
Ebunja (Bakundu), 442
Ebuttemetta Gardens, 168, 170, 269; E. Sawmill, 159
Ecastaphyllum Brownei, 100
Eché, or Alãfe (Ewe), 134
Echirua (Agni), 86
Eclipta Alba, 194
Econ grass, 176, 179
Edat, 158; (Ekoi), 231, 405; (Efik), 266, 405
Edde (Mbonoi), 88
Eddo Binoyoba (Benin), 265
Ede (Quitta, Krepi), 93; (Yoruba), 300, 397; E. Plantation, 175
Edea District, 436
Edem (Calabar), 363; (Efik), 323
Eden (Efik), 228
Edeng (Calabar), 363
Edible nut, 258
Edna (Appolonian), 84
Edum (Bafo), 431
Edun (Benin), 359
Edundu (Balong), 428
Efam (Efik), 229
Effnobrodidwa (Twi), 101
Effnokonkonti (Ashanti), 101
Efiari (Efik), 233; (Benin), 360
Efik, 159, 185, 494
Efindofindo (Bafo), 439
Efiohlĕ (Ewe), 139
Efiori or Efrie (Efik, Kwa), 359
Efomu (Agu), 84
Efriyo, 228; E. moniba (Efik), 228
Efuen (Agni), 84
Efu Iya (Yoruba), 317
Efunmundon (Appolonian, Aowin), 111
Efurumundi (Agni), 89
Egba (Ewe), 136; (Iba, Owerri), 363, 368; (Yoruba), 234; East
Province, 259, 395
Egbe, 163
Egbesi (Yoruba), 401
Egbi (Ibadan), 271
Egbo (Atakpame), 142; (Benin), 494
Egeun (Aowin), 95
Eggi or Ekka (Ibo, Asaba), 319; (Yoruba), 285, 449
Egg-shaped fruit tree (Ocotea cf.), 266
Eggun (Yoruba), 345, 346
Eghogho (Benin), 337
Egoyn lukan (Benin), 369; E. nebbi, 369; E. nikwi, 369; E. nufwa
(Benin), 179, 371
Egu (Atakpame), 142
Egui (Agni), 83
Eguni (Appolonian), 95
Egun oran (Yoruba), 266
Egusi bara (Yoruba), 242, 452, 470
Egwa oriakuku or oviakuku, 399
Egyptian Mimosa, 219
Ehan (Bakoko), 433
Ehemba (Jaunde), 442
Ehranbagogo (Benin), 259
Ehranezi (Benin), 364
Ehranpata, or Esanpata (Benin), 336
Ehrenyegbo (Yoruba), 385
Ehretia cymosa, 112, 143, 396
Ehrodo (Benin), 368
Ehrurumesi (Benin), 297
Ehukei (Appolonian), 107
Ehunogo, or Ehrunbogo (Benin), 248
Ehye or Incense Tree, 100
Eijan (Appolonian), 105
Ejan (Jaunde), 442
Ejuong (Jaunde), 436
Ekai (Efik), 494
Ekambamba (Bakundu), 442
Ekanesie adie (Yoruba), 343
Eke, deka (Atakpame), 144; E. oyimbo (Yoruba), 331
Ekebergia, 50; E. Senegalensis, 135
Eket District, 236; E. Port, 152
Eki (Yoruba), 229
Ekika Aja (Yoruba), 339
Ekimi or Ekhimi (Benin), 229, 279; (Mbonoi), 85
Ekiti District, 405
Ekiyawa (Benin), 296
Ekkana (Yoruba), 266
Ekki (Yoruba), 356
Ekkiowa (Benin), 411
Ekko okpan, 347
Ekku (Ibadan), 332, 333
Ekkun (Yoruba), 285
Ekna (Agni), 86
Eknalokpoe (Ewe), 136
Eknana (Fanti), 97
Ekoah (Jaunde), 442
Ekoi Plains, 339
Ekok (Oban, Ekoi), 282
Ekol (Bakossi), 426
Ekolo (Bakundu), 426
Ekom (Ibo, Owerri), 368
Ekomba (Bago), 426
Ekombo (Bakossi), 426
Ekonge (Bakwiri), 435
Ekopa (Agni), 85
Ekosuba, Zenna, Kerenya (Agni), 87
Ekpa (Krepi), 93
Ekpagoi (Benin), 230, 281; (Yoruba), 449
Ekpagoize (Benin), 282, 290
Ekpin (Yoruba), 252
Eku or Ekui (Aowin), 105; (Twi), 105; (Yoruba), 229
Ekuba (Appollonian), 105
Ekube (Agni), 83
Ekugbi (Yoruba), 317
Ekugbo (Yoruba), 317
Ekuie (Abe), 86
Ekuri Ebu (Ibo, Owerri), 390
Ekuro (Fanti), 84
Ekusa or Ikujo (Benin), 360
Ekusamba (Fanti), 89
Ekusawa (Fanti), 113
Ekuso (Yoruba) (Ikale), 361
Ela (Yoruba), 257; or Elu, 303, 356
Elæis, _var._ Albescens, 466
Angulosa, 466
Ceredia, 466
Communis, 466
Communis forma dura, 466
Guineensis, _var._ Lisombe, 243
Guineensis, 26, 37, 39, 68, 70, 93, 122, 127, 197, 204, 218, 228,
241, 262, 420, 425, 464, 466
Guineensis, _var._ Thompsonii, 242
Idolatrica, 466
Intermedia, 466
Macrocarpa, 466
Macrocarya, 466
Nigericum, 119, 138
Orientale, 53, 169, 190, 209, 223, 345, 346
Pisifera, 466
Repandra, 466
Rostrata, 466
sp., 243
Elæophorbia drupifera, 103
Eleba (Jekri), 356
Elegbe Oju (Yoruba), 410
Elekikobi (Yoruba), 239
Elekua (Agni), 86
Elemi gum, 314
Elephant hunting, 66; E. sugar cane, 375; E. poison, 395
Elika-aja (Yoruba), 231
Elili (Ibo, Owerri), 356
Elk’s horn fern, 197
Eloby, 424
Elo Uta (Ibo, Owerri), 271
Elui (Agni), 83
Elund (Balong), 428
Emang (Bakossi), 425; E. District, 431
Emarr (Timani), 58
Embi-Siembi (Agni), 89
Eme-ela (Yoruba), 246
Emi-emi (Yoruba), 231, 379; E. gbegeri (Yoruba, Ibadan), 323; Emi
ghegiri (Yoruba), 177; E. gbigi, 230, 232; E. ori, 179
Emido (Yoruba), 229, 251, 334, 375, 380
Emil, Emril, or Emiri (General Gold Coast), 108
Emmaha (Benin), 236
Emosobegan (Yoruba), 297
Emuinguin (Fanti), 86
Ena (Atakpame), 131
Enantia chlorantha, 84, 259, 417, 427; E. polycarpa, 259
Ende (Agni), 88
Endiar or N’diar (Wolof), 84
Endodesmia calophylloides, 437
Endwi (Mendi), 54
Engele or Ongele (Balong), 435
Enjenju (Bakundu), 442
Enjog (Jaunde), 442
Enonge (Bakundu), 440
Entada (Abyssinica), 99, 131, 299; E. scandens, 69, 131, 163, 298,
299; E. Soudanica, 99, 191, 199, 201, 209, 221, 299
Entandrophragma, 228, 320, 327, 332, 364, 422, 442, 445; E. candollei,
177, 416, 417, 432; E. cylindricum, 102, 324, 325; E. ferruginea, 86,
102; E. macrophylla, 82, 86, 102; E. rederi, 415, 416, 432; E. rufa,
86; E. septentrionalis, 86, 102; E. sp., 420; E. utilis, 102, 323,
325, 326, 416, 432
Enwiwan (Benin), 347
Enyena (Ashanti, Fanti, and Wassaw), 105
Enyenewu, enyenewi (Yoruba), 298
Enyenga (Appolonian), 105
Enyin Mbukpo (Efik), 232
Enymi (Benin), 282
Enyo (Aowin), 105
Epa ile (Yoruba), 303
Epe, Colony of Lagos, 340
Epindepinde (Bakundu, Duala), 439
Epiphytes, 195, 199, 216
Epiphytic foliage, 193; E. orchids and ferns
Eplekgo (Jekri), 323
Epuepue (Bakwiri), 428
Epweperu, 348
Eragrostis, 202
Eranobapotineddo (Benin), 271
Eremospatha macrocarpa, 163, 240; E. sp., 163, 240
Ereruku (Calabar), 363
Eriagbo (Yoruba), 331
Erigaba (Yoruba), 337
Erimado (Ib.), 332; (Benin), 451
Erin (Yoruba), 394
Erinji (Ijor), 276
Eriocœlum, 104; E. Kerstingii, 137
Eriodendron, 231, 434; E. anfractuosum, 26, 53, 76, 105, 346; E.
Nigericum, 119, 138; E. orientale, 53, 169, 190, 209, 223, 345, 346
Eriosema, 191
Erogbo (Benin), 240
Erohun of the Ikales, 232
Eru (Yoruba), 233, 260
Erüi (Agni), 85
Eruju (Yoruba), 263
Erumacie, 282; (Yoruba), 297
Erun (Yoruba), 229; E. obo (Yoruba), 275
Erundu or Wunga (Bakundu), 428
Erunnor Obi (Yoruba), 449
Erunnor Obo (Yoruba), 449
Erurunuesi (Benin), 297
Eruwa Road Station, 169, 171
Erythrina, 231; E. excelsa, 430; E. Senegalensis, 45, 73, 100, 117,
191, 221, 233, 301
Erythrophlœum Guineense, (Sassybark), 35, 39, 48, 85, 98, 117, 120,
125, 132, 197, 220, 229, 275, 277, 429, 449; E. Ivoriensis, 85; E.
micranthum, 229, 276, 429, 449; E. sp., 45, 134, 275, 429; E. sp. near
micranthum, 45, 98
Erythroxylaceæ (Cameroons), 431
Erythroxylon Mannii, 431
Esakasaka (Bakwiri), 428
Esang (Bakossi), 428; (Jaunde), 442; Esango (Bakossi), 428
Esanigbakhehe (Benin), 301
Esanke or Esangue (Attie), 86
Escravos River, 151
Eselebuka (Bakoko), 443
Eseme (Mbonoi), 84
Esenge (Bakundu), 433, 434
Eseri (Efik), 298; E. Bean or Calabar Bean, 450
Eserine or Calabarine, 450
Esisi (Yoruba), 336
Esiskwi (Benin), 400
Esive (Mbonoi), 88
Eso, 163, 232, 301; Eso or Esho (Yoruba), 350
Esok (Bakundu), 442
Eson (Fanti), 86
Esore (Agni), 87
Essago (Benin), 268
Esseah or Essia (General West Coast), 108
Essenim (Efik), 400
Esseresu opirimú (Asante), 132
Esseri (Appolonian), 106
Essobelīa (Tschaudjo), 144
Essunsun (Benin), 336
Essunwoi, 410
Esu (origin of “Ju-Ju,” the devil), 355
Esura (Yoruba), 344
Esuro (Attie), 84
Etama (Agni), 84
Etare (Oban, Ekoi), 277
Etehetem Sawmills, 159, 364
Ethiopian pepper (Colons), 84
Etiap (Oban, Ekoi), 390
Etini (Yoruba), 384
Etjannake (Akposso), 142
Eto (Benin), 412
Etori (Ekoi), 228
Etotum (Duala), 443
Etsa (Krepi), 98
Etu or Etue (Bakossi), 432
Etufiak or Itufiak (Efik), 410
Etüi (Agni), 86
Etutu (Bakundu), 441
Eucalyptus, 123, 124, 175; E. amygdalina, 174, 410; E. citrifolia,
123; E. citriodora, 148, 174, 410; E. marginata, 148; E. robusta, 148;
E. rudis, 410; E. sp., 183; E. tereticornis, 410; E. tesselaris, 410
Euchresia (Fanti), 94
Eugenia callophylloides, 56; E. caryophyllata, 224; E. coronata, 192;
E. Guineensis, 109; E. owariensis, 19, 109, 192, 213, 224, 232, 374,
375
Eulophias, 195
Euphorbia Abyssinica, 222; E. Ægyptica, 193; E. Barteri, 193, 222; E.
milkweed, 199; E. pilulifera, 193; E. Poissoni, 193; E. sepium, 199;
E. unispina, 193
Euphorbiaceæ (S. Leone), 50; (Liberia), 75; (Ivory Coast), 86; (Gold
Coast), 102; (Togo), 135; (Nigeria), 193, 197, 199, 215, 222, 332,
447, 452; (Cameroons), 433
Eussŭ́ (Misahöhe), 138
Eutie (Agni), 84
Evi (Quitta), 106
Evialegbi (Benin), 258
Eviromilla (Benin), 243
Evolvulus alsinoides, 194
Ewai of the Benis, 231
Ewanenimi (Benin), 245
Ewasi (Aowin), 106
Ewäti (Anecho), 141
Ewayon (wrapping-leaves for food), 164, 239
Ewayron (Yoruba), 412
Ewe ofo (Yoruba), 356
Ewelisomū (Tschaudjo), 141
Ewoha (Benin), 355
Ewnon (Bakoko), 443
Ewon (Yoruba), 301; E. pala (Ikale), 281
Ewuro or Ewuru (Yoruba), 409
Excœcaria, 103; E. sp., 336
Exin (Agni), 84
Eye (Fanti), 93
Eyhrodo (Benin), 397
Eyo (Yoruba), 344
Ezzi (Benin), 269
Fae or Fai (Mendi), 45
Fagara Altissima, 431; F. Macrophylla, 85; F. Rederi, 431; F.
Zanthoxyloides, 134
Fagbajoi (Mendi), 52
Fai Beans, 447
Faia (Aowin), 111
Fako Mountain, 416; F. District, 426, 440
Falaba, 39
Falcon’s Claw, 208
“Falls,” 169
False Boxwood, 391; F. Chestnut, 347; F. Cola, 359; F. Dalbergia, 270;
F. Iroko, 419; F. Nutmeg, 43; F. Oroko, 249; F. Rubber Tree, 79; F.
Shea Butter, 370; F. Shea Butter Nut, 376
Fan Palm, 39, 41, 70, 94, 117, 216, 218, 244, 459
Fara doka (Hausa), 200, 206, 220; F. Kaya (Hausa), 208, 219; F. Kaya,
_syn._ Bauji (E. Hausa), 220
Farichin shafu (Hausa), 208; F. shafo or Kumbar shafo, 220
Farin Makarfo (Hausa), 207; F. sansami, _syn._ Shunin Biri Zanfara
halshen sa, 220, 221
Farnesian Acacia, 300
Farquhar, Mr., discovered new sp., Farquharia, 392, 470; on yield of
Oil Palm, 484
Farquharia elliptica, 391
Faru (Hausa), 212; F., _syn._
Tudi (Zanfara), 222
Farum biri (Sok.), 222
Fasa daga, 220; F. Kwari, 196, 221, 232
Fate fate (Hausa), 225
Faurea speciosa, 129, 257
Fawcett, Thomas, L.M.R., A.S.E., on feeding cattle, 483
Fe (Attie), 84, 86
Fegblo (Ewe), 140
Fela (Bambara), 88
Feretia canthioides, 192, 202
Feutia (Aowin), 100
Fevei (Mendi), 60
Fi River, 419, 487
Fibre-producing trees, 163
Ficoideæ (Nigeria), 194
Ficus, 70, 94, 193, 202, 215, 216; F. Asperata, 249, 252; F.
Asperifolia, 95; F. Bembicicarpa, 129; F. Brachipus, 129; F. Capensis,
216, 218, 219, 426; F. Courania, 426; F. Djurensis, 129; F.
Dusenoides, 129; F. Elastica, 122, 123, 124, 126, 148; F. Elegans, 96;
F. Eriobotryoides, 95; F. Exasperata, 129, 250; F. Glumosa, 216, 219;
F. Gnaphalocarpa, 216, 218; F. Goliath, 83; F. Grandicarpa, 129; F.
Guineensis, 83; F. Indica, 251; F. Kawuri, 216, 219; F. Lutea, 129; F.
Ottoniæfolia, 95; F. Platyphytes, 42, 122; F. Platyphylla, 94, 216,
218, 252; F. Populifolia, 218, 426; F. Rokko, 129; F. Schimperia, 426;
F. Schlechteri, 148; F. Sokodensis, 129; F. species, 42, 71, 83, 94,
204, 218, 219, 251, 252; F. Syringifolia, 199, 216, 218; F. Tesselata,
129; F. Thonningii, 199, 216, 218, 251; F. Togoensis, 129; F.
Tiliifolia, 129; F. Triangulus, 95, 251; F. Umbrosa, 129; F. Vallis
choudæ, 129; F. Vogelii, 42, 122, 197, 216, 219, 228, 251, 418; F.
Whytei, 71
Fidda sartsi, 199
Fiditi (Oyo Province), 266
Fifäti (Anecho), 146
Fifei (Ewe), 146
Fig (common), 251; F. large, F. narrow-leaved, 219; F. small, 218
Fig species (Antiaris), 70
Filasko, 199
Filices (Nigeria), 196
Fillæopsis discophora, 431
Fimbristylis, 196
Findefinde (Bakwiri), 439
Finger root, 44
Finland Market, 325
Finzan (Bambara), 87
Firbandu (Mendi), 48
Firewood Plantation, 175, 178
Firmiana Barteri, 138, 163, 301, 350
Fish poison, 302
Fita (Hausa), 128
Flacourtia Ramontchii, 366, 437; F. Flavescens, 366
Flacourtiaceæ (Sierra Leone), 55; (Liberia), 78; (Ivory Coast), 88;
(Gold Coast), 108; (Togo), 139; (Nigeria), 223, 365, 462; (Cameroons),
437
Flagellaria indica, 127
Flagellariaceæ (Togo), 127
Fleabane (Ash-coloured), 410
Flintwood, 114
Floscopa, 195
Flueggea microcarpa, 51, 193
Fõ (Ewe), 143
Fofol (Mendi), 42
Fofui (Mendi), 52
Fognian (Mbonoi), 83
Fõjiti (Anecho), 143
Fola (Tschaudjo), 129
Folei-kpakpei (Mendi), 48
Fonde (Attie), 84
Fontwans, 420
Forcados Port, 156, 157, 382; F. River, 151; F. star apple, 382
Forests, Afzelia, 291; F. Calabar Evergreen, 154; F., Canopied
deciduous, 19; F. Control, Gold Coast, 92; F. control, lack of, and
results, 92; F., Department formed (1910), 91, 87; F. Department
guaranteed Iroko timber, 173; Nigerian, 228; F. Evergreen, 18, 19,
152; (Calabar), 154, 423; F. Evergreen Fringing, 203; _F. Exports_,
Sierra Leone, 63, 64; Liberia, 80; Ivory Coast, 90; Gold Coast, 115;
Nigeria, 226; Freshwater Swamp Forests, 19, 154; Fringing or
“Galerie,” 18, 19, 154; F. Hill, 154; _F. in relation to Agriculture,
The_, chap, xiii, 485-495; F. land fixed in the older civilized
countries, 485; F. Law (Nigerian), 162; F. Locust, 45, 73; F. Mixed,
121, 350; F. Mixed deciduous, 19, 152, 159, 169; F. Mixed
intermediate, 18; F. New, 491; Officers in Nigeria (European), 184;
Rank, Training, Appointments, Salary, etc., 186; Chief Conservators,
Senior Conservators, Conservators, etc., 187; F. Open deciduous, 19;
F. Orchard, 99; F. Peninsular, 39; F. Peninsular Mountain (Sierra
Leone), 25, 160; Permanent Forests (Nigeria), 160-166; Permanent
Forests, Austria, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, India, Norway,
Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, U.S.A., 492; F. Rain, 151, 154, 189; F.
Reserves, 91; F. Sapeli, 326; F. Savannah, 196, 197, 200; (True,
Treeless, Bush, Tree, Sclerophyllus Formation), 18, 19, 93; Nigeria
(Tree, Bush, Open Orchard, Treeless), 188; South-West African, 189;
Bush, 201; Parks, 202; F. semi-evergreen, 196; F. South Benin, 325,
326; F. State, Communal, Municipal, or Private, various countries, 91,
92
Forestry, Arboretum Calabar, 342; F. Conference at Berlin on Togo
Afforestation, 119; F. Progress in Gold Coast, Nigeria, Sierra Leone,
Gambia, 188
Forked Palm, 244
Frake (Agni), 88
Fram (Bonduku), 88
Framine (Agni), 88
Frankincense Tree, 191, 210, 221
Freetown, 25, 35, 50, 62
Fref (Fanti), 105
French Beans compared to Locust Beans, 153
French Ivory Coast, position of, 17
Frimu (Tschaudjo), 135
Fruntum (Ashanti), 111
Fu (Attie), 86
“Fufu” mortars, 358
Fulani, 198
Fulŏ or Folŏ (Tschaudjo), 138
Funfun (Yoruba), 321, 332
Funtumia, 124, 180, 434; F. Africana, 58, 79, 89, 111, 232; F.
Elastica, 58, 68, 79, 89, 111, 122, 123, 125, 126, 143, 180, 228, 391,
395, 440, 459; F. species, 79
Furniture Woods, 107
Furu (Tschaudjo), 129
Futu (Kirikiri), 133
Gabarua (Hausa), 231
Gabaruwa (Hausa), 219
Gaboon, 29, 293; G. Chocolate, 454; G. Nut, 258, 457
Gabun, 144
Gaertnera paniculata, 61
Gagamagati (Ewe), 133
Galium Aparine, 431
Gall-bug, 124
Gallery Forests, 130, 138
Gamafada (Hausa), 206, 220; G. fada hada fuda (Sok.), 220
Gambia, 17, 20-22, 211, 494; G. Forest Exports, 24; G. Forest Trees,
23; G. Mahogany, 135; “Gambia” pods, 208, 290; G. Rubber, 252
Game Preservation Ordinance, 302
Gamji (Hausa), 216; or Ganji (Kano), 218
Ganbe (Yoruba), 344
Gangame (Hausa), 218
Garcinia conrauana, 233, 359, 360, 462; G. punctata, 55, 437; G.
Guineensis, 107; G. Kola, 55, 69, 77, 360; G. Mannii, 360; G.
ovalifolia, 204; G. polyantha, 55, 88; G. species, 77, 239; G., _var.
nov._ brevipedicellata, 360
Gardayi (Hausa), 220
Gardenia Abeokuta, 146; G. erubescens, 192, 201; G. medicinalis, 146;
G. Sokotensis, 199; G. species, 225; G. species near G. physophylla,
61; G. tenuifolia, 113, 146; G. ternifolia, 192, 201; G. Thunbergia,
146; G. viscidissima, 89
Garicha (Zanfara), 218
Garlic, 199
Gassaya, 190
Gatisima (Mbonoi), 84
Gauden kura, 192
Gauta, 194
Gautan Rura, 194
Gawasa (Hausa), 199, 213, 219, 231, 232
Gawo (Hausa), 208, 220
Gazari or Gizeri (Hadeija), 218
Gbassei (Mendi), 44
Gbetschigbetschi (Atakpame), 144
Gbingbin (Yoruba), 233
Gbingbindo (Yoruba), 272
Gbogbonshe (Yoruba), 263
Gboite (Mendi), 43
Gbojei (Mendi), 52
Gbolei (Mendi), 51
Gedar (Hausa), 220; Gedar kurumi, 233
Gedu (Benin), 228
Geduloha (Benin), 322
Genferrebiesó (Mangu), 146
Gera, 204
Geraniaceæ (Nigeria), 193
German Markets, Sapeli wood, 157
Gero, 199
Gesa, 199
Gesneraceæ (Nigeria), 197
Geza, 204, 223
Ghido (Yoruba), 259
Giant Pod, 290
Gibofoyoi (Mendi), 50
Gibowali (Mendi), 61
Gibowuli (Mendi), 61
Gidjiko (Kratschi), 143
Giginya, 195, 200, 216, 218, 233
Gilli-gilli Forest, 160
Gimwi (Mendi), 45
Ginger, 90
Gingerbread palm, 216, 218; G. plum, 44, 72, 199, 213, 219
Gisekia pharnaceoides, 194
Giwini (Yoruba), 391
Giyaiya (Hausa), 192, 214; or Giyeya, 225
Gjira (Kratschi), 141
Gladiolus, 195; G. quartinianus, 195
Gloriosa superba, 195
Glossonema nubicum, 199
Glycerine in pericarp oil, 480
Glyphæa Grewioides, 53, 105, 343
Gnibi (Attie), 87
Gnidia, 195
Goga jiki, 223
Gogwi (Mendi), 45
Gola Forest, 50, 66-69
Gold Coast, chapter vi, 91-115; Description of, 91-92; Forest Exports,
115; Forest land, 17, 69, 492, 494; Forest Reserve, 160; List of
Indigenous Trees and Rubber Vines, 93-114
Golli (Mendi), 62
Gombei (Mendi), 42
Gomphia, 190; G. Congesta, 54; G. Glaberrima, 359; G. Insculpta, 359;
G. W. Affinis, 359
Gongola or Gwongola gwangwala (Nupe), 218
Goñgovi (Kpedyi), 142
Gongui (Mendi), 43
Gonguonkiur (Mbonoi), 89
Gonistan Mountain, 416
Gonwé (Mendi), 42
Gonwi (Mendi), 42
Goo (Bali), 429
Gora (Hausa), 218
Gorgo (Hausa), 225
Goriba, 218, 244; G. (Hausa), 195, 200, 216
“Gorli” seeds, 462, 463
Goro, 223
Goron biri or G. ruwa (Hausa), 210, 221
Gossypium Peruvianum, 76
Gotti (Fõ), 140
Government of Forest Reserves, Central and Federal, 165
Govwi (Mendi), 42
Gramineæ (Gold Coast), 93; (Togo), 127; (Nigeria), 196, 199, 218
Grand Basà, 70; G. Forests of, 72, 73, 74, 76, 82; G. swamps, 71
Grand Bassam, 69; G. Port, 81, 82
Grass in Treeless Savannah, 19
Grazing Reserves, Nigeria, 163
“Greenheart,” 52, 75, 280
Grewia, 190; G. Carpinifolia, 105, 344; G. Gigantiflora, 137; G.
Mollis, 190, 201; G. Tetragastris, 344; G. Villosa, 137
Grewiopsis discophora, 435; G. Globosa, 435
Griffonia palescens Coronko— cut locally, 33
Ground nuts, 63
Grumilea vanosa, 89
Guaiacum officinale, 175
Guangua (Attie), 84
Guarea, 50; G. Africana, 75; G. Glomerata, 416, 433; Guarea sp. near
Leptotricha, 50, 228; G. species, 329, 416; G. (Satin Mahogany)
description, 28, 67, 101, 328; G. Thompsonii, 228, 328, 329, 330, 419
Guava, 78; G. Mistletoe found on, 43
Gudjápūpŭ or Gudzawuwu (Ewe), 131
Gueguirotta baka (Agni), 84
Guele (Bondoukou), 83
Guere (Neyau), 87
Guesu (Bete), 87
Guiango (Agni), 87
Guiera Senegalensis, 198, 199
Guima Djuma (Bondoukou), 83
Guinea Corn, 196, 204; G. Pepper, 219; G. (Spanish), 424; G. (Upper),
17
Gum, 278, 298; G. African, 176, 417; G. Arabic, 98, 204, 226, 234,
444; G. Copal, 35, 46, 63, 64, 68, 74, 90, 97, 152, 154, 226, 234,
424; G. Elemi, 314; G. Forests, 39; G. Resin, 211; G. True Benin
Copal, 298
Gumah, 39; G. River, 35
Gumgui (Mendi), 48
Gummel, 189
Gumni (Mendi), 45; or Gumui, 283
Gumwi (Mendi), 45
Guna, 193
Gung (Grunchi), 105
Gurara River, 211
Gurji, 199
Gurjiya (Hausa), 190, 209; Gurjiya or Guriya, 223
Guru (Hausa), 106
Gurzundali (Katagum), 221
Gushiocho (Kratschi), 134
Guttapercha, 78, 80, 109, 226, 439; G. Tree, 218
Guttiferæ (Sierra Leone), 54; (Liberia), 77; (Ivory Coast), 87; (Gold
Coast), 107; (Togo), 139; (Nigeria), 154, 359, 416, 447; (Cameroons),
437
Gwaboa (Hausa), 213; (Sok., Kats., and Zanf.), 224
Gwandar daji (Hausa), 190, 219, 233
Gwanja kusa (Hausa), 219
Gwaska (Hausa) or Itchen gwaska (Hausa), 220, 229
Gwe (Grunchi), 106
Gymnosporia Senegalensis, 191, 202, 340
Gynandropsis pentaphylla, 190
Haake (Berlin Firm), depericarping process, 477
Habenarias, 195
Habizacue (Attie), 86
Hadanyar rafi or Kadanyar kurumi (Hausa), 225
Hæmanthus rupestris, 195
Hæmatostaphis Barteri, 86, 136, 192, 222
Hague (Agni), 85
Haguguwa (Kano and Bauchi), 218
Haho-Baloë District Plantations, 117, 119; Afforestation area, 120,
121
Haho River, 117
Haiefai (Abe), 85
Hainde (Agni), 86
Hainfain (Attie), 80
Haipi (Bondoukou), 86; (Agni), 86
Hakue (Attie), 85
Halu (Adionkron), 87
Hamburg Market, 157, 325, 326, 345, 378
Hamon, 68
Han Sawmill, 159
Hana Gobard (Zanfara), 221
Hanabali (Oban, Ekoi), 280
Hane (Ebrie), 84
Hanfaru (Agni), 84
Hankufa, 190
Hannoa Klaineana, 85, 100, 232; H. Undulata, 134, 191, 210, 213, 221,
233, 313, 358
Hano (Hausa), 221
Hanwego (Bondoukou), 85
Hapo (Ebrie), 87
Happerrie (Mbonoi), 87
Harburg (near Hamburg, Germany), 480
Hardwood, 360, 413, 417; Big H., 410; Yellow H., 417
“Harmattan,” 181
Harmon, 54
Harms, 205, 211
Haronga Madagascariensis, 55, 107, 362; H. Paniculata, 437
Harrisonia Abyssinica, 100
Hasskarlia Didymostemon, 52, 75, 86, 103
Hate (Attie), 85
Hausa, 163, 185, 198, 205, 206, 350; H. Salts, 335
Hausaland, 188, 189, 190, 196, 200, 205, 207, 211, 216, 217
Hazel-nut compared with Heisteria parvifolia, 257
Heeria insignia, 137
Heinokohun (Mendi), 59
Heinsia jasminiflora, 61
Heisteria parvifolia, 257, 456; H. species, 258
Helei (Mendi), 47
Heleilahin (Mendi), 57
Helichrysum fœtidum, 442
Heliotropium, 192
Hellebolei (Mendi), 47
Hendje, Hengué (Agni), 85; H., soft-wooded, 485
Hendui (Mendi), 54
Henna, 192
Heptapleura Mannii, 375
Heritiera, 54; H. species, 351, 419; H. Utilis, 77, 106
Hete bake (Mbonoi), 85
Hetere (Bondoukou), 84
Heteropterys Africana, 102
Hevea, 434; H. Braziliensis, 123, 180, 420
Hewe (Mendi), 43
Hexalobus grandiflorus, 43, 96, 263, 427; H. Monopetalus, 130; H.
Salicifolius, 427; H. Senegalensis, 196
Hibiscus, 201
Hibiscus Esculentus, 344; H. Grewioides, 344; H. Quinquilobus, 344; H.
species, 190; H. Tiliaceus, 105
Hides and skins exported Togo, 150
Hiern, 214
“High Forest,” 241
Hiol or Mbia (Bakoko), 428
Hippocrates, 191
Ho Sub-station (Togo), 126
Hobo hapi (Abe), 86
Hofa (Abe), 87
Hog Gum, 363; H. Plum of the Creoles, 52, 103, 222, 232, 338, 419
Hogogo (Atakpame), 134
Hoke (Mendi), 41
Holarrhena Africana, 59; H. Ovata, 59; H. Wulfsbergii, 112, 142, 233,
395
Holland, Mr., _The Useful Plants of Nigeria_, 278
Homalium Africanum, 88; H. _cf._ Africanum, 366; H. Molle, 55; H.
species, 55
Honey exported, 444
Honum (Twi), 110
Hooker, Sir Wm. J., 496
Horns exported, 444
Horse Chestnut Tree, 129; H. Radish Tree, 44, 219
House post, 413
Hugonia acuminata, 100; H. octhocosum, 100; H. Planchoni, 100; H.
Platysepala, 100
Hui (Mendi), 43
Hull Port for Congo Kernels, 480; H. Price of Cake, 482
Humiriaceæ (Sierra Leone), 49; (Ivory Coast), 85; (Nigeria), 308
Humpe (Ebrie), 86
Humus, 70, 257
Hupfeld, Dr. (depericarping process), 477
Hure (Plapo), 87
Huti (Fõ), 138
Huwi Djenjei (Mendi), 58
Hydrocharitaceæ (Nigeria), 195
Hydrolea, 194; H. Guineensis, 194
Hydrophyllaceæ (Nigeria), 194
Hylodendron Gabunense, 428
Hymenocardia acida, 52, 103, 135, 202; H. Chevalieri, 103; H.
Heudelotii, 52; H. Lyrata, 52; H. Ulmoides, 136
Hymenodictyon Bracteatum, 407; H. Kurria, 145
Hypericineæ (Nigeria), 190
Hyphæne, 244, 459; H. Coriaceæ, 127; H. Thebaica, 195, 216, 218; H.
Togoensis, 127
Hyrax (squirrel-like animal), 467
Iakuni (Quitta), 109
Ibadan, 159, 174, 175, 185, 240, 241, 247, 249, 251, 252, 263, 269,
275, 285, 288, 289, 294, 299, 301, 305, 307, 313, 322, 323, 331, 336,
339, 342, 349, 354, 362, 367, 370, 383, 389, 391, 393, 396, 401, 409,
418, 475, 489, 490, 493; I. Forests, 244; Ibadan-Jebu-Ode Road, 170;
I. Plantations, 176, 178, 179; I. Reserve, 163
Ibadudu (Benin), 368; I. (Jebu, Yoruba), 368
Ibagho (Yoruba), 314, 315
Ibbegogo (Benin), 317
Ibbu (Benin), 391
Ibegogo (Benin), 229
Ibeshe, 367
Ibi, 188
Ibibio Province, 185
Ibitoto (Bembi), 349
Ibo-Akitipa (Yoruba), 392; I.-tabong (Yoruba), 392; I. Ilecki
(Yoruba), 392
Ibo (Benin), 393; I. (Yoruba), 392
Ibo country, 158, 253; I. language, 185; I. markets, 284
Ibos, 474
Ibugidi or Ibogidi (Yoruba), 392
Icacinaceæ (Sierra Leone), 53; (Ivory Coast), 87; (Gold Coast), 104;
(Nigeria), 340
Ida Plantation, 167
Idagbon (Ondo), 230
Idah (Yoruba), 270
Idanre district, 392
Idi, Idi Odan (Yoruba), 372
Idigbo (Yoruba), 369
Idjawli (Akposso), 143
Idjnake (Bakundu), 442
Idofun (Yoruba), 407
Iedi (Krepi), 96
Ifainaki (Egba), 230
Ifassoa (Bakwiri), 433
Ife, 159
Ifetn, 337
Ifon Owe-Akure Road, 318; Ifon Province, 275, 402, 412, 466, 473
Ifondo or Wofondo (Bakwiri), 426
Ifwan (Efik), 229
Igata (Yoruba), 269
Igba (Yoruba, tree), 283
Igbagon Stream, 488
Igberi (Yoruba), 260
Igbeshe, 367
Igbin (Brass), 290
Igbo (Benin), 245, 391; (Yoruba), 265; (Lagos), 313, 407, 494
Igbofia (Ibibio), 361
Igedudu (Benin), 384, 385; (Yoruba), 385
Igi Ira (Lagos), 407
Igigum (Egba), 313
Igili (Mendi), 51
Igmikkia fruit (Benin), 284
Igoda (Benin), 363
Igogo (Benin), 257, 331
Igoso, 351
Igun (Yoruba), 302
Ihagobo (Benin), 409
Ihege (Benin), 256
Ihi (Ekoi), 229; (Ibo, Owerri), 276
Ija oke (Yoruba), 396
Ijaiye, old town site, 167
Ije (Benin), 256
Ijebo (Yoruba), 228
Ijebbo (Yoruba, Jebu, Ashuwole), 323
Ijebu-Ode District, 278
Ijeni (fruit, Benin), 256
Ijeni Udegbu (West Side), 361
Ijor, 185
Ijors or “Waterboys,” 155, 158, 185, 187, 238
Ikaka (Bakundu), 442
Ikakama Udia Ebian (Efik, Ibibio), 361
Ikale Village, 354
Ikan (Benin), 240
Ikassa (Benin), 379
Ikate (Yoruba), 233
Ikbo (a Benin game), 379
Ikereoha (Benin), 257
Ikhemeni tree (Benin), 284
Ikhimi (Benin), 401
Ikoha (Benin Province), 403
Ikoi (Oban), 368
Ikom, 168; I. District, 239, 472
Ikomba (Bare), 426
Ikoto, 244
Ikpa market, 473
Ikpa ukoro (Yoruba), 241; I. wudu (Benin), 294
Ikpan (Efik), 452
Ikpanya (Efik), 277, 278
Ikpoba Road, 447
Ikrigon Reserve, 160, 168, 171, 172, 173, 178, 372
Iku, Seeds (Yoruba), 285, 368
Ikwabobo (Benin), 325
Ikwapbo (Yoruba), 315
Ikwapo (Benin), 228
Ikwepokin (Benin), 233
Ikwian (Benin), 393
Ilaka (Benin), 410
Ilakosin (Yoruba), 265
Ilaro Reserve, 160, 166, 167, 170, 173, 322, 343, 347
Ilasa Omodo (Yoruba), 344
Ile (Ibo), 231; (Bonny and New Calabar), 334
Ilesha District, 302, 354, 395
Ilobe (Nigeria), 487
Ilorin, Balsam, 44, 307
Ilugbro, 359
Ilugun, 159
Illushi (Asaba District), 395
Ilysanthes, 194
Imo, Railway, 364; Imo River, 152, 287
Imonon (New Calabar), 368
Imonor (Ibo), 229
Imperial Institute, Teak samples sent to, 171; Report on Irvingia
Barteri, 313
_Imperial Institute Bulletins_, 20
Incense Tree or Ehye, 100, 229, 314, 315
Indäihen (Mendi), 42
India, 145, 174, 338; I. Almond, 176; I. Blackwood or Rosewood, 175;
I. Value of Bombay Blackwood, 176; I. Rose Chestnut or Ironwood, 176;
I. Walnut, 175
Indigo, 303; I. (Big leaved), 46, 192; Yoruba Indigo, 303
Indigofera, 191; I. Africana, 430; I. Arrecta, 129; I. Hirsuta, 303;
I. Secundiflora, 221; I. Stenophylla, 303
Indoabaka (Mangu), 140
Ingidido (Hausa), 190, 213, 219
Inkum, 168
Innuwar Bauna (Hausa), 214
Inoi, 368; I. nut, 368; or Inoye (Efik), 368, 416, 451; Inoi (Ekoi),
368
“Inselbergs,” 189
Insofaniowŏche (Mangu), 130
Insuakoto (Mangu), 143
Insuopangi (Mangu), 130
Intya (Dyakossi), 145
Intya Joko (Yoruba), 372
Inya (New Calabar), 282
Inyere (Ekoi), 229
Inyi (Ibo), 229; (Ibo, Onitsha Owerri), 275
Inyin Tree, 234
Ipa (Yoruba), 337
Ipahan (Yoruba), 358
Ipapo (Yoruba), 302
Ipawhaw (Yoruba), 232, 358
Ipetu, 337
Ipomæa, 194; I. bona-nox, 203; I. involucrata, 440
Ira Odan (Yoruba), 335
Iragbo Amuje (Yoruba), 257, 393
Iraïgbo (Yoruba), 393
Iranje (Yoruba), 337
Ireh Ako, 395; I. (False) Tree, 395, 440; Ireh-ibeji, 395; I. Rubber
(Funtumia elastica) Plantations, Nigeria, 180; Togo, 149
Irena-kekere (Yoruba), 396
Irere (Yoruba), 330
Iridaceæ (Nigeria), 195; (Cameroons), 425
Iringi (Ibo), 229
Iro District, 408
Iroko, 19; suggestion by Dr. Unwin, 42, 67, 117, 119, 120, 124, 125,
126; I. (chlorophora excelsa) Plantations (Nigeria), 154, 158, 159,
162, 164, 168, 171, 172, 215, 228, 249, 252, 254, 418, 498;
Plantations (Togo), 149, 153
Ironpost, 27; Uses of, 28; Sierra Leone, cut locally, 33, 54
Ironwood, 174, 176; Dwarf Ironwood, 323, 379, 417
Irosun (Yoruba), 232, 287
Iru (Yoruba), 282, 401
Irugba (Yoruba), 230; (fruit), 283
Irugbo Abatta (Yoruba), 282
Irvingia, 85; I. Barteri, 68, 74, 100, 179, 230, 312, 313, 417, 418,
422, 423, 445, 446, 454; Irvingia Gabunensis, 419, 432; I. Smithii,
191, 203, 204, 210, 221, 313, 454; I. sp., 100, 313
Isain (Attie), 86
Isanhianme (Benin), 385
Isbe (Yoruba), 299
Iseko (Yoruba), 330
Isha fere (Yoruba), I. gere (Yoruba), I. kekere, 395
Ishan (Benin), 358
Ishan, 229; I. gege (Yoruba), 343; I. jeje (Yoruba), 343; I. oka
(Yoruba), 341, 342
Ishishiya (Zanfara), 220
Ishoka, 299
Isienwe (Benin), 354
Isinko (Yoruba), 342
Isinrem (Lagos), 367; (Yoruba) 375
Islii of the Akus, 61
Isoberlinia, 19, 232, 233; I. Dalzielii, 205, 220; I. doka, 191, 200,
205, 220, 280; I. sp., 234
Isolona pleurocarpa, 427
Issa oku (Yoruba), 262
Ita of the Yorubas, 232; (Ikale), 246, 247; I. gangan (Egba), 246;
Ita-ita (Yoruba), 247
Itaku market, 300
Itakum (Yoruba), 337; I. mountain, 18; I. okere (Yoruba), 344
Itebe (roofing canes), 164
Iteruku (Efik), 279
Itiuyang (Oban, Ekoi), 386
Ito (Yoruba), 284, 367
Itobo (Ibibio), 368
Itue (Benin), 362
Itunkpe Creek (trib. of Kwa River), 411
Ivialegbi (Benin), 457
Ivioha (Benin), 385
Ivory, 80; Exported (Togo), 150-144; Ivory Coast, 66, 69, chap. v,
81-90, 157; Forest exports, 90; List of trees, 83-89; I. coast
mahogany, 81; method of felling, 81; working the forests, 82
Iwe (Yoruba), 401
Iwu (Yoruba), 19
Ixora radiata, 197, 204
Iya (Efik), 235; (Yoruba), 231, 307
Iyawy (Red Cedar), 32
Iyeye (Yoruba), 232, 338
Iyoha (Benin), 265
Iyokheze (Benin), 407
Izaquente Portugais (Colons.), 83
Izenagan (Benin), 256
Izeni or Iyockan (Benin), 363
Jackson, D. G., 496
Jagbouei (Mendi), 51
Jagiri, 300
Jahdanko (Accra), 111
Jalei (Mendi), 46
Jama (Ashanti), 111
Jamostima (Mendi), 46
Jan Sayi (Hausa), 211, 222; J. Yaro or Jitache, 222
Jashuli (Mendi), 61
Jasmin, 61
Jatropha curcas, 193
Jaudari (East Hausa), _syn._ Gorso, 225
Jaunde District, 429, 433
Jawei (Mendi), 50
Jawul (Hausa), 221
Jebere of the Ondos, 230
Jebu or Jebu-ode, 152, 153, 154, 159, 303, 342, 349, 354, 357, 361,
378
Jekri Country, 308, 398, 474; Jekris, The, 163, 236, 238
Jendi (Togo), 118, 125, 469
Jerusalem Thorn, 221
Jeti (Ewe), 141
Jibda kassa, 193
Jimshi (Sok.), 220
Jina Jina (Sok. and Zanf.), 219
Jirga (Sok. and Kats.), _syn._ Tsatsagi (Sok., Zaria, Kano, etc.), 220
Jiri (Hausa), 215, 225; J. dan sarikin itatuwa (Sok. and Kats.), 225
Johann Albrechts Höhe, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433,
434, 435, 438, 439, 440, 441
Johimbe, 407
Johimbin alkaloid, 408
John Obey, 25
Jojau (Kabure), 138
Jol (Timani) (Mendi), 42
Joloso (Duala), 433
Jom (Ossidinge), 440
Jon (Bali), 441
Jondo (Bakwiri), 428
Ju (Akposso), 138
“Ju-ju,” 164, 243, 246, 286, 287, 299, 343, 355, 486
Jujube Tree, 222
Juma (Wassaw), 95
Jumbowilli, 46
Justicia, 194
Kaba, 218, 244
Kabeova, 193
Kabu or Ebba Kernels, 460
Kadanya (Hausa), 214, 231; K. or Kadai, 224
Kadanyar kurumi, 225; K. rafi (Hausa), 214, 232, 233
Kadaura (Hausa), 191, 205, 220; (Kano, Zaria), 221
Káde (Hausa), 141
Kaderabolo (Tschaudjo), 138
Kaduna R., 189
Kæmpferia Æthiopica, 195
Ka fafogo (Hausa), 222
Kafahinei (Mendi), 61
Kafe or Kaffi (Mendi), 50, 57; Kafei (Mendi), 60
Kafro (Grunchi), 105
“Kafu,” 457
Kagnari Mountains, 25, 39, 58
Kaidaji (Hausa), 209, 220; or Kardaji, 220
Kaiguigo (Bondoukou), 86
Kaikai (Hausa), 219
Kaikumba (Mendi), 55
Kainya (Hausa), 230
Kaiwa (Hausa), 214, 224
Ka Jafgo (Hausa), 215
Kaju (Yoruba), 339
Kakaleka (Bondoukou), 88
Kakana (Agni), 89
Kakanla (Kratschi), 140
Kakatown, 70
Ka Ki ganin bula (Zanfara), 221
Kakoba (creeper), 163
Kakoro (Fanti), 86
Kaku or Red Ironwood Tree, 107
Kakunt (Timani), 49
Käla (Tschaudjo), 136
Kalangasshi Station (Togo), 126
Kalangon daji, 220
Kam (Timani), 48
Kamaa River (Togo), 121, 124
Kamatete (Ibo Owerri), 407
Kambala, 422, 423
Kamban (Fanti), 103
Kambui Hills, 25, 39, 160
Kamerun Holz Syndicate, “Millettia,” 431
Kameruns, 189, 211
Kamfuã (Bagu), 135
Kamou Aguire (Agni), 87
Kanahia consimilis, 112
Kanakan (Yoruba), 246
Kanda Bark, 259
Kandari (Hausa), 192, 212, 223
Kangahan, 25
Kanja (Bakwiri and Bakundu), 440
Kanjanapcule (mangu), 134
Kanju (Hausa), 222
Kankan (Yoruba), 407
Kankandika (Yoruba), 366
Kánnâ (Asante), 140
Kano, 189, 190, 198, 201, 207, 217
Kanran (Yoruba), 178, 230, 384
Kant (Timani), 55
Kanti (Mendi), 55
Kanton (Fanti), 85
Kanumfari (Hausa), 224
Kanwo (Hausa), 229
Kanya (Hausa), 214, 224
Kao (Hausa), 132
Kapok or C. Pentandra (German Botanists), Eriodendron (Kew Botanists),
122; K. fibre, 53, 90, 105, 120, 123, 124, 125, 126, 150, 209, 226,
345, 346; K. plantations (Togo), 149
Kapro (Grunchi), 94
Kapus (Timani), 43
Karangia, 199
Karan masalachi, 199
Karene District, 46
Karfa (Bambara), 83
Kargo (Hausa), 207
Karina District, 31; K. Forest, 46
Kariya, 199; Kariye gatari, 220, 221
Karjara (Kano), 220
Karki (Sok., Kats., and Zanf.), 220
Kasfiya, 214; K. (Sok., Kats., and Zanf.), 225
Kashi Kashi (Kontagora Kols.), 220
Kaskawami, 190; K. cannabinus, 190
Kassekui (Mbonoi), 86
Kassewe Hills, 25, 36, 39, 46
Katai (Timani), 46
Katambiri (Hausa), 225
Katanga treeless area, 423
Katank (Timani), 54
Kati (Abe), 88; K. (Atakpame), 131
Katsari (Hausa), 209, 220
Katsina, 207; K. (Allah), 210; K. (River), 188
Katumbulia (Tschaudjo), 141
Kau belia or abalia (Tschaudjo), 146; K. këure (Tschaudjo), 146; K.
kutoku (Tschaudjo), 146
Kauchi, 193
Kauri Gum, 37
Kauriri, 193
Kaüsa (Indenie), 87
Kauwi (Mendi), 58
Kawo (Hausa), 190, 191, 205, 220
Kawogei (Mendi), 59
Kawuri (Hausa), 216, 219
Kayar rakumi or Karo (Kano, Sok., and Kats.), 220
Kayo (Bondoukou), 86
Kebarre (Kratschi), 132
Kedā (Tschaudjo), 129
Kedeleā or Kodoleā (Tschaudjo), 133
Kedempo (Atakpame), 141
Kedemponasi (Kratschi), 135
Keditia (Tschaudjo), 132
Kedjetjelo (Tschaudjo), 146
Keiwgo (Bondoukou), 86
Keka (Kratschi), 137
Kekëū (Tschaudjo), 132
Kekpili (Kratschi), 133
Kekung (Timani), 45
Kelantori (Kratschi), 134
Kelengma͡u (Tschaudjo), 134
Keleyn (Kratschi), 133
Kelipotu (Kratschi), 138
Kelle (Kratschi), 138
Kengüe (Mbonoi), 85
Kenjang (Kratschi), 132
Kennema, 54, 59, 160, 493
Kent, 25
Kerana, 193
Kere (Yoruba), 270
Kersting, Dr. (Piptadenia Kerstingii experiments), 123
Keruwowo (Tschaudjo), 133
Kesang (Tschaudjo), 139
Kessede, 466
Kessing (Tschaudjo), 133
Kete-Kratschi Station (Togo), 118, 124, 126, 143
Ketibubaka (Aowin), 109
Ketschikantscha (Kratschi), 131
Ketum (Timani), 60
Ketyelenea (Tschaudjo), 146
Kewe (Mendi), 43
K’fut (Timani), 54
Khaya, 50, 121, 228, 323, 330, 363, 425; K. anthoteka, 100, 318, 320;
K. caudata, 101; K. euryphylla, 415, 417, 420, 433; K. grandifolia,
318; K. grandis, 75, 81, 101, 318, 319, 320, 322; K. Ivoriensis, 66,
81, 82, 86, 101, 318, 319, 320, 321, 324; K. Klainii or Klaineana,
119, 120, 121, 126, 135, 416, 433; K. punchii, 81, 100, 101, 318, 319,
322; K. Senegalensis, 17, 20, 81, 101, 117, 118, 120, 121, 123, 124,
125, 126, 134, 177, 190, 191, 203, 211, 222, 229, 318, 321, 433; K.
sp., 101, 183, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 424
Kiangue (Mbonoi), 89
Kicksia Africana, 143; K. elastica, 440
Kidgeling (Tschaudjo), 136
Kidney-tree Cotton, 76
Kigelia, 60; K. acutifolia, 441; K. Æthiopica, 192, 204, 215, 225; K.
Africana, 145, 400; K., _var._ Bornuensis, 215, 225; K. pinnata, 113,
145, 233
Kili (Mendi), 41
Kimba (Hausa), 219, 233
Kinchia, 195
King of the Timber, 318
Kingkanga (Hausa), 94
Kinguei (Mendi), 53
Kinkonawon (Mbonoi), 84
Kino (Timani), 50
Kinyelu (Tschaudjo), 136
Kiria (Hausa), 131
Kiriandutschi (Tschaudjo), 132
Kiriya (Hausa), 207, 220, 233
Kishia (General West Coast), 113
Kita (Timani), 48
Kiukuesin (Attie), 84
Kiumba (Bondoukou), 89
K’Kuperb (Timani), 45
Klaineodoxa Gabunensis, 230, 432; K. Grandifolia, 432
Klo (Ewe), 133
Klokpakpa (Ewe), 131; (Kratschi), 132
Klongbau (Timani), 134
Kobei (Mendi), 54
Kobi (Bambara), 85
Kobwi (Mendi), 46
Kochoa (Kratschi), 132
Kodago, 218, 244
Kode lia (Tschaudjo), 140
Kofe (Mendi), 55
Kofei (Mendi), 58
Koghia bera (Fanti), 88
Koinadugu District, 59
Kojagei (Mendi), 56
Kokank (Lophira Procera) cut locally, Sierra Leone, 33
Kokara (Hausa), 220
Kokiya (Hausa), 215; or Kokiyar biri (Kontagora), 224
Koko Port, 151, 156, 157; K. Town, 305
Kokochiko (Hausa), 223
Kokojá (Losso), 128
Kokomazur (Mbonoi), 89
Kokoro or Golloklo (Tschaudjo), 133
Kokoti (Wassaw, Fanti), 108
Kokotsi (Fanti), 87
Kokotswi (Twi), 101
Kokpara (Atakpame), 130
Kokue (Attie), 88
Kokuwa (Sok. and West.), 221
Kola (Tree), 54; Baboon K., 54; K. Bark, 145; Bitter K. (exported from
Sierra Leone), 63, 106. _See also_ Cola
Kola nuts, 54, 63, 69, 80, 106, 150, 223
Kolei (Mendi), 48
Koligi (Leopardwood), 35
Kologalei (Mendi), 55
Kombo seeds, 458
Kombolo or Combolo (Duala), 429
Komdi (Timani), 55
Komigbulei (Mendi), 53
Komoe River, 82
Komu (Tschaudjo), 138
Kondi (Mendi), 51
Kongkong or Kongkonga (Tschaudjo), 135, 143
Kongo (Tschaudjo), 142
Kongofura (Tschaudjo), 142
Kongoli (Mendi), 62
Kongolu (Tschaudjo), 140
Kongowura (Kotokoli), 139
Konkwa (Bali), 437
Kontagora, 189, 190, 200, 210
Kontah or Rhodesian Mahogany (_see_ Afzelia African), 32, 47
Kontsha District, 415
Köpu (Kratschi), 132
Koran tablets made from Crossopteryx Kotschyana, 145
Koriga stream, 200
Koronko (Timani), 45; (and Mendi), 45
Kotia (Yendi), 137
Koto Dyakossi, 142
Kotokie (Indenia), 87
Kotopapa (Krepi), 98
Kotopuan (Attie), 84
Kotschii, 214, 215
Kotublassu (Fõ), 139
Kouanda (Attie), 87
Kowi or Kuwi (Mendi), 49
Kpa (Efik), 352; K. (Ewe), 127
Kpaini (Mendi), 43
Kpako (Anago), 127
Kpakpa (Fõ), 132
K’Pal (Timani), 46
K’Palen (Timani), 58
Kpánenā (Kratschi), 131
Kpaoloe (Mendi), 51
Kpendei (Mendi), 47
Kpendeideli (Mendi), 47
Kpessei (Mendi), 44
Kpetellahen (Mendi), 59
Kpoe (Ewe), 139
Kpoye (Sierra Leone), 457
Kreangú (Asanté), 141
Krekete (Bambara), 88
Krendja Haigue (Agni), 85
Kroo Coast, 98
Krŭbete (Asanté), 135
Krubua (Twi), 101
Krutū (Tschaudjo), 139
Kuakie-kuakie (Agni), 88
Kuangua (Agni), 84; K. iniama (Agni), 85
Kuanguan (Agni), 84
Kuatiecuale (Agni), 86
Kube (Akwapim), 93
Küe (Attie), 84
Kuge (Bakossi), 440
Kugŏnu (Tschaudjo), 134
Kuka (Hausa), 138, 190, 210, 223
Kukorn (Timani), 45
Kukuki, 190, 210, 223
Kukumarugbo (Yoruba), 332
Kuli pia (Bondoukou), 85
Kulil (Timani), 51
Kumba District, 416, 420
Kumchi (Sok. and Zanf.), 222
Kuntunkun (Twi), 105
Kuntunkuni (Denkira), 105
Kupaussŭto (Kabure, Tschaudjo), 131
Kupkup (Timani), 62
Kuppe Mountains, 415, 417, 420
Kurdi (Hausa), 220
Kure (Agni), 84
Kuriya (Sok. and Zanf.), 223
Kurna (Hausa), 198, 213
Kurnan nasara, 191, 219; (East Hausa, Kontagora), 222
Kursua (Appolonian), 107
Kuru (Brass), 357; (Ibo, Owerri), 357; (Ijor), 229
Kusia (Twi), 113
Kuwi or Kowi (Mendi), 49
Kuwul (Timani), 44
Kwa (River), 152, 469
Kwaboho (Ashanti), 100
Kwabohri (Twi), 100
Kwaiebo River, 151, 152
Kwakwa or Kwakwar (Hausa), 218
Kwalo nut, 218, 244
Kwandaruja, 220
Kwankanni, 192
Kwantama (Wassaw, General West Coast), 111
Kwantanura (Ashanti), 101
Kwari (Hausa), 224
Kwina (Hausa), 222
Kyllingia, 196
Kyukyu or bird, 315
Labiatæ (Nigeria), 194, 400
Labuje goriya (largest nuts), 223
Laburnum compared to Cassia fistula, 99
Lagenaria, 159; L. vulgaris, 193
Lagerstrœmia (L. flos Reginæ), 174
Lagos, 151, 156, 157, 169, 170, 174, 176, 185, 189, 243, 264, 339,
358, 368, 395, 410, 464; L. Public Works, 160; L. Sawmills, 159; L.
Reserve, 163; L. River, 151
Laguncularia racemosa, 56, 108, 374, 397; L. sp., 397
La Hou, 81, 82
Lakole (Yoruba), 349
Lakoshe (Yoruba), 265
Lakosin (Yoruba), 264, 265
Lakuta (Yoruba), 303
Lalong grass, 56
Lancashire County experiments, 483
Ländo (Tschaudjo), 140
Landolphia, 203, 302; Landolphia (large fruited), 392; L. bracteata,
100, 392; L. Dawei, 440; L. Droogmansiana, 111; L. ferruginea, 110; L.
florida, 111, 192, 392; L. Heudelotii, 58; L. jenge, 79; L. klainii,
111; L. leonensis, 58; L. owariensis, 68, 79, 111, 197, 392; L.
owariensis jenge, 58; L. owariensis, _var._ rubiginosa, 392; L.
Petersiana, 392; L. scandens, 111, 392; L. Senegalensis, 111, 392; L.
Thompsonii, 111, 392
Lane Poole (species trees, Sierra Leone), 41
Lānga͡ua (Kratschi), 146
Lannea acidissima, 86, 136; L. Barteri, 136; L. sp., 87
Lantana camara, 112; L. salvifolia, 193
Lasiodiscus, 104
Lasiosyphon Glaucus, 437; L. Kraussii, 195
Latex, 58, 95, 109, 111, 250, 252, 254, 266, 292, 392
Lauraceæ (Gold Coast), 96; (Cameroons), 427; (Nigeria), 195, 266
Lauro (Cedar-like), 250, 346
Lawonong (Jaunde), 442
Lawsonia alba, 192
Laye, Igu (Yoruba), 302
Lecaniodiscus cupanioides, 53, 104, 340
Lecythidaceæ (Gold Coast), 108; (Nigeria), 367
Leea, 105; L. Guineensis, 197
Leguminosæ, (Sierra Leone), 44; (Gold Coast), 96; (Liberia), 72;
(Ivory Coast), 84; (Nigeria), 191, 197, 199, 219, 269, 276, 277, 301,
305, 447; (Togo), 130
Leicester Peak, 25
Lemon trees, 124
Lentibulaceæ (Nigeria), 194
Leopardstown (Calabar), 312
Leopardwood, Description of, 35 Lepidoturus occidentalis, 433
Leptadenia lancifolia, 199
Leptaulos daphnoides, 53, 87
Leptoderris, 287
Leptonychia, 54
Lia nuwasanre (Tschaudjo), 142
Liane, liana (fibre), 72, 131
Liasá (Atakpame), 129
Liberia, position of, 17; L., chapter iv, 66-80; L. Gola Forest, 66;
L. valuable trees, 66-69; L. Trees and Rubber Vines, 70-79; L. Forest
Exports, 80
Liberian coffee, 79
Lifui (Ewe), 144
Light African Greenheart, 279
Lignum Vitæ, 175
Lili River, 117
Liliaceæ (Sierra Leone), 42; (Liberia), 70; (Ivory Coast), 83; (Gold
Coast), 94; (Togo), 127; Nigeria, 195, 199, 245
Lilualamombe (Bakwiri), 433
Lime trees, 124
Limonia, 221; L. Preussii, 134; L. Warneckei, 134
Linaceæ (Sierra Leone), 49; (Ivory Coast), 85; (Gold Coast), 100;
(Cameroons), 431
Lindackeria dentata, 107, 437
Linociera Mannii, 88; L. nilotica, 142
Lipiti or Dsati (Ewe), 132
Lippia Ukambensis, 193
Lisombe Palm, 243
Lissochilus arenarius, 195
Liver Sausage tree, 145
Liverpool Markets, 157, 252, 255, 259, 264, 268, 272, 277, 279, 280,
282, 287, 293, 305, 308, 310, 316, 327, 333, 344, 348, 354, 358, 361,
378, 390, 403, 404, 405, 456, 460, 461, 480
Liwoma (Bakwiri), 434
Lloyd, Frank J., _Analysis of Kernel Cake_, 481
Lo (Abe), 85; L. (Attie), 85; Lo (Attie), 87; (Ewe), 134
Lobog (Jaunde), 442
Locust, 491; L. bean, 45, 73; Tree, 97, 120, 126, 153, 207; L. wood,
131
Loganiaceæ (Sierra Leone), 58; (Ivory Coast), 88; (Gold Coast), 110;
(Togo), 142; (Nigeria), 192, 197, 215, 224, 389; (Cameroons), 440
Logo (Ewe), 129
Logoasagu (Ewe), 128
Loho (Abe), 83
Loko, 219
Lokoba (Attie), 86
Lokobua (Attie), 86
Lokoja, 188, 189, 202, 206
Lom (Bakoko), 430, 435
Loma Mountains, 25, 58, 160
Lomburu (Bondoukou), 87
Lome Experimental Gardens, 122; Railway, 119, 121; Taxation, 116;
(Capital) Togo, 116
Lonchocarpus, 35, 46; L. Barteri, 72; L. cyanescens, 46, 99, 197, 219,
221, 303; L. laxiflora, 72, 191, 201, 220, 221; L. sericeus, 46, 72,
85, 99, 133, 302; L. sp., 303; L. zenkeri, 72, 231, 428
London markets, 157; (Erith), 480
Longoso (Bakundu, Bakwiri), 433
Loofah gourd, 194
Lophira, 117, 118; L. alata, 18, 19, 26, 54, 67, 82, 107, 109, 139,
190, 200, 202, 209, 214, 232, 234, 357, 358, 379, 436, 445, 446, 459,
460, 461; Lophira procera, 19, 27, 33, 54, 77, 87, 107, 159, 160, 209,
229, 277, 356, 358, 359, 394, 415, 416, 417, 419, 460
Lophotocarpus Guyanensis, 195
Lopi (Timani), 42
Loranthaceæ (Sierra Leone), 43; (Nigeria), 193, 259
Loranthus, 193; L. langwensis, 43; L. leptolobus (Red flowering L.),
259
Lovoa, 101, 177, 228, 326, 412, 416, 422; Klaineana, 28, 49, 67, 74,
101, 177; L. sp. near L. Klaineana, 49
Lubei (Mendi), 59
Lubi or Snuff, 62
Lubiniati (Adionkron), 85
Ludjŭ (Tschaudjo), 128
Luep (Timani), 52
Luffa Acutangula, 194; L. Ægyptiaca, 194; L. Soudanica, 164
Lumber exports (Gold Coast), 115
Lycopodaceæ (Nigeria), 410
Lycopodium phlegmaria, 410
Lymexylon, 326
Lythraceæ (Nigeria), 192
Maba (Benin), 388; M. Mannii, 57, 388; M. Warneckii, 142
Mabanga (Duala), 441
Mabump (Timani), 47
Macaranga, 337; M. Barteri, 52, 102; M. heterophylla, 52, 102; M.
Heudelotii, 86; M. Monandra, 52, 102; M. Rosea, 433; M. Rowlandii,
102; M. sp., 433
Mackay or Sea bean, 69, 72, 298
Macrolobium elongatum, 47; M. Limba, 46, 47, 98; M. Mannii, 428; M.
Macrolobium, 289; M. Palisotii, 46, 85, 98, 288, 289, 449; M.
Preussii, 428; M. reticulatum, 98; M. sp., 46, 98, 232; M. sp. near
Heudelotii, 47; M. Stipulaceæ, 98, 289; M. Zenkeri, 428
Madachi (Hausa), 190, 211, 229; M. or Madavachi (Sok.), 222
Madobia (Hausa), 206, 221, 231
Mærua, 198; M. Angolensis, 219
Mæsa lanceolata, 438
Mæsobotrya cauliflora, 103; M. sp., 52; M. stapfiana, 86; M.
sparsiflora, 103
Magariya, 198, 213, 222
Magariyar kura, 198, 222
Magarua or Bagarua (Hausa), 131
Magbevi (Mendi), 50
Magoro (Hausa), 222
Maho River, 39
Mahogany, 50, 67, 75, 77, 119, 120, 228, 323, 329, 332, 334, 363, 364,
405, 413, 416, 420, 421, 422, 424, 445, 446
African, 20, 120, 135, 149, 175, 205, 222
African, West, 211, 422, 423
Bark Tree, Brass, 308
Bastard, 315
Bean, 205
Benin, 57, 78, 157, 266, 268, 316, 319
Cedar, 26, 28, 328, 329, 330; Hard Cedar M., 323
Cherry, 376
Close-grained, 328
Dita, 73
Dry Zone, 177, 229
Duika, 423
False, 324
False Hill, 343
Gaboon, 29, 315, 316, 317, 320, 419, 422, 424
Hard, 306, 419; Hard capsuled, 323
Heavy, 102, 151, 157, 418, 420
Khaya, 423, 325; M. Khaya Senegalensis, 17, 20, 21; Khaya Klainii,
149
Kontah, 26, 67, 205
Lagos, 157, 162, 164, 167
Light, 415, 417
Long-capsuled, 177, 178, 415, 416
Mountain, 35, 46, 68, 72
Niger, 320
Nuts, 267, 269
Oban, 378
Pink, 304, 315
Plantations (Togo) (Khaya Klainii), 149
Red, 267
Reserves, 167
Rhodesian or Kontah, 26, 67, 205
Sapeli or Heavy, 102, 151, 157, 418, 420
Satin, 28, 50, 75
Scented, 317, 318, 329, 416, 417, 419
Seedlings (Growth, Felling, Rafting), 187
Spanish, 175
Substitute, 57
Timber, 226
Uhi, 319
Unscented, 416
White or Galvon, 29, 320; White-barked, 320
Maize, 204, 471
Maje (Hausa), 190, 191, 205; (Sok.), 221
Majigi, 221
Majiriya (Kano), 221
Mak (River), 419
Makarfo (Hausa), 202, 205, 221, 233
Makasar adwa, 194
Makua (Mbonoi), 86
Makube (Ashanti), 93; (Fanti), 83, 93
Malacantha sp. nov., 382; M. Warneckeana, 141
Malankwi (Appolonian), 93
Malei (Mendi), 45
Mallotus oppositifolius, 197
Malmo (Hausa), 213, 224, 232
Malpigheaceæ (Gold Coast), 102
Malvaceæ (Liberia), 76; (Gold Coast), 105; (Togo), 137; Nigeria, 190,
344; (Cameroons), 435
Mambo (Mendi), 47
Mamboi (Mendi), 51
Mambui (Mendi), 47
Mamie Kini, 88
Mamfe, 418
Mammea sapota, 55; M. sp., 230
Mammee (Timani), 55
Mammy or Mammee Apple (Ochrocarpus Africanus), 29, 33, 55; Mammy
supporter, 55
Mamu Lonchocarpus, 303; M. Reserve, 160, 166, 170, 172, 173, 176, 178,
179, 180, 246, 264, 278, 303, 312, 347, 373, 392, 405, 407
Manchester (prepared to take kernels), 481
Mandji, 422
Manengube Mountains, 415, 417
Mangifera, 75; M. Africana, 52; M. Indica, 222; M. sp., 75
Mango, 75, 196, 222; M. sp., 75; M. Tree, 75
Mangrove, 19, 438; M. Bark, 226; Red M., 234, 368, 396, 451; White M.,
108, 234, 374, 397, 440; White Button M., 374; White Nut M., 257
Mangrove Forests, 20, 33, 56, 78; M. Swamps, 18, 151, 154
Mangu natives, 130; M. station (Togo), 126
Manihot dichotoma, 122, 123, 148; M. Glaziovii, 122, 126; M.
heptaphylla, 123, 124, 148; M. Pianhyensis, 123, 124, 148; M.
utilissima, 47
Manja R., 418, 419
Mannia Africana, 85
Manniophyton Africanum, 337; M. sp., 337, 452
Mano River, 39, 66, 68, 69
Mansu, 102
Manya River, 418
Manyu River, 418
Maradi, 210
Marantaceæ (Nigeria), 246; M. (Togo), 128
Maremper, 25
Mareya spicata, 52
Marga (Hausa), 206
Margarine made from Palm Kernel Oil, 480; from Shea Butter Nuts, 153
Marike (Hausa), 92, 212, 223, 232
Marine supplied with timber, 187
Markhamia Lutea, 144, 441; M. tomentosa, 144, 401
Maro, 39
Marua, 190
Masche (Hausa), 132
Mat (Timani), 48
Match-box Bean, 298
Maticke (Ho), 146
Mauritius Hemp, 128
Mawelu (Bakwiri), 441
Mbafo, 432
Mbagboldede (Mendi), 54
Mbako (Bakwiri), 441
Mbana Oyop (Old Calabar), 466
Mbang (Attie), 84, 445, 446
Mbaoa (Bakwiri), 429
Mbarakun (Oban, Ekoi), 290
Mbauwi (Mendi), 53
Mbawe (Abe), 84
Mbomdi (Mendi), 46, 47
Mbomo-kuku (Efik), 288; M.-nkuku (Efrie), 232
Mbonda pondo (Bakundu), 442
Mbosse (Agni), 86
Mboti Buma (Attie), 88
M’boy (Mendi), 62
Mbrahu (Abe), 89
Mbu District and River, 417, 418, 419, 487
Mbuandæ (Mendi), 62
McIver, Messrs., Lagos Sawmill, 159
Mdayen (Mendi), 55
Measurements of planted trees (Olokemeji Reserve), 183
Mebeli (Mendi), 55; M. deli, 48; M. or Mbelignli, 45, 55
Megabana (Trillesii), 103
Mekhi (Attie), 83
Melastomaceæ (Cameroons), 438; M. (Ivory Coast), 88; M. (Nigeria),
375; M. (Sierra Leone), 56
Melia Azedarach, 123, 135, 148, 191, 222, 331
Meliaceæ (Cameroons), 432, 442, 445, 446; M. (Gold Coast), 100; M.
(Ivory Coast), 85; M. (Liberia), 74; M. (Nigeria), 191, 196, 211, 222,
317, 331; M. (Sierra Leone), 49; M. (Togo), 135
Melianthaceæ (Gold Coast), 104; (Togo), 137
Memchin (Appolonian), 97
Meme (District), 415; M. (River), 418, 419
Memecylon macrodendron, 438; M. polyanthemos, 88; M. _cf._ M.
spathulandra, 56; M. sp. (near Barten), 375
Mendi or Mendis, 26, 28, 35, 40; M. (Sierra Leone), 26
“Meni” oil, 358, 359, 459
Menispermaceæ (Nigeria), 193, 259; M. (Sierra Leone), 43
Merremia, 194; M. umbellata, 197
Mesua Ferrua, 176
Metchi (Attie), 83
Mfam (Ekoi), 228
Mfu River, 419, 487
Mgua (Abe), 83
Michelia Champaca, 177
Microdesmis puberula, 52, 103, 336, 419; M. sp., 230, 336, 452
Mijin kade (Hausa), 209
Mileishia (Appolonien) (Aowin), 94
Milk-weed, 199
Miller Bros., Messrs., Koko Town Sawmill, 159
Millet (Bull-rush), 199, 204
Millettia attite, 133; M., _cf._ drastica, 48; M. Lane-Poolei, 48; M.
pallens, 48; M. rhodantha, 48; M. sericeus, 203; M. sp., 85, 428; M.
sp. near M. sangana, 48, 197, 203, 417, 418; M. Thonningii, 99, 233,
284; M. Zechiana, 99
Mimbo (Palm Wine), 425
Mimifia District, 430, 431
Mimosa asperata, 191, 209; M. Dinklagei, 48, 73
Mimoseæ (Nigeria), 301
Mimusops, 57, 78, 110, 197; M. djave, 57, 110, 179, 229, 370, 376,
378, 416, 419, 420, 438, 445, 446, 455; M. Egyptian, 219; M. elengi,
167; M. Kerstingii, 141; M. lacera, 67, 78, 141, 159, 378, 456; M.
multinervis, 18, 109, 118, 123, 141, 167, 186, 228, 375, 456; M. sp.,
28, 29, 57, 438
Minjiriya (Kano), 221
Misahöhe (Togo), 119, 125, 126, 142
Mistletoe, 43; M. (African), 259; M. (parasite), 170, 246
Mitragyne, 62; M. Africana, 145, 192, 202, 214, 225, 406; M. inermis,
145; M. macrophylla, 89, 113, 145, 230, 406; value of M. species, 146
Mixed Plantations, 124
Mo River, 415, 418
Mobo (District), 420, 425, 433, 438; Mobo River, 417; M. Foto
Mountains, 415, 417
Mobonran (Ijaw), 229
Mogbara (Yoruba), 278; M. (Ikale and Yoruba), 288
Mohammedan rosaries, 128; M. Teachers’ use of Vitex, 60
Moigbwamy (Mendi), 43
Mo-Kamaa, Afforestation area, 120
Mokamu (Bakwiri), 430
Moko River, 415, 419
Mokongo or Momangi (Bakundu and Bakwiri), 425
Mokowa (Bakwiri), 428
Molemṓle (Tschaudjo), 130
Mollugo, 194
Moloney, 290
Momangi, 445, 446
Momordica balsamina, 194
Mon (Attie), 84
Mondetu (Tschaudjo), 138
Mondoa (Bakundu), 442
Monechma, 194
Monga (Balong), 435
Moniera, 194
Monkey Apple (Anisophyllea laurina), 33, 55; M. bread, 53, 223, 347;
M. cola, 106, 210, 355; M. Guava, 215, 384
Monkwa Rock, 418
Monocotyledonous orders (Nigeria), 195, 197, 199
Monodora brevipes, 96, 265, 457; M. myristica, 43, 72, 84, 427, 457;
M. myristica, _var._ grandifolia, 265; M. tenuifolia, 72, 96, 264,
265, 457
Monotes Kerstingii, 139
Monrovia, 70, 73, 78
Moo River, 51
Moor Plantation, 241
Moraceaæ (Cameroons), 425; M. (Gold Coast), 94; M. (Ivory Coast), 83;
M. (Liberia), 70; M. (Nigeria), 193, 197, 199, 215, 218; M. (Sierra
Leone), 42; M. (Togo), 128
Morelia (Senegalensis), 62, 192, 214
Morinda Citrifolia (The Brimstone), Sierra Leone, cut locally, 31, 32,
60, 68, 89, 123, 146, 197, 204, 441; M. confusa, 61; Ekiti Morinda,
405; M. longiflora, 405; M. lucida, 405; M. quadrangularis, 61; M.
sp., 79, 405
Moringa pterygosperma, 44, 219, 453
Moringaceæ (Nigeria), 219, 453; M. (Sierra Leone), 44
Morro (River), 39, 66, 68, 69
Morus Mesozygia, 83; M. sp., 256
Mosaic-work and inlaying, 146
Mosangui (Attie), 87
Mosenge (Bakwiri), 433
Motandra Guineensis, 395
Mountain Ash, 311
Mousandua (Fanti), 94
Moyamba, 36
Moyida (Yoruba), 365
Mozambique, 211
Mpang (Bakoko and Basa), 443
Mpanju (Efik), 277, 278
Mpot, 168
Mpuri (Oban, Ekoi), 266
Mucuna pruriensis, 203; M. sp. Preussii, 299; M. urens, 299
Muea (Buea District), 436
Muell, 215
Muenge (Duala), 428
Mukonja, 418; M. (Duala), 438, 445
Munchis, 54
Mundulia suberosa (Benth), 303
Mungo River, 415, 419, 436
Mungongo (Duala), 435
Munon (Efik), 368
Muruchi, 216
Musa textilis, 128
Musaceæ (Togo), 128
Musanga, 358; M. Smithii, 42, 70, 83, 95, 129, 159, 233, 252, 418,
419, 420, 426, 485, 488
Musk Tree, 411
Muskat Nut, 72
Mussænda, 197, 203; M. erythrophylla, 407; M. Isertiana, 407; M.
tenuiflora, 407
Mussake, 420
Myole Polie (Abe), 83
Myrianthus arboreus, 42, 83, 95, 129, 256, 426; M. serratus, 42, 71,
83, 95, 129, 197, 204; M. sp., 42
Myristicaceæ (Cameroons), 427; (Gold Coast), 96; (Ivory Coast), 84;
(Liberia), 72; (Nigeria), 266; (Sierra Leone), 44; (Togo), 130
Myrrh, 221
Myrsinaceæ (Cameroons), 438
Myrtaceæ (Gold Coast), 108; (Ivory Coast), 88; (Liberia), 78;
(Nigeria), 192, 197, 213, 224, 374, 410; (Sierra Leone), 56; (Togo),
140
Na (Attie), 86
Nagudi (Atakpame), 136
Nainvi (Bondoukou), 85
Nali (Mendi), 58
Namijin gwabsa, 210, 221; N. Kade (Hausa), 190, 232
Naparli (Mangu), 132
Napoleona Imperialis, 367; N. Owariensis, 367; N. speckle-fruited,
367; N. Vogelii, 108, 197, 367; N. Whitfieldii, 367
Naprampogo (Dyakossi), 142
Narenga (Dagomba), 143
Nassarawa, 200; N. Province, 300
Nassarli or Nabuli (Dyakossi), 146
Native Court Plantation, 180
Nayile (Konkomba), 136
Nbob (Moyen Cavally), 86
Ndambabuli (Mendi), 48
Ndat (Efik), 231
Ndau (Appolonian, Aowin), 93
Ndawi or Ndawei (Mendi), 43, 44; N. (Badgi), 44
Ndebere (Attie), 89
Ndeh, 19, 168; N. people, 467
Ndeiwei (Mendi), 52
Ndian District, 415; N. River, 419
Ndonge (Bakwiri), 436
Ndototo (Bakwiri), 435
Ndukwun (Appolonian), 98
Negro Pepper, 219, 260; (N. P. small-flowering), 262
Negro Republic, 66
Nelsonia Campestris, 194
Nephrodium Asplenium, 196
Nesuwa (Benin), 344
Nettle-tree, 218
Newbouldia lævis, 60, 79, 113, 144, 192, 225; N. L. compared with
Markhamia tomentosa, 144
New Calabar language, 185; N. C. River, 151
News, Mr. E. D., Analysis, 482
Newtonia, 280; N. Insignis, 49, 99; near Newtonia, 290; N. Zenkeri,
417, 418
New Zealand Kauri Gum, 37
Ngitsa (Fontem or Bangwa), 427
Ngnanake (Abe), 86
Ngodua (Fanti), 107
Ngolo ngoloti (Abe), 86
N’goloduloi (Mendi), 54
Ngosame (Bakossi), 427
Ngua (Abe), 87; N. Abo (Attie), 87
Nguangua (Mendi), 52
Nguepe (Attie), 86
Nguni (Kabure), 134
Nguobi or Kusibiri (Attie), 88
Nhuei (Mendi), 53
Niagalei (Mendi), 55
Niam Fat, 358, 459
Niamidua (Twi), 111
Nianga (Agni), 83; N. Magui (English), 83; (Indenie), 83; Niankuma or
Niangama (Fanti, Ashanti, Aowin, Appolonian), 95
Niger Delta, 152, 185, 189; N. Estuary, 151; N. River, 153, 156, 168,
174, 188, 474; N. Province, 300
Nigeria, chapter viii; Afforestation, 166-182; Amount of forest land,
17; Bush Savannah, 201-202; Evergreen Fringing Belts, 203-205; Forest
Department, 184-188; Forest Exports, 226; Imports of Timber, 227;
Indigenous Trees, 235-414; List of Nigerian Trees, 218-225; Mahogany
or Timber Industry, 155-160; Measurements of planted trees in
Olokemeji Reserve, 183; Park Savannah, 202-203; Permanent Forests,
160-166; Review of the Botanical Features, 188-200; Rivers, Ports, and
Forests, 151-154; Schedule of Protected Trees, 228-234; some trees of
Hausaland, 205-217; South, 67; Southern Provinces, chapter ix, 493,
494, 495; Tree Savannah or Savannah Forest, 200-201
Nigerian Swamps, 19
Nihau (Benin), 350
Ni-Kaftei (Mendi), 53
Nikko or Niko Nuts, 267, 269, 459
Nikli (Mendi), 52
Nimeribaka (Appolonian), 111
Nimmini Mountains, 25, 39, 58, 160
Nimwau Peso (Tschaudjo), 137
Ningei (Mendi), 42
Ningo (Bambara), 87
Niondobi (Bondoukou), 86
Nja (Efik), 272
Njabi, 445; N. (Duala), 438
Njahewe (Mendi), 43
Njakpe (Anlo), 145
Njakpokpo (Anecho), 145
Njangsang (Duala), 433
Njasun (Ekoi), 229
Njelei (Mendi), 61
Njokubore (Bakundu), 442
Njokubwele (Bakundu), 432
Njomboguli (Mendi), 49
Njondji (Bakwiri), 426; N. Bwele (Duala), 433
Njorgora (Oban, Ekoi), 336
Njove or Njole (Rio del Rey), 437
Nkiebe (Mbonoi), 83
Nkissi River, 276
Nkohen (Ekoi), 229
Nkom (Bakossi), 438
N’ku (Akwapim), 109; (Fanti), 109
Nkue (Attie), 87
Nkula (Gaboon), 258
Nla Ali Hills, 418
Noami River, 238
Nobe, 199
Non gwanki, 219
Normal type of Fringing Forests, 117
Notonima (Ashanti), 108
Nsa-sana (Efik), 451, 452; Nsa-sana kernels, 452
Nsab (Bare), 438
Nsan (Ekoi), 228; (Oban, Ekoi), 253
Nsukakara (Oban, Ekoi), 338
Ntaba (Bambara), 87
Ntagne (Attie), 88
Ntini Nyok (Kwa), 361
Ntong (Fongtem and Bangwa), 425
Ntung (Fanti and Ashanti), 93
Nuatjä, 117; N. Agricultural School, 122; N. Railway, 119
Nukoi (Mendi), 59
Nun River, 151, 174
Nunu (fruit of Danya), 222
Nupé Canoes, 215
Nuso or Aru (Atakpame), 130
Nutmeg, 421, 427; N. African, 264, 457; N. Calabar, 457; N. Calabash,
265; N. yellow flowering, 265, 457
Nutssunutssu (Anago), 138
Nuwo (Ekoi), 231
Nuxia Mannii, 440
Nya (Efik), 288
Nyakpekpe (Ewe), 145
Nyam (Efik), 376
Nyama (Mangu), 133
Nyankon, Yankom or Yankun (General West Coast), 106
Nyimo (Atakpame), 146
Nyimu (Mangu), 134
Nyi-nu-Robin (General West Coast), 105
Nymphæa, 193
Nympheaceæ (Nigeria), 193
Nyomdobai (Mendi), 53
Nyumbuyambei (Mendi), 62
Oaho (Benin), 37, 413
Oak (Bush O.), 416; O. (Dry Zone), 379, 394, 422, 423
Oba, Oba’s house, 275; O. Tree (Yoruba), 253
Obadan-nikwi (Benin), 251, 407
Obagie Forest, 160, 166, 339, 407
Obala (Atakpame), 130
Oban Hills, 17, 152; O. Hill Forests, 19, 154, 159; O. natives, 378;
O. Reserve, 160, 168, 362, 375, 392, 399, 450, 456, 497
Obang (Bafo), 425
Obba on the Hill (Ondo Province), 400
Obbo (Akposso), 140
Obeche or Obechi, 153, 159, 230, 351
Obi (Yoruba), 321; O. Abata, 354
Obiache (Benin), 159, 228, 402, 404, 405
Obidu (Yoruba), 355
Obiedum or Obiedun (Yoruba), 355
Obiletu (Efik), 230
Obiliteto (Efik), 386
Obo (Oban, Ekoi), 318
Oboba or Obobo (Yoruba), 251
Obobonikwi (Benin), 228, 328
Obobonufwa (Benin), 328, 329
Obokha (Benin), 346
Obon (Oban, Ekoi), 318
Obong (Efik), 233
Obuba (New Calabar), 281
Obuban (Benin), 399
Obubra Forest, 19, 177, 239, 273, 274, 307, 350, 472
Obudu District, 356, 365, 407, 472
Obuko (Yoruba), 312
Oburuburu (Yoruba), 349
Ochna Afzelii, 139; O. multiflora, 233, 356; O. sp., 54, 356 (new
sp.), 190
Ochnaceæ (Sierra Leone), 54 (Liberia), 77; (Ivory Coast), 87; (Gold
Coast), 107; (Togo), 139; (Nigeria), 190, 209, 356, 447, 459;
(Cameroons), 436
Ochrocarpus Africanus, 29, 33, 55, 88, 159, 363, 462
Ochthocosmus Africanum, 49
Ocimum, 195; O. Americanum, 195; O. viride, 400
Ocotea, _cf._ 266
Octodon, 192
Octoknema affinis, 84
Octoknemaceæ (Ivory Coast), 84
Odahuma (Wassaw), 97
Odala (Ibo), 228
Odan (Yoruba), 309
Ode District, 303, 354, 357, 361, 367, 399
Odenya (Wassaw), 97
Odgebu (West side), 362
Odiki, 445, 446
Odina acida, 76; O. Barteri, 212, 222; O. sp., 52, 104, 191
Odji (Asaba), 253; (Brass), 233, 359; (Ibo), 228, 253
Odjiwawa (Ibo), 231
Odo (Jekri), 368
Odoko (Yoruba), 232
Odonomo-kyu-kyu (Benin), 229
Odonumon (Efik), 397
Odoum or Odum (Appolonian), 83; (Asante), 128; (Hausa), 215; (Twi), 95
Odu (Yoruba), 368
Odubin (Ashanti), 101
Odudu (Ondo), 230
Oduduku (Atakpame), 138
Odupon (Fanti), 101
Odyendea Gabunensis, 432
Œcological Division of Forests (after Warming), 18
Ofarm (Ashanti), 98
Ofemm (Bembi), 390
Offenma (Ashanti), 103
Offonkwari (Ibo, Asaba), 392
Offram (Twi, Fanti), 109
Offun (Lagos), 247
Ofika (Timani), 42
Ofriyio (Efik), 253
Ofu or Ohonton (Fanti), 95
Ofun (Yoruba), 234
Ofuntum (Appolonian), 89
Ofwho (Quitta, Krepi), 105
Ogaba (Benin), 288, 289, 449
Ogabeszi (Benin), 289
Ogabezzi (Benin), 285
Ogabi, 365
Ogan or Ogun River, 152, 169, 170, 174, 252, 272, 276, 322, 334
Ogan or Okan (Yoruba), 373; O. oga (Yoruba), 298; O. pupa (Yoruba),
230, 372, 373, 383
Ogangan (Benin), 335, 336
Oganwo (Yoruba), 177; or Ogangwo, 229, 319, 321; Oganwo or Oganwu
(Benin), 177, 318, 319
Ogba Forest, 160; O. Plantations, 166, 176, 177; O. Province, 271; O.
River, 327
Ogbamaton (Benin), 336
Ogbia (Yoruba), 360
Ogbogo nut, 463
Ogbun (Lagos), 397
Ogea (Yoruba), 278
Ogeddin (Benin), 243
Ogedin, 466
Ogege (Benin), 328
Ogemme (Benin), 367
Ogi (Calabar District), 399
Ogiahimi (Benin), 400
Ogidu (Yoruba), 348
Ogiedi (Benin), 243
Ogigedu (Benin), 321
Ogihu (Benin), 245
Ogikan (Benin), 328
Ogikiomi (Benin), 285
Oginni or Inyi (Yoruba), 449
Oginyi (Benin), 275
Ogiovala (Benin), 330
Ogiovu (Benin), 249
Ogo (Akposso), 140; (Yoruba), 295; O. Province, Nigeria, 252
Ogodo Dry Zone Forest, 39
Ogohen (Benin), 159, 252
Ogohomeh or Oyohomeh (Benin), 365
Ogoja, 19, 237, 239, 240, 243, 244, 247, 249, 251, 252, 255, 257, 258,
259, 262, 263, 266, 270, 273, 275, 277, 278, 279, 281, 283, 284, 289,
291, 294, 297, 298, 299, 301, 303, 305, 306, 309, 312, 317, 322, 324,
337, 340, 343, 344, 345, 346, 350, 354, 355, 357, 358, 362, 363, 365,
369, 379, 381, 382, 383, 390, 396, 397, 400, 401, 402, 404, 405, 406,
407, 408, 413
Ograw (Yoruba), 252
Ogrugru Province, 322; O. (Yoruba), 349
Ogu (Anago), 138; O. District, 419
Ogudugbu (Yoruba), 390
Ogugu (Yoruba), 232, 349, 389
Oguja (Yoruba), 278
Oguk (Oban, Ekoi), 390
Ogungun (Yoruba), 349
Ogunshileh, 159
Ogurohe (Yoruba), 299
Oguru (Brass), 266
Ogwangu (Benin), 321
Ogwega (Benin), 306
Ogwi Tree (Benin), 312
Oha (River), 263
Ohau (Benin), 251
Ohehe (Benin), 301
Ohia (Benin), 246, 247, 388
Ohianamemme (Benin), 246
Ohiomo of the Benis, 230
Ohiorme (Benin), 233, 289
Oie (Yoruba), 311
_Oil and Colours Journal_, 482
Oil Bean tree, 45, 73, 97, 178, 380, 416; Beans, 68, 303, 304
Oil Beans, seeds and nuts, chap. xi, 447-463; Analysis of—
Ben oil seed cake, 453
Betu oil, 454
Carapa Guineensis, 458
“Chevi” seeds, 462
Citrullus vulgaris, 453
Dumoria Heckeli, 456
“Gorli” seeds, 463
Inoy nut, 450
Irvingia Barteri, 454
Kombo seed, 458
Lophira alata, 459-460
Lophira procera, 460-461
Meal after extraction of oil, 448, 450
Mimusops Djave, 456
Moringa pterygosperma, 453
Nsa-sana kernels, 452
Oil after extraction of meal, 448
Oil from South Nigeria seeds, 448
Shea butter, 455
Oil Ben tree, 453
Oil Investigations by the Imperial Institute, 448, 463
Oil Nuts, 69, 163, 165
_Oil, Seed and Feeding Cakes_, by the Imperial Institute, 484
Ojamba (Ashanti), 95
Ojia (Yoruba), 230
Oju Agbigbo (Yoruba), 343
Okagbo (Yoruba), 348
Okahimi (Benin), 388
Okakan, 163
Okan (Benin), 229, 286
Okankan, 240
Okare (Yoruba), 337
Okarora ossa (Ondo), 361
Oke-Igbo (Ilesha District), 395
Okenuhen District, 240
Okha (Benin), 231, 345, 346
Okherli (seed) (Benin), 179, 230, 312
Okika (Yoruba), 339
Okikopom (Ibibio), 357
Okilolo (Ijor), 232
Okisibisi (Fanti), 114
Okitsiwanfu (Fanti), 94
Okkwan (Benin), 277
Okkwen (Benin), 332; O. nebo (Benin), 333
Oko (Ibo, Owerri), 266; (Yoruba), 409; O. Ishin (Yoruba), 342
Okoko (Benin), 348, 349
Okokotaka (Asante), 133
Okokwi (Benin), 400
Okokwo (Benin), 349
Okoni (Kratschi), 143
Okor (Benin), 310
Okot or Okut (Oban, Ekoi, Kwa), 357, 363
Okoume, 422
Okporoporo (Akure), 349
Okra or Achro (fruit), 344
Okrika Port, 152
Oktobun District, 463
Okume d’Ivoire (Colons), 85
Okumme, 446
Okumu Forest, 160
Okun (Yoruba), 240
Okunmankra (Fanti), 101
Okurii (Ashanti), 100
Okuta (Yoruba, Benin), 413
Okuturupu (Yoruba), 332
Okwaba (Benin), 412
Okwan (Yoruba), 449
Okwawa hill system, 112
Okwe (Benin), 335, 452
Okwekwe (Benin), 299, 400
Okwen (Benin), 231; O. seni (Benin), 333; O. seva (Benin), 332
Okwo River, 282, 488
Okwoga Plantation, 167
Olacaceæ (Sierra Leone), 43; (Liberia), 71; (Ivory Coast), 83; (Gold
Coast), 95; (Togo), 129; (Nigeria), 191, 257, 456; (Cameroons), 426
Olax, 43; O. subscorpoidea, 95
Oldenlandia, 192; O. grandiflora, 202; O. Senegalensis, 202
Oldfieldia Africana, 26, 51, 67, 75, 86, 342; O. (imported as Teak),
75
Oleaceæ (Ivory Coast), 88; (Gold Coast), 110; (Togo), 142; (Nigeria),
288, 388
Olein, 480
Oleporo Eyop (Calabar), 466
Oli (Atakpame), 136
Olibracha (Egba, Yoruba), 283
Olikiba (Benin), 407
Olim, 445
Olina, 446
Oliver, Daniel, 496
Ollo (Akposso), 127
Olodu (Yoruba), 244
Ologun She-she (Yoruba), 301
Olokemeji (Arboretum, Forests, Reserves, etc.) (oke = hill, meji =
two), 19, 123, 160, 166, 168, 169, 170, 171, 174, 175, 177, 179, 185,
245, 246, 256, 260, 264, 266, 270, 278, 302, 306, 307, 310, 312, 331,
334, 359, 365, 367, 370, 371, 372, 374, 375, 382, 387, 395, 396, 464,
490
Olong, 445, 446
Olosan (Yoruba), 229
Oluwa (Benin), 244
Omah (Benin), 396
Omar (Yoruba), 348
Ombega, 422
Ome (Benin), 372
Omo (Yoruba), 230, 396
Omocham (Benin), 266
Omoin (Egba), 246
Omomeran (Benin), 336
Omon (Yoruba), 396
Omphalocarpum, 78; O. elatum, 456; O. Pierreanum, 439; O. procerum,
379; O. Radlkoferi, 439; O. sp., 109
Omunu or Onumu (Benin), 258, 314; O. kynkyu (Benin), 315, 317
Omunu (Yoruba), 348
Ona River, 152
Onamagugun, onamagungun, orimagugu, or oriweni (Yoruba), 409
Onanisankianmon (Benin), 391
Oncinotis gracilis, 396
Oncoba dentata, 108, 366; O. echinata, 108, 462; O. Gilgiana, 108; O.
glauca, 366; O. spinosa, 139, 196, 204, 223, 366
Ondo (Circle, Forest, Province, and Reserve), 19, 152, 154, 160, 170,
180, 235, 236, 240, 247, 249, 250, 251, 252, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260,
263, 266, 268, 269, 271, 273, 275, 277, 278, 279, 282, 284, 286, 287,
291, 301, 302, 305, 308, 310, 312, 313, 317, 318, 321, 324, 325, 327,
329, 330, 336, 340, 342, 346, 351, 355, 356, 362, 365, 369, 379, 381,
382, 383, 390, 396, 397, 400, 401, 402, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 413
Odutu (Tschaudjo), 131
Onegozi (Benin), 344
Ongokea Kamerunensis, 416, 417, 426; O. Klaineana, 83
Ongina (Twi), 105
Oni River, 152, 160
Onihokha (tree in flower) (Benin), 346
Onikokha (Benin), 346
Onion, 199
Onitsha Province, 153, 154, 173, 174, 244, 251, 252, 255, 270, 275,
276, 279, 284, 297, 301, 303, 305, 308, 309, 349, 353, 358, 398, 400,
401, 409, 472, 473
Onitsha-olona District, 353
Onomokyukyu (Benin), 228, 323
Onuru (Ibo, Owerri), 290
Onyangba (Atakpame), 136
Onye (Benin), 334
Onyemo (Benin), 332
Onyena (Fanti), 105
Onyenu (Benin), 339
Onyina (Fanti), 105
Oohoo (Benin), 386
Opaga (Benin), 178
Opagga (Benin), 303
Opahan (Benin), 413
Opaina (Fanti), 111
Opapao (Twi, Akwapim), 97
Opäti (Atakpame), 140
Ope (Yoruba), 241, 246; O. Ifu No. 1 (Yoruba), 243; O. Igbo (Benin),
245; O. trumfo (Yoruba), 243
Opele, 247, 248; (Yoruba), 388
Open Deciduous Forest, 19
Open Orchard Forest, 18
Opepe (Ikale, Ijor), 273; (Yoruba), 228, 369, 402, 404; O.-ira
(Yoruba), 231, 349; False O., 406; Swamp O., 405
Opepera (Yoruba), 405
Opilia celtidifolia, 191
Ophioglossum vulgatum, 196
Opobo (Nigeria), 481; O. Port, 152; O. River, 151
Opochala (Ibo, Niger), 303
Opon (Yoruba), 231
Oporipor (Benin), 348
Opoto (Yoruba), 251
Opputtu (Benin), 250
Ora-Igbo (Yoruba), 344
Orange (Calabash), 312; O. (common), 74, 124
Orban-igba (Yoruba), 383
Orchards (Togo), 124
Orchid, 195, 264
Orchidaceæ (Nigeria), 195, 246
Ordeal bark, 275, 276; O. tree, 98
Oregbon I (Yoruba), 250
Orella, 445, 446
Ori (Benin), 297; O. (Oban, Ekoi), 235; O. (Yoruba), 398; O.-eta
(Yoruba), 399; O.-nla (Yoruba), 398
Oria (Benin), 266; O. Plantations, 168
Oriakuku (Benin), 399
Oriri Ogikiomi (Benin), 398
Orisi (Igbado, Yoruba), 313
Oriweni (Benin), 389
Oriwu (Benin), 409
Orli (Anago), 143
Ormocarpum bibracteatum, 191
Ormosia laxiflora, 99, 117, 123, 133, 232, 234, 270, 297, 308, 336; O.
monophylla, 49, 231
Oro (Brass), 233, 252; (Egba), 249; (Yoruba), 179, 230, 231, 312, 343;
O.-Igbo, 246
Oroba (Mbonoi), 86
Orodo (Benin), 291; (Brass), 349; O. or Orodu (Yoruba), 347
Orogbo or Orugbo (Yoruba), 359
Oroko, 42, 70, 250, 253, 419; False O., 249
Orokpo (Anago), 132
Orokwa (Benin), 367
Oron Port, 152
Oropa of the Yorubas, 232
Orora (Yoruba), 400
Orrimogungun (Benin), 389
Orro (Yoruba), 322
Orsorsor (Benin), 372
Orupa (Yoruba), 336
Oruru (Benin), 414; (Yoruba), 400
Oruwo (Yoruba), 405
Oryza silvestris, 199
Osan (Yoruba), 232; O. odo (Yoruba), 383
Osangbalumo or Osum Agbalum (Yoruba), 381, 382; O. Edan (Yoruba), 381;
O. Palambo (Yoruba), 381
Osbeckia, 194
Ose (Yoruba), 347
Oshen or Oshun River, 152, 357
Oshere (Yoruba), 366
Osho (Il.), 286
Oshopoto Dudu (Yoruba), 344
Oshoshi (Ibo, Owerri), 290
Oshun Reserve, 160, 339
Oshunshun (Yoruba), 332
Oshusi (Ibo, Owerri), 364
Osia, 307
Osisiru (Ashanti), 113
Ositwa (Benin), 288
Ossa (Ondo), 361
Osse River, 154, 166, 238, 241, 378, 399
Osshosha (Ibo, Asaba), 284
Ossidinge District, 425, 432, 435
Ossiomo River, 156, 298
Ossizza Factory, 273
Ossusu (Yoruba), 288
Ostryoderris impressa, 277, 297, 394, 429
Osu (Benin), 394
Osuabise (Akwapim), 102
Osualong (seed) (Benin), 400
Osukaregigi (Benin), 400
Osun (Yoruba), 178, 229, 273; O. dudu (Yoruba), 273; O. pupa (Yoruba),
273
Otanta (Ibo, Asaba), 392
Ote (Twi), 96; O., Oti or Etsu (Accra, Ashanti, Fanti), 96
Otendui (Fanti), 110
Oti Steppe, 131; Valley (Togo), 118
Otien (Benin), 381
Otopoi (Ibo, Asaba), 392
Otta farfridi (Ibo, Asaba), 392
Ottelia lancifolia, 195
Ottoa (Benin Province), 392
Otugba (Akposso), 139
Otun (Oban, Ekoi), 363
Otungue (Jaunde), 442
Otutu (Jebu), 347; O. of the Yorubas, 230
Otwa (Benin), 287
Oubanguia Klainei, 436
Oukot (Efik), 236
Oukoumea Klaineana, 422, 424, 425, 445, 446
Ouratea monticola, 437
Ovalla (Benin), 330
Ovia River, 272, 321
Oviaruza (Benin), 335
Oviegikwe (Benin), 351
Ovinni (Benin), 276
Ovioza (Benin), 331
Ovu (Benin), 250
Owala Beans, 447; O. (Gabonais), 85; O. oil, 429
Owama (Ashanti), 102
Owango, 445, 446
Owawa (Wassaw), 106
Owawe or Owowe (Benin), 365
Owe (Benin), 288
Owehe (Benin), 412
Owena Reserve, 160; O. River, 152, 154, 156, 321
Owerri, 153, 178, 236, 240, 247, 249, 251, 252, 257, 259, 268, 279,
281, 282, 284, 286, 287, 288, 291, 294, 301, 303, 304, 308, 313, 317,
322, 327, 338, 342, 346, 349, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 361, 362, 363,
368, 371, 376, 381, 390, 396, 397, 398, 400, 401, 405, 447, 450, 466,
472, 473, 493
Owessu (Brass), 228
Owewe (Benin), 294; O. lagebon (Benin), 295; O. nolemare (Benin), 294,
295
Owi (Benin), 411
Owun (Yoruba), 348
Owussu, 158
Oxyanthus speciosus, 62, 441; O. tubiflorus, 114; O. unilocularis, 62,
197
Ox-eye Bean, 299
Oxystelma Bornuense, 199
Oxystigma Mannii, 428
Oxytenanthera Abyssinica, 127, 196, 218
Oyan River, 302
Oyen (Benin), 334, 337
Oyife (Yoruba), 317
Oyo, 19, 152, 153, 154, 262, 266, 273, 283, 284, 298, 299, 300, 301,
325, 347, 355, 372, 373, 374, 375, 379, 383, 392, 395, 398, 452, 493;
O. Iseyin Road, 170, 322
Oyon River, 339
Ozaba, 307
Ozia (Benin), 230; O. Beans, 307
Pachylobus edulis, 233, 314, 315, 432; P. _var._, 432; P. Zenkeri, 432
Pachypodanthium, 84; P. staudtii, 44
Pachystela Cinereum, 383; P. Parkii, 141
Padauk or Padouk, 31; P. African, 273; P. Edible-fruited, 272; P.
Indian, 178
Paddlewood, 263, 417
Padiivin (Difale), 129
Pakie-pakie (Agni), 88
Palambanja (Duala), 443
Paletuvier rouge (Colons), 88
Palime Station (Togo), 119
Palisota hirsuta, 425; P. thyrsiflora, 197
Palissya Cordata, 336
Palm Arac, 244; P. Belt (according to Millbourne), 465; Black Run Palm
or Palmyra, 244; P. Bottle or Toddy, 244, 459; P. Cabbage, 58, 425,
479; P. Cocoanut, 218, 237, 244, 421; P. Date, 124, 125, 210, 217,’
240, 459; Swampy Date, 239; Wild Date, 240; P. Deleb, 41, 200, 216,
217, 218; P. Dum, 94, 200, 216, 217, 218, 244, 459; P. Everlasting
Life or King Palm, 241, 242, 466; P. Fan, 244, 459; P. Forked, 244; P.
Fruit Industry, 92; P. F. I. Cultivation, 21, 22, 26, 41; P. F. I.
Liberia, 68, 70; P. Hookers, 235; P. Kernels, 63, 90, 150, 226, 444,
479; P. K. Cake, 226; P. K. Oil, 226; P. K. Shells, 226; P. Lisombe or
Soft-shelled, 243, 466, 467; P. Method of Extraction, 38; P. Oil
export, 35; (Gambia), 21; (Gold Coast), 115; (Ivory Coast), 99;
(Sierra Leone), 63, 64; (Liberia), 80; (Nigeria), 226; P. O.
Plantations (Togo), 116, 117, 118, 149; P. O. Nurseries, 121, 123,
124, 125, 126, 153, 197, 218, 228, 236, 237, 240, 241, 242, 418, 420,
425, 444, 447, 464; P. O. Small, 243; (Sacred Oil Palm), 243, 244,
421; P. O. White, 466; The Oil Palm and Palm Industry, chapter xii,
464-484—
1. Æsthetic Aspect, 464
2. Botanical Description of Tree, Fruit, etc., 465
3. The Growing of the Oil Palm, 467
4. Fruit-Bearing Age, 468
5. Oil Palm Plantations and Crops, 468
6. Destruction of Oil Palms, 472
7. Native Method of Making Oil and Kernel Inspection, 473
8. Amount of Produce used, eaten, and growing, 476
9. European Machinery for extraction (Pericarping), 477
10. European nut-cracking, 477
11. European uses of the Oil, Kernels, Palm Wine, etc., 479
12. Value of Oil and Kernels, 480
13. Import Ports in England and U.S.A. for Oil and Kernels, 480
14. The Crushing of Palm Kernels in Africa and England, 480
15. Palm-Kernel Produce, Analysis, etc., 481
16 and 17. Value of Palm-Kernel Oil and Cake, 482
17. Uses of Palm-Kernel Cake, 482
18. Results of Feeding Experiments with Palm-Kernel Cake, 482
19. Manurial Value of Kernel Cake, 484
20. West African Shipping in Relation to Farm Produce, 484
21. Bibliography of the Oil Palm, 484
Palm, Palmyra, or Black Run, 244; P. Piassawa, 235; P. Roofing, 239;
P. Royal, 237; P. Sacred, 243, 244, 466; P. Swamp, 425; P. Tombo, 234,
236, 237, 244, 464; P. Vegetable Ivory, 421; P. West African, 241; P.
Wine Tree (Raphia Vinifera), 38, 179, 216, 218, 236, 244, 425, 464,
479
Palmæ (Sierra Leone), 41; (Liberia), 70; (Ivory Coast), 83; (Gold
Coast), 93; (Togo), 127; (Nigeria), 195, 216, 218, 235, 447, 459;
(Cameroons), 425
Palmas, Cape, 66
Palmine, 480
Palmwood, 445, 446
“Palmyra,” 216, 218, 244
Pambei (Mendi), 41
Panama hat fibre, 124; P. Palms, 124
Pancratium trianthum, 195
Pandaceæ (Ivory Coast), 85
Pandanaceæ (Sierra Leone), 41; (Liberia), 74; (Ivory Coast), 83; (Gold
Coast), 93; (Togo), 127; (Nigeria), 308
Pandanus Candelabrum, 41, 74, 83, 308; P. Fibre, 234; P. Kerstingii,
127; P. species, 93; P. species near Candelabrum, 41; P. Togoensis,
127
Pandoro (Yoruba), 400
Pangalan (Tschaudjo), 130
Pangbaïngu (Tschaudjo), 137
Pangi (Mangu), 131
Panguma Hills, 25
Panicum stagninum, 199
Panyero (Tschaudjo), 143; Panyerobuda, 143
Papac (Ewe), 132
Papala (Yoruba), 323
Papao (Ashanti), 97
Papau (Asante), 132
Papaveraceæ (Nigeria), 193
Papilionaceæ (Nigeria), 301
Para, 123; P. Rubber, 126, 180, 420
Para Dakue (Attie), 87
Paradaniella, 169; P. Oliveri, 19, 190, 191, 202, 203, 205, 220, 231,
307; P. (Rosewood), 98, 117, 119, 123, 133, 191, 202; P. Thurifera,
33, 44, 97, 117, 132
Paradedi (Attie), 87
Paran (Yoruba), 297
Parapara (Tschaudjo), 139
Parasolier (Colons), 83
Parinarium, 19, 67, 32, 233, 418; P. Chrysophyllum, 428; P.
Curatelifolium, 96, 130, 192, 201, 213, 219, 269; P. excelsum, 33, 44,
69, 72, 268; P. Gabunense, 269, 459; P. intermedia, 148; P.
Kerstingii, 130; P. macrophyllum, 44, 72, 192, 199, 213, 219, 232; P.
mobola, 96, 232; P. polyandrum, 96, 117, 192, 213, 219, 269; P.
Robustum, 84, 96, 267, 268; P. species, 266; P. species (Red
Mahogany), 267; (small), 428; (White Oak), 72, 96; P. subcordatum,
130, 197, 204; P. tenuifolium, 84
Parkia Africana, 45, 117, 123, 131; P. Agbœnsis, 85; P. biglobosa, 45,
132, 230, 231, 282; P. filicoidea, 45, 73, 97, 120, 126, 131, 191,
202, 207, 220, 230, 231, 283; P. species, 45; P. Zenkeri, 429
Parkinsonia aculeata, 198, 221
Parrots, seed carriers, 251, 252
Partridge wood, 134
Pasau (Tschaudjo), 145
Patabua (Bondoukou), 83
Patakli (Atakpame), 128
Patapara (Agni), 84
Pato (Tschaudjo), 131
Pattern Wood, 390, 419
Patti Forest, 202
Pau (Twi), 111
Paulai (Mendi), 26, 51, 67
Paullinia pinnata, 104, 191
Pausynistalia Lane-Poolei, 61; P. species, 230, 405
Pauwilli, 67
Pavetta Baconia, 61, 146, 407; P. Barteri, 192; P. Crassipes, 146
Pavonia schimperiana, 435
Pawi Kpaoloe (Mendi), 51
Pe (Abe), 88
Peach (blossom compared with Stereospermum Kunthianum), 145, 401; P.
(Sierra Leone), 62, 79, 214
Pear, native (Oban), 314, 315; P. Tree, 445, 446; P. Wood, 416, 419
Pebulai (Mendi), 62
Pechi (Attie), 89
Pedaliaceæ (Nigeria), 194
Pegblagei (Mendi), 61
Pekĭre (Losso), 130
Peltoforum, 46, 49; P. species, 97
Pennisetum, 196; P. pedicellatum, 201; P. typhoideum, 199, 204
Pentaclethra Macrophylla, 45, 68, 73, 85, 96, 119, 168, 178, 231, 303,
380, 416, 417, 429, 447
Pentadesma, 77; P. Butyraceæ, 55, 69, 107, 232, 361, 362, 363, 437,
461; P. Grandifolia, 361; P. Kerstingii, 118, 123, 139; P. Leucantha,
88; P. Nigritana, 362; P. species, 360
Peregun (Yoruba), 245
Pereng (Kabure), 129
Pergularia tomentosa, 199
Peri (Timani), 52
Peristrophe bicalyculata, 194
Permanent cultivation, England, Germany, South Provinces, Nigeria, 495
Permits for Tree-cutting (Togo), 119
Persian Lilac, 222, 331
Pesin (Attie), 89
Peso (Tschaudjo), 137
Petwun, 176
Peucedanum araliaceum, _var._ fraxinifolium, 140
Peukwa (Twi), 101
Pfandi (Mendi), 46
Pfandu station (Togo), 118, 119
Pfui (Mendi), 49; P. II (Mendi), 49
Phialodiscus species, 341, 342, 455; P. Unijugatus, 53, 104; P.
Zambesiacus, 434
Phœnix Dactylifera, 148, 217, 459; P. reclinata, 94, 127, 239, 425; P.
species, 418; P. spinosa, 127, 240
Phrynium, 234
Phutophyllum mirabile, 430
Phyllanthus Discoideus, 52, 135, 434; P. floribundus, 193, 222; P.
Reticulatus, 103, 193, 337; P. species, 337
Phyllocosmus Africanus, 85; P. sessiliflorus, 431
Physalis, 194
Physic nut, 193
Physostigma venosum, 298, 450
Piampian (Fanti), 84
Pianro (Agni), 87
Piassava fibre, 38; Cameroons, 425; Exported, Sierra Leone, 63; Gold
Coast, 93; Ivory Coast, 90; Liberia, 68, 70, 80; Nigeria, 234, 236,
239; Togo, 150
Piche Aboko (Attie), 88
Picralima Elliotii, 89; P. Klaineana, 396
Pierreodendron Grandifolium, 432
Pigeons, seed carriers, 251, 252
Pija (Wassaw), (Fanti), 107
Pineapple, 127
Pink Mahogany, 304
Pinus Mercusii, 175
Pio (Duala), 435
Piper Umbellatum, 197
Piperaceæ (Nigeria), 197
Piperomia Pellucida, 197
Piptadenia Africana, 45, 68, 73, 75, 97, 119, 131, 197, 229, 279, 286,
295, 417, 419, 428; P. compared with African Greenheart, 48; P.
Chevalieri, 85; P. Kerstingii, 123, 131, 295; P. species, 96; P.
Winkleri, 428
Pitchong (Ossidinge), 427
Pithecolobium Altissimum, 97, 290, 450; P. Dulcis, 122, 148
Placodiscus Pseudostipularis, 87
Plantains as Charms, 258
Plantations (Nigeria), 180-184; (Togo), 121
Planting schemes (Togo), 121
Platycerium Æthiopicum, 179
Platysepalum, 428
Platythyrsa, 396
Plectronia Glabriflora, 441; P. Vanguerioides, 146
Pleiocarpa Tricarpella, 59
Pleioceras Afzelii, 59; P. Barteri, 197, 396
Plekkogo (Benin), 323
Plum Abeokuta, 366; P. Blood; P. Common, 52, 269; P. Hog, Jamaica,
Spanish, or Yellow, 52, 103, 222, 232, 338; P. Mirabel, 338; P. Niger,
366
Poana-Poana, 445, 446
Poga Conofora, 437; P. Oleosa, 229, 368, 416, 437, 450
Poinciana drepanophylla, 148; P. Regia, 123, 125, 148
Polu-Dyenye (Mangu), 134
Polyadoa Elliotii, 58; P. Umbellata, 112, 232, 394, 424, 440
Polyalthia Oliverii, 71
Polycarpæa, 193
Polygala arenaria, 191, 332; P. butyracea, 197, 462; P. Clarkeana, 197
Polygalaceæ (Sierra Leone), 50; (Togo), 135; (Nigeria), 191, 197, 332,
462
Polysphæria Macrostyla, 204
Polystachys Odorata (Mistletoe-like Parasite), 170, 246; P. species,
246
Polystemonanthus Dinklagei, 74
Ponamagoi (Mendi), 60
Pondei (Mendi), 62
Pongoi-nei, Pongoi-hini (Mendi), 58
Ponhon (Yoruba), 358
Ponpola or Ponponla (Ibadan, Yoruba), 346
Pontya Excelsa, 83
Poor man’s candle, 50
Poose (Bakundu), 435
Poplar, 77
Poposi (Mbonoi), (Ebrie), 86
Popowia Mannii, 196, 263; P. Whyteii, 71
Porcupine, 317
Porepore (Abe), 87
Poroporo (Yoruba), 353
Porphyranthus Zenkeri, 85
Port Harcourt, 152
Potato, sweet, 204
Potedon (Appolonian, Ashanti, Fanti, Wassaw), 98
Potepote (Kratschi), 130
Poyndua (Fanti), 89
Prain, Lt.-Col. D., Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 496
Pranpran (Fanti), 84
Prekese (Ewe), 131
Premna Hispida, 60; P. Zenkeri, 143
Prevostea Africana, 112; P. Heudelotii, 112
Pride of India, 222
Propri (Timani), 53
Prosopis Oblonga, 120, 131, 191, 202, 207, 220, 233, 305
Protea, 191; P. Bismarckii, 129
Proteaceæ (Pogo), 129; (Nigeria), 191, 257
Proteaceous Trees, 55
Protected Trees of Nigeria, List of Classes with Royalties, 228
Pseudocedrela, 50, 75, 117, 119, 422; P. Cylindrica, 101; P.
Kotschyii, 101, 117, 123, 135, 177, 191, 202, 211, 222, 230, 232, 323;
P. species, 28, 101; P. species near P. Utilis, 50; P. Utilis, 101
Pseudocinchona Africana, 89
Pseudospondias Microcarpa, 104, 136, 339, 434
Psidium Guajava, 78, 109
Psilanthus Ebracteolus, 61
Psorospermum, 107; P. Senegalense, 190, 201, 202
Pteleopsis, 109; P. Kerstingii, 140
Pterocarpus, 273, 445, 446; P. Erinaceus, 20, 30, 46, 98, 117, 119,
123, 133, 191, 202, 206, 221, 231, 234, 273; P. Esculentus, 46, 85,
98, 133, 197, 210, 220, 233, 272; P. Indicus, 178; P. Osun, 229, 274,
275, 311; P. Santalinoides, 417; P. Soyauxii, 158, 275, 417, 418, 424,
425, 428; P. species (so-called Camwood), 273, 311, 416, 419, 424, 445
Pterogopodium, 304; P. species, 417, 430
Pterolobium, 305
Pterygota, 353; P. Cordifolia, 87; P. Kamerunensis, 436; P.
Schumanniana, 138
Pteryyota Wawampe’e (Ashanti), 106
Public Works Department, South Nigeria, 45, 186, 187
Pulley Wood, 289
Pullum (Timani), 53
Pumpkin, 193
Puni (Krepi), 111
Punkwa (Wassaw), 101
Pupalia lappacea, 195
Pusum (Lamatessi), 141
Puttuputtu (Yoruba), 332, 333
Pwekupweku (Benin), 313
Pycnanthus Dinklagei, 72; P. Kombo, 34, 44, 72, 84, 96, 130, 231, 266,
418, 419, 427, 457
Pycreus, 196
Pynærtia ealænsis, 75, 101; P. Occidentalis, 86
Pyrenacantha species nov., 340
Quelipe Kelipe (Bondoukou), 88
Quinine Plantations, 420
Quisqualis Indica, 203
Rafters exported (Nigeria), 226
Rahaina (Hausa), 192, 215, 225
Railway supplied with timber, 187
Rainfall distributors, 486
Rake, 196
Raken giwa (Hausa), 221, 224
Rama, 190
Ramaniya, 190
Rambong rubber (Ficus elastica) plantations (Togo), 149
Ramos River, 151
Randia Caudata, 62, 407; R. Cladantha, 407, 442; R. Genipæflora, 62,
113; near R. Macrantha, 62, 407; R. Maculata, 79, 114, 407; R.
Malleiflora, 62, 225, 407; R. Nilotica, 199, 225; R. Octomera, 407; R.
sp. near R. caudata, 62, 407
Ranger (Nigeria), 185, 186
Raphia near R. Gærtneri, 41; R. Hookeri, 93, 235, 239, 464; R. Ruffia,
235, 239, 464; R. Vinifera (see palm wine tree), 38, 41, 68, 70, 93,
127, 179, 195, 204, 216, 218, 234, 235, 236, 425, 464
Rattan, 41, 93; R. Benin, 240; R. Benin (Large), 163, 240; R. Benin
(Small), 163; R. Substitute, 241
Rauwolfia Cumminsii, 110; R. Macrophylla, 440; R. sp., 197; R.
Vomitoria, 59, 78, 89, 112, 393, 440; R. Welwitschii, 197, 224
Rawaya, 190
Rawsonia spinosa, 108
Rawuya, 192, 215; (Sok.), 225
Red-arilled Afzelia, 290
Red Cedar (Euphorbiaceæ sp.), Descrip., 29; cut locally, 32, 34, 51,
54
Red Cotton Tree, 53, 76; R. Flowering Silk C. Tree, 209, 223
Red Dye-wood, 133
Red Ironwood or Ironpost, 26, 27, 54, 67, 77, 107, 152, 154, 160, 169,
209, 276, 356, 358, 379, 380, 384, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 459
Red Mangrove, 397
Red Oak (Lophira procera) cut locally, Sierra Leone, 33, 277, 350,
410; Red Oak (Berlinia auriculata), 68, 277, 281, 282, 356, 418; Red
Oak (Sterculia cordifolia), 54
Red Pine, 68
Red Resin, 200
Red Water Tree, 45
Redwood (Colons), 84, 159, 424, 425, 428, 445, 446
Rendle, Dr. A. B., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., 497
Rere (Yoruba), 330
Reserve, Definition of, 160, 161; objects of R., 162
Rhamnaceæ (Gold Coast), 104; (Togo), 137; (Nigeria), 198, 213, 222,
343
Rhaptopetalum Tieghemi, 87
Rhizophora, 139, 234, 368, 451; R. (Liberia), 78, 234, 438; R. Mangle,
78, 139, 234, 438; R. Mucronata, 139; R. Racemosa (Mangrove) (Sierra
Leone), cut locally, 33, 56, 88
Rhizophoraceæ (Sierra Leone), 55; (Liberia), 78; (Ivory Coast), 88;
(Gold Coast), 108; (Togo), 139; (Nigeria), 197, 368, 447; (Cameroons),
437
Rhodesia, 17
Rhodesian Mahogany (Afzelia Africana), 17, 120, 149
Rhynchosia, 191
Rice, 199, 421, 499
Ricinus communis, 193
Ricinodendron, 278, 314; R. Africanum, 50, 86, 102, 119, 136, 163,
231, 332, 333, 417, 418, 433, 451; R. Heudelotii, 50, 75; R. Ricin.
Rautenii, 332, 333, 334, 451; R. sp., 333
Ridi, 194
Rikio (Abe), 86
Rimi (Hausa), 190, 209, 231; R. (Kano), 223; R. or Rini (Sok.), 223
Ringa (Timani), 54
Rio del Rey, 415, 430, 432, 440, 441, 442
Risga, 195
Ritchiea sp., 196
Riverine Natives, 187
Rock Elm (Chlorophora excelsa), 26; (African Oak or Teak,
Description), 29, 253
Roco (Dahomey), 128
Roey or Counter-top Mahogany, 157
Rogeria adenophylla, 194
Rokell River, 36, 39
Ronier (Colons), 83
Ronietta, 46
Roofing palm, 239
Roof Pole (Benin), 363
Rope Tree, 350
Rosaceæ (Sierra Leone), 44; (Liberia), 72; (Ivory Coast), 84; (Gold
Coast), 96; (Togo), 130; (Nigeria), 192, 197, 199, 213, 219, 266;
(Cameroons), 428
Rosewood (Dalbergia sp. and Pterocarpus erinaceus), 20, 46; Rosewood
(Senegal), 98, 206
“Rotation,” 162
Rottbœllia exaltata, 201
Rough-barked Canarium, 317
Rough-skinned Plum (Sierra Leone), cut locally, 33, 44; R. (Liberia),
72
Rubber, 58, 68, 71, 234, 421, 444, 487; African R., 68, 228; Balata
R., 252; Brown Cluster or Brown Medium R., 392, 393; R. Company
(Liberia), 66; Corrugated-fruited R., 392; R. Exports (Liberia), 79;
R. Exports (Nigeria), 226; R. Exports (Ivory Coast), 90; R. Exports
(Sierra Leone), 63; R. Exports (Togo), 150; False R., 79, 395; Flake
or Paste R., 392; Gambia R., 252; Lagos or Silk R., 111, 440; Male
Rubber Tree, 395; Mauve-flowered Vine R., 392; Oban R., 393;
Ornamental R., 396; Para R., 111; Pear-shape fruited R., 393; Planting
R. (Sierra Leone), 36, 39; Rambong R., 125, 149; Raw R. exported (Gold
Coast), 115; Red Kano R., 216; Root R., 111, 392; Savannah R., 440;
Spurious R., 111; True Rubber Tree, 79; Rubber Vine or Whiteball R.,
58, 68, 79, 392; West African R., 395; Whiteball R., 111
Rubiaceæ (Sierra Leone), 60; (Liberia), 79; (Ivory Coast), 89; (Gold
Coast), 113; (Togo), 145; (Nigeria), 192, 197, 199, 214, 225, 401;
(Cameroons), 441
Ruka, 200
Rumfu or Runhu (Hausa), 221
Rura (Hausa), 213, 219
Russegeri, 113
Russia, 492
Russian Market, 325, 326
Russian Steppes, Afforestation, 486
Rutaceæ (Sierra Leone), 49; (Liberia), 74; (Ivory Coast), 85; (Gold
Coast), 100; (Togo), 134, 309; (Nigeria), 196, 221, 309; (Cameroons)
Ruwenzori, 189
Sa (Fõ), 132
Sabarra, 198, 199
Sabicea calycina, 408
Sabicu, 264, 310
Sabine, 213
Saccharum officinarum, 196; S. spontaneum, 201
Saccoglottis Gabunensis, 49, 85, 158, 231, 238, 405, 415
Sackwi or Mbauwi (Mendi), 53
Sacred Lake, 101; S. Oil Palm, 243, 244, 466
Sadan mayu (Hausa), 220
Saga Bean, 480
Sagbei (Mendi), 55
Sago (Bondoukou), 87; S. Palm, 177
Saingja (Asante), 132
Sakuni (Krepi), 109
Salacia debilis, 104
Salicaceæ (Nigeria), 193, 218
Salix, 193, 218
Sama, 356
Samanta (Tivi), 97
Samantawa (Fanti), 97
Samarin danga, 219
Samba Sankamba (Bondoukou), 87
Samia (Hausa), 132
San (Attie), 84
Sanaga River, 436
Sanbúgo (Mangu), 138
Sandalwood, white scented, 129
Sandpaper Tree, 42, 95; (S. Leaf), 252
Sanga-sanga (Ijor), 229; S.-S. (New Calabar), 279; S.-S. (Sok. and
West), 220
Sangongo (Bambara), 89
Sannaba (Mbonoi), 86
Sansami, 215; S. or Sasami _syn._ Jiri dan sarikin itatuwa (Sok. and
Kats.), 225
Sansane Station (Togo), 126
Sansevieria, 94; S. Cylindrica, 128; S. Guineensis, 127
“Sant” pods, 208
Santiriopsis, 100; S. Klaineana, 229
Sanza, Asun, Minika, Seka (Agni), 88
Sapele-scented Wood (Entandrophragma utilis), 102; S. or Sapeli, 151,
157, 323, 325
Sapho (Yoruba), 389
Sapindaceæ (Cameroons), 434; S. (Gold Coast), 104; S. (Ivory Coast),
87; S. (Liberia), 76; S. (Sierra Leone), 53; S. (Togo), 137
Sapium Guineense, 136; S. Kerstingii, 136; S. Mannianum, 136, 434
Sapoba, 320
Sapotaceæ (Gold Coast), 109; (Liberia), 78; (Nigeria), 192, 197, 214,
224, 375, 447, 455; (Sierra Leone), 57; (Togo), 141
Sappan, 123
Sarcocephalus, 415; S. esculentus, 62, 79, 89, 113, 158, 214, 228,
402, 404; S. eu-esculentus, 401; S. Pobeguini, 89, 422; S. Russegeri,
113, 192, 201, 202, 214, 224; S. sambucinus, 146, 404, 416, 441; S.
sp., 231, 405, 419
Sasabani, 219; S. (Hadeija), 221
Sasanemasa (Ashanti), 113
Sassandra (Port), 69, 81, 82; S. (River), 81, 82
Sasswood, 39, 45, 97, 120, 121, 123, 125, 152, 229, 275; Sasswood
Plantations (Erythrophlœum Guineense) (Togo), 149
Sassybark, 35, 275
Satinwood, 30, 49, 66, 67, 73, 74, 88, 119, 154, 174, 251, 309, 310,
370, 412, 419, 445, 446; S. (African), 271, 309, 311; S. (Dry Zone
African), 309; S. (Dwarf), 311; S. (Spiny), 74; S. (soft), 352; S.
(True Benin), 310; S. (West Indian), 311; S. (yellow), 230, 271
Sausage-tree, 113, 215, 225, 400
Sausanyebui (Mangu), 137
Scale Insects, 250
Scandent Palm, 93
Schio (River), 117; S. (Valley of), 116
Schizoglossum, 192
Schmidelia Africana, 53, 191
Schrebera Golungensis, 110, 230, 247, 248, 388
Schwenkia Americana, 194
Scitamineæ (Nigeria), 195, 197
Scoparia dulcis, 194
Scorodophlœus Zenkerii, 429
Scotland, feeding experiments, 483
Scottelia coriaceæ, 88; S. (Kamerunen), 88, 232; S. Mimfiensis, 437
Screwpine, 41, 74, 93, 234, 308
Scrophulariaceæ (Cameroons), 441; S. (Nigeria), 194, 400
Scytopetalaceæ (Gold Coast), 107; S. (Ivory Coast), 87; S.
(Cameroons), 436
Scytopetalum Tarquense, 107
Sea Bean (Mackay), 69, 72
Secretariat and Timber supply conditions (Nigeria), 187
Securidaca longepedunculata, 135, 191, 201
Segbe (Mangu), 133
Segna (Attie), 85
Selaginella Vogelii, 441
Senan (Attie)
Sendar (Yoruba), 329
Senegal, 66
Senegambia, 58, 135
Senna (Senegal), 199
Sesamum, 194; S. Indicum, 194
Sesbania Ægyptica, 219; S. leptocarpa, 219; S. aculeata, 219
Sesedo (Yoruba), 262
Séssëu (Atakpame), 145
Shagamu District, 395
Shaki, 153
Shakka (Brass), 231, 345, 346
Shange (Yoruba), 312
Shapo Obibere (Yoruba), 256
Shapon Market, 200
Sharan lobbi (Sok.), _cf._ Alambo, 221
Shasha (River), 152
Shayo (Yoruba), 303
Shea Butter, 19; S. B. Tree, 109, 117, 118, 126, 141, 153, 169, 179,
192, 202, 209, 214, 224, 226, 231, 323, 379, 380, 439, 444, 455; False
Shea Butter, 370, 376
Shea Butter Nuts, exports (Nigeria), 204, 226, 378, 456; (Sierra
Leone), 63; (Togo), 150
Shea Nut Cake, 460
Shedua or Abonsandua (Ashanti), 94; S. (Twi), 94
Shedun (Yoruba), 233, 270, 307, 308
Shemusholoshi, 294; S. (Jebu), 295
Shepolo-hun (Yoruba), 340
Sherbro, 37
Shero (Dagomba), 145
Shifting cultivation (Gambia, Gold Coast, Nigeria, Sierra Leone,
etc.), 485
Shinglewood Tree, 119, 179, 371, 416, 419
Shirinya, 216
Shisinya, _syn._ Shiriya (Sok.), 219
Shunin-biri (Hausa), 220, 221, _Syn._ Farin sansami (Sok. and Kats.)
Siamese Cassia, 176
Sibugang (Basa), 443
Sida, 190; S. carpinifolia, 344; S. (Yoruba), 329
Sideroxylon Aylmerii, 57, 329; S. longistylum, 57, 78
Sidu (Yoruba), 328
Sie (Yoruba), 299
Sierra Leone, 17, 25, 65, 66, 72, 73, 160, 287, 492, 493, 494
Sierra Leone, chap. iii, 25-65; I. The Forests, 25; II. Notes on
Timber Trees, 26; III. Trees cut for local use, 31; IV. Minor Forest
Produce, 35; V. The Forest Department, 39; VI. Indigenous Forest
Trees, 41; Appendix I, II. Forest Exports, 63, 64; Appendix III.
Timber Imports, 65
Sierra Leone (Mountains), 206
Sigo (Yoruba), 375
Silk Cotton Tree, 105, 116, 190, 209, 223, 230, 435
Silkworm, 216
Siluko River, 238; S. Road, 258; S. Sub-district (Benin), 282
Simarubaceæ (Gold Coast), 100; S. (Ivory Coast), 85; S. (Liberia), 74;
S. (Nigeria), 191, 198, 210, 312, 313, 453, 454; S. (Togo), 134
Sime or Semei (Mendi), 42
Simua (Attie), 84
Sino Basin, 73, 79
Sino Kim (Town), 70
Sisal Hemp, 124
Skiwaka (Hausa), 225
Smeathmannia lævigata, 78; S. pubescens, 108, 365; S. sp., 77
Smilax Kraussiana, 195
So (Abe), 83
Soap Tree, 62
Sobos (Tribe), 238
Sofo (Attie), 89
Soft-shelled Palm, 243
“Softwood,” 428
Sogoto, 213
Sokodé-Bassari coast forests, 142; S. District, 117, 173; S.
Plantations, 118, 123, 124
Sokoto, 189, 190, 198, 200, 201, 207, 210, 211, 215, 216
Solanaceæ (Nigeria), 194, 225
Solanum, 194; S. incanum, 194; S. Melongena, 194; S. sp., 225
Somabari (Oban, Ekoi), 331
Sombreiro River, 151
Soppo, 445, 446
Sopubia, 194
Sorghum, 199, 204; S. vulgare, 196; S. vulgare, _var._ saccharatum,
196, 199
Sorindeia juglandifolia, 53; S. trimera, 434
Sorono (Asante), 131
Sorowa (Agni), 86
Sosong (Bakossi), 428, 441
Sotibia (Fanti), 85
Soudan or Soudan Zone, 189, 190, 191, 198, 200, 203, 208, 210
Soumbaras, 90
Sounoum (Fanti), 87
Sour Gourd, 223; S. Sop, 71
Soyauxia sp., 365
Spanish Elder compared with Melia Azedarach, 135; S. Mahogany, 175; S.
Plum, 222
Spathodea, 233; S. campanulata, 60, 89, 113, 144, 197, 204, 400, 441
Spermacoce, 192
Sphenoclea Zeylanica, 194
Spice Tree, 43; Mountain S. T., 43
Spiny Tree, 413
Spondias dulcis, 124; S. lutea, 52, 76, 87, 103, 136, 196, 222, 232,
339, 419; compared to Pseudospondias microcarpa, 104; S. sp., 198,
212, 222, 231, 239
Sponges, 163; from vines and lianes, 234
Spruce Hills Reserve (c. Pacific Railway), 489
Ssäre (Tschaudjo), 128, 129
Sserre (Kratschi), 128
Ssissiku (Tschaudjo), 139
Ssissina (Tschaudjo), 140
Sso abalu (Tschaudjo), 133
Ssomū (Tschaudjo), 141
Ssosi (Tschaudjo), 130
Ssossosi (Tschaudjo), 131
Ssua (Tschaudjo), 140; S. dau (Tschaudjo), 140
Ssuto (Tschaudjo), 131
St. Barbara (R.), 151, 154; St. Bartholomew (R)., 151; St. John’s
River, 74; St. Paul’s River, 70, 73
Stachyothyrsus Staudtii, 431
Stag-beetle attacks on Funtumia elastica, 440
“Stands,” 162, 169, 238
Star Apple, 57, 110; African S. A., 57, 381; edible S. A., 381;
Forcados S. A., 382; Monkey S. A., 381; Round S. A., 381; White S. A.,
382
Staudtia Kamerunensis, 427; S. stipitata, 427
Stearin, 480
Stemonocoleus micranthus, 431
Stenanthera hamata, 44, 84
Steppe conditions, 190
Sterculia, 87, 106, 138, 233
acuminata, _syn._ cola acuminata, 436
Barteri, 106, 232
cinerea, 349
cordata, 232
cordifolia, 54, 106, 117, 119, 169, 348, 349, 435
grandifolia, 435
oblonga, 76, 87, 138, 232, 435; S. near oblonga, 349
rhinopetala, 347, 436
sp., 76, 348
tomentosa, 106, 138, 190, 202, 210, 223, 348
tragacantha, 54, 348, 435
Sterculiaceæ, 29; S. (Gold Coast), 106; S. (Ivory Coast), 87; S.
(Liberia), 76; S. (Nigeria), 190, 196, 210, 223, 347; S. (Sierra
Leone), 54, 68; S. (Cameroons), 435; S. (Togo), 138
Stereospermum acuminatissimum, 400; S. Kunthianum, 144, 192, 201, 215,
225, 400; S. leonense, 60
“Stinkwood” Tree, 108
Stool Wood, 390
Strephonema Apoloniensis, 109
Streptocarpus nobilis, 197
Striga, 194; S. Senegalensis, 194
Strombosia glaucescens, 426; S. grandifolia, 426; S. Pustulata, 83
Strombosiopsis tetrandra, 426
Strophanthus hispidus, 192, 395; S. Preussii, 395; S. sarmentosus, 192
Strychnos alnifolia, 192; S. Buettneri, 142; S. densiflora, 389; S.
emarginata, 110; S. gnetifolia, 440; S. laxa, 142; S. pubescens, 142;
S. spinosa, 202, 214; S. triclisioides, 192
Stylochiton Dalzielii, 196
Subanda (Tschaudjo), 133
Suein (Appollonian), 107
Sugar Cane, 196, 199, 421; S. Loaf Mountains, 55; S. Palm, 177; S.
Plantations, 116; S. Plum, 34, 51
Sukai I, S. II (Mendi), 57
Sundew, 193
Supom, 102
Surrey price of cake, 482
Susuwuru, 37
Swamp Date Palm, 239; S. (Freshwater), 118; S. planting, 175; S. rice,
53
Swartzia Madagascariensis, 133, 191, 219
Sweden Market, 324
Swietenia bijuga, 148; S. chloroxylon, 174; S. macrophylla, 421
Swizzle-stick, 59, 78, 393
Sword Bean, 298
Symphonia globulifera, 88, 363
Syzygium Guineense, 140
Taba ni ka samu (Hausa) (_cf._ Kurnan nasara), 219
Tabako (Duala), 443
Taboia (Atakpame), 136
Tacazzea (Barteri), 192
Tacca involucrata, 195; T. pinnatifida, 128
Taccaceæ (Togo), 128; (Nigeria), 195
Taceribe (Mbonoi), 84
Tada (Duala), 428
Tafashia (Hausa), 214, 225
Tagalel, 207
Tagbadja River (Togo), 117
Tagbekove Village, 116
Tahl of the Soudan, 208
Takanda, 196, 199; or Takandar giwa (Kats., Sok., and Zanf.), 221;
Takandar giwa (Hausa), 210, 213
Takwadua (Twi, Wassaw), 104
Tala (Ibo and Brass), 231, 238, 405; (New Calabar), 405
Talaki or Talakin Yarubawa, 221; _syn._ Namijn gwabsa (Kontagora),
etc., 221
Talisiopsis oliviformis, 138
Tallow Tree, 69, 77, 107, 361, 461
Tamarind, 99, 202, 206, 207, 221, 306; Velvet T., 289
Tamarindus indica, 98, 132, 191, 199, 206, 221, 229, 232
Tamarese (Asante), 132
Tamau (Tschaudjo), 139
Tambelei (Mendi), 41
Tamenasi (Atakpame), 133
Tanda (Duala), 438
Tangerine, 124
Tanna (English), 86
Tannin, 56, 108, 208
Tano Forest and River, 82
Taramniya, 213, 223
Taro (Tschaudjo), 127
Tartar Tree, 349
Tata (Duala), 433
Tatairo (Moyen Cavally), 86
Tau (Tschaudjo), 133
Taupwi (Young Trees, Mendi), 41
Taura (Hausa), 202, 206, 221
Tauwi (Mendi), 41
Tawatsa (Hausa), 209; T. or Tawatsa, 221
Taxodium distichum, 175
Tchiat Kottse (Attie), 89
Tchiko (Attie), 86
Teak, 42, 70, 120, 121, 122, 124, 126, 169, 170, 171, 500; Brown Teak,
416; Burma T., 162, 168; Bush Teak, 417; T. plantations (Tectona
Grandis), 470; T. (Togo), 149
Tebo (Attie), 85
Tectona grandis, 120, 122, 126, 148, 183, 420
Tegai (Mendi), 45
Tei-tei (Ijor, Brass), 356
Teko District (Buea), 429
Teli (Bambara), 85
Tema (Timani), 42
Tendeba (Apollonian), 110; (Aowa), 110
Tenuba, Tanuba (Mbonoi), 86
Tephrosia, 191; T. Ansellii, 302; T. Vogelii, 302
Teredo borer, 157; T. Worm, 357
Terle (Mendi), 57
Terminalia, 117, 118, 119, 169, 202, 230, 416, 445, 446; T. Altissima,
88; T. Avicennioides, 223, 372; T. Baumannii, 140, 212, 223; Black
bark Terminalia, 369; T. Brownii, 372; T. catappa, 122, 148, 176, 421;
T. dictyoneura, 140; T. Dry zone, 372; T. Elliotii, 212, 223; T.
Ivoriensis, 88; T. macroptera, 109, 140, 192, 202, 212, 223; T.
Orange-barked, 370; T. scutifera, 56, 369, 370, 371, 416, 419; T. sp.,
56, 108, 192, 212, 223, 369, 370, 371, 421; T. Superba, 56, 109, 119,
140, 179, 183, 230, 438, 445, 446, 498; T. Togoensis, 19, 109, 117,
140, 233, 371; T. Yellow, 369
Termites, 31, 70, 73, 249, 257, 268, 280, 311, 388, 408
Tetere (Mbonoi), 89
Tetracera leiocarpa, 77; T. Dinklagei, 77; T. potatoria, 77; T. sp.,
77
Tetrapleura, 220, 231; T. Prekese, 97; Thonningii, 85, 131, 197, 220,
284, 429
Teyei (Mendi), 57
Theobroma cacao, 420, 436
Thespesia populnea, 105, 137
Thistleton-Dyer, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., 496
Thomandersia laurifolia, 441
Thompson, Mr. H. N., Conservator of Forests, South Nigeria, Report on
Ashanti, Gold Coast, and Northern Territory, 91, 101; Brought Khaya
Senegalensis seed from Shaki district, 177; Opinion as to Albizzia
sp., 295
Thonningia sanguinea, 197
Thorn Apple, 194
Thunbergia (Blue, Benin), 401; T. Vogeliana, 401
Thuya occidentalis, 177
Thymelæaceæ (Nigeria), 195; (Cameroons), 437
Tiamatiama (Agni), 86; (Appolonian), 86, 101; T. (Aowin), 101
Tiame-tiame (Appolonian), 101
Tigalo (Tschaudjo), 141
Tigu Schirafinsa (Mangu), 134
Tigwi (Mendi), 51
Tijoi (Mendi), 52
Tika (Appolonian), 96
Tiko Plain, 416
Tiliaceæ (Sierra Leone), 53; (Ivory Coast), 87; (Gold Coast), 105;
(Togo), 137; (Nigeria), 190, 343; (Cameroons), 434
Tim (Tschaudjo), 133
Timani or Tunani, 26, 40
Timba or Timba nundi (Duala), 433
Timber, 40, 165, 498; Conditions of working in Liberia, 69; T. dogs,
155; T. exports (Cameroons), 444; (Sierra Leone), 64; T. Imports
(Sierra Leone), comparative statement, 65; T. Industry (Nigeria Law),
155-166; Nigerian Local Felling T., 158; T. Reserves (Nigeria), 158;
T. Yield, Temperate Zone, 161; T. Yield Tropics, 161
Timbuctoo, 198
Tingbatau or Patandeu (Tschaudjo), 136
Tinya, 193
Tisal (Togo export), 150
Tisemu (Tschaudjo), 129
Titiro (Egbado), 346
Tiupe (Attie), 84
Tochitschíñe (Atakpame), 144
Toddalia sp., 312
Toddy, 70
Togba (Atakpame), 145
Togbeli (Mendi), 48
Togo, 17, 173, 189, 306, 469, 500; T., chap. vii, 116-150;
Introduction, 116; Forests between or at the Stations, 116-119; Forest
department plantations, 119-122; District plantations, 122-127;
Indigenous trees, 127-147; List of Introduced species planted, 148;
Census of Plantations, 149; Forest Exports, 150
Togo, Tour by Dr. A. H. Unwin, 116-150
Toi-tsi (Ibo), 233
Tokei (Mendi), 43
Tolabu (Atakpame), 137
Tolongo (Duala), 437
Toluifera Pereiræ, 177, 421
Toman or Tonas (Hausa), 211
Tombo Palm, 41; (General West Coast), 93, 234
Tonga (Bondoukou), 83
Toon, 173
Tortoza, 26; (Timani), 51
Totengei (Mendi), 61
Toto (Yoruba), 246
Totohote (Attie), 85
Touloucouna oil, 317
Toye (Mendi), 51
Trachylobium sp., 431
Tragacanth, 54
Tragia Manniana, 336
Trakuan (Attie), 84
Treculia Africana, 83, 123, 233, 256, 426; T. mollis, 426; T. sp., 256
Trema affinis, 42, 94, 249, 425; T. Africana, 42, 94, 248, 249, 425;
T. Guineensis, 197; T. sp., 420, 421
Trevor, Mr. E. W. J. (Pericarping machines), 477
Trianthema monogyna, 194
Trichilia, 419; T. acutifolia, 86; T. Candollei, 86; T. cedrata, 86;
T. emetica, 135, 191, 211, 222; T. Heudelotii, 50, 75, 102, 232, 330;
T. Prieuriana, 135, 330, 331, 433; T. retusa, 196, 212; T. rubescens,
102; T. rubesilus, 433; T. sp., 50, 102, 330; T. sp. near T.
Prieuriana, 50, 330
Trichodesma Africanum, 192
Trichoscypha, 104; T. Bipindensis, 434
Triclisia macrophylla, 43
Trinkomali Wood, 176, 421
Triplochiton, 19, 76, 119, 370; Compared with Myrianthus Arboreus,
257; T. Johnsonii, 106, 139, 230, 251, 253; T. Nigericum, 18, 117,
139, 159, 178, 183, 230, 351, 352; T. nov. sp., 353; T. scleroxylon,
87, 417, 436
Tripoli senna, 199
Tritonia, 195
Triumfetta cordifolia, 344; T. Rhomboidea, 344; T. sp., 105, 191, 344
Triwa (Agni), 83
Trochomeria, 194
Tsada, 191, 202
Tsadar Lamarudu, 222; T. masar (Hausa), 222, 232
Tsamiya (Hausa), 199, 206; T. or Tsamia (Hausa), 229, 232; Tsamiyar or
“Tsamiya,” 207, 221
Tschabola buanda or Tschabolabunda (Tschaudjo), 130
Tschaloware (Tschaudjo), 134
Tschamanu (Tschaudjo), 133
Tschapēa (Tschaudjo), 140
Tschato (Tschaudjo), 132
Tschengunga (Asante), 130
Tschingbelika (Tschaudjo), 138
Tschuṓu (Tschaudjo), 136
Tscisili (Tschaudjo), 132
Tsetse or Echéché (Ewe), 140
Tsiberi Kinkini, 193
Tsibra or Tsura (Sok.), 225
Tso (Ewe), 130; Tsa (Ewe), 132
Tsung Oil (Chinese Wood Oil), 451, 452
Tte (Attie), 84
Tuanyei (Mendi), 49
Tudi (Zanfara), 222
Tui (Mendi), 41
Tuinynelli (Mendi), 57
Tukuruwa Palm, 195, 216, 218
Tulip (Tree), 60, 144, 405; African T. tree, 400; Red T. tree, 400
Tulipier de Gabon (Colons), 89
Tuloi (Mendi), 54
Tumbalaka (Atakpame), 130
Tumuku, 194
Tuna, Tunas, or Tunam (Hausa), 222, 230
Tunfall (Timani), 60
Tunka (Mendi), 41
Tunkia, Chief of, 66
Tuntumi (Timani), 57
Tura (Tschaudjo), 129
Turndogo (Bondoukou), 84
Turraeanthus Zenkeri, 433
Turræa Heterophylla, 331; T. sp., 50; T. Vogelii, 331
Tursuje (Hausa), 222
Turtle-backs, 189
Turubi, 195
Tusima or Tingma (Tschaudjo), 147
Twani (Appolonian), 103
Twe (Neyau), 89
Tyanka or Hogogo (Atakpame), 134
Tyentyem (Mangu), 128
Tyenyeólo or Pasau (Tschaudjo), 145
Tyĕtĕbu (Mangu), 136
Tylostemon crassifolius, 427; T. Mannii, 96
Tzambi (Mendi), 47
Ua magungŭ́na (Hausa), 135
Uapaca Benguelensis, 86; U. Bingervillensis, 86; U. Guineensis, 51,
193, 204, 215, 231, 334; U. Heudelotii (Sugar Plum, Red Cedar) cut
locally in Sierra Leone, 34, 51, 102, 136, 334, 335, 337; U. Staudtii,
231, 416, 434; U. Togoensis, 51
Ubabikpan (Benin), 393
Ubake (Benin), 393
Ubanakwi (Benin), 392
Ubara (Efik), 287
Ubellu genus, 412; U. (nuts), 452
Ubelluname, Ubellunowe (Benin), 336
Ubuen (Efik), 406
Ubgo (Benin), 392
Uboto (Benin), 392
Uche (Akposso), 134
Udeni (Ibo), 230
Udeni (Ibo, Owerri), 278
Udi Plantation, 167
Udia Ebiong (Efik), 232
Udin (Benin), 241; U. (Benin), 466
Uganda, 211
Ugbamiogou (Benin), 392; or Ubamiogon (Benin), 392, 395
Ugbehen (Benin), 303
Ugbodokossa (Benin), 406
Ughahan (Benin), 309, 310
Ugheberi (Benin), 358
Ugibisaro (Benin), 267
Ugo, 258
Ugumu, 392
Uhi Forest, 160, 298
Uhie (Ibo), 229
Ukan (Yoruba), 240
Ukana (Efik), 231
Ukape (Benin), 407
Ukhu (Benin), 390
Ukloba (Akposso), 128
Ukpa (Efik), 275
Ukpa (Efik), 229; Ukpa-Kara (Brass), 231
Ukpagga (Benin), 303
Ukpaigwi or Okpaigwi (Benin), 414
Ukpami (Akposso), 132
Ukpassa (Efik), 379
Ukpi nikwi of the Benis, 232, 342; U. Nufwa (Benin), 341, 343; Small
Ukpi (Yoruba), 343; U. Wenwan (Benin), 348
Ukpoi (Oban, Ekoi), 266
Ukposa (Benin), 265
Ukukon (Benin), 239, 240
Ukum (Efik), 231, 345
Ukung (Efik), 229
Ulazo (Benin), 370
Ulmaceæ, 42; (Ivory Coast), 83; (Gold Coast), 94; (Togo), 128;
(Nigeria), 193, 197, 218, 246; (Cameroons), 425
Uloko, U. odigpe, U. nushinogbon (Benin), 253
Umaja or Umazza (Benin), 263
Umbelliferæ (Togo), 160; (Nigeria), 375
Umberium (Timani), 43, 71, 263
Umbrella tree, 95, 233, 252, 420, 426, 485, 488
Ume (Benin), 158, 178, 273, 275
Umowenek (Efik), 229
Uncaria Africana, 197, 203
Undu District, 426
Ungari (Timani), 53
Ungive (Mendi), 53
Ungu (Ibo, Owerri), 277
Ungu (Ibo), 229
Ungungmekkan (Benin), 383
Unie (Benin), 260
United States protection in Liberia, 66
Uno (Efik), 233
Unscented Mahogany, Entandrophragma cylindricum, 210
Unwin, Dr. A. H., suggestion as to name Iroko, 42; Trip to Togo, 116,
150; discovery of Khaya in Gold Forest, 50
Unyenghen (Benin), 264
Uoli (Akposso), 143
Upakeka (Benin), 285, 449
Upeka (Benin), 273
Upper Cross River, 317
Upper Niger, 58
Uputtu of the Benis, 230
Ureben (Benin), 273
Urena lobata, 190, 345
Urere, 95, 257
Urginea, 195; U. Indica, 195; U. Nigritana, 195; U. Spp., 199
Urophyllum hirtellum, 113
Urostigma, 193, 216
Urticaceæ (Gold Coast), 95; (Nigeria), 257
Uruaro (Benin), 246
Uruba su (Bete), 89
Urueben (Benin), 311
Uruhe (Benin), 272, 367
Uruiju Arogu (Yoruba), 263
Uruk (Efik), 356
Ururata (Benin), 349
U.S.A., Southern States, Deciduous Cypress, native of, 175
Usi (Benin), 347
Uso or Dinka, 361
Usshin (Benin), 297
Uta (Ikale), 246
Utan-tan (Benin), 340
Utricularia, 194
Uuti (Ewe), 138
Uvaria Afzelii, 44, 71, 263; U. Busgenii, 263, 417, 427; U. Chamæ,
129, 264; U. Dinklagei, 71; U. Macrocarpa, 44; U. Microtricha, 427; U.
Scabrida, 71; U. sp., 44
Uwanwanis (Benin), 299
Uwar Yara (Kano and Katagum), 216, 218
Uwen (Efik), 230; Uwenyriotan or Uwemriotan (Benin), 343
Uwonwen (Benin), 337
Uwowe Lugu (Benin), 293; U. Labafun (Benin), 293
Uyat (Efik), 293
Vandakiie (Attie), 85
Vangueria nigrescens, 62; V. chrysocarpa, 197; V. euonymoides, 204
Vai (Bali), 425
Velvet Tamarind, 47, 289
Verbenaceæ (Sierra Leone), 59; (Ivory Coast), 89; (Gold Coast), 112;
(Togo), 143; (Nigeria), 193, 197, 215, 224, 397; (Cameroons), 440
Vernonia, 35, 194; V. amygdalina, 194, 225, 409; V. cinerea, 410; V.
conferta, 62, 114, 409, 442; V. frondosa, 442; V. nigritana, 194, 409;
V. Senegalensis, 147; V. sp., 225
Vetch, 302
Vetiveria zizanoides, 201
Vi (Abe), 86
Victoria District, 415, 420, 425, 428, 431, 433, 441, 442; V.
Botanical Gardens, 176; V. Falls, 17
Vigna, 191; V. sinensis, 192, 204
Vincentella impressa, 110
Violaceæ (Sierra Leone), 55; (Gold Coast), 108
Violetwood, Description of (Sierra Leone), 30; African V., 26
Vismia leonensis, 55
Vitaceæ (Gold Coast), 105; (Nigeria), 223
Vitex, 232; V. angolensis, 197; V. Bipindensis, 441; V. camporum, 143;
V. cienkowskii, 59, 143, 144, 193, 202, 215, 224, 398; V. cuneata,
112, 143, 441; V. diversifolia, 193, 224, 399; V. doniana, 59; V.
fosteri, 399; V. grandifolia, 59, 398; V. megaphylla, 112; V.
micrantha, 60, 89; V. oxycuspis, 60
Vitis, 193; V. pallida, 193; V. quadrangularis, 193, 223
Voacanga Africana, 59, 112, 143, 197, 204, 341; V. obtusa, 59, 197,
204, 224; V. Thonnersii, 59
Voandzeia subterranea, 192
Volta River, 98, 118
Volta Valley, 124
Wa, 193, 216, 219
Wa-Wa (Appolonien), W. (Indenie)
Wacuminata, 430
Wadda Tree, 197, 224
Waghebe (Ewe), 142
Wala (Bondoukou), 89
Walehe (Abe), 84
Walnut, 164, 228, 295, 416, 419; African W., 293; W., East Indian, 29,
293
Waltheria Americana, 190
Walwei (Mendi), 46
Wan kurumi, 219
Waogbum (Tschaudjo), 137
Ware Borf Ware (Agni), 87
Warie (Agni), 84
Warri Port, 151; W. (Province), 152, 156, 235, 236, 239, 251, 252,
257, 263, 276, 277, 279, 286, 288, 308, 313, 317, 340, 356, 361, 362,
371, 381, 393, 397, 404, 405, 406, 408
Warry (a Mendi game), 47
Water Lily, 193; W. Melon, 193, 199, 471
Water Kola, 210
Waterside cynometra, 285
Waterside Ekpagoize, 290
Water Tree, 77
Wawa (Appolonian) (Indenie), 87; Wawa or Wawwaw (Twi), 106
Wawæ (Mendi), 61
Wawapupus (Twi), 106
We (Trepo), 87
Weatherboard Wood, 402
Weihea Africana, 197; W. sp., _cf._ Africana, 368; W. sp., 368
Weke (Bakundu), 431
Welu (Tschaudjo), 132
Were (Yoruba), 302
Western Africa, Logs exported from, 67; Conditions of working, 69
Weti (Atakpame), 137
Wheat, 199
Whismore, description of, 34
White Ants, 29, 286, 401
White-ball Rubber, 79
White Cedar (_see_ Pycnanthus Kombo), 34, 44, 77, 266
White Mahogany, 49, 67, 100
White Oak (Parinarium sp.), 32, 52; Ostryoderris impressa, 277, 297
Whitewood, 75, 417; W. (American), 260, 313
Wild Custard Apple, 95, 190, 262
Wild Date Palm, 94, 240, 418
Wild Fig, 42
Wild Indigo (Yoruba), 219, 221
Wild Mango, 100, 312, 417, 419, 431
Wild Plum, 72; W. Rice, 199
Willow, 218
Wine Palm, 70
Wismao (Sierra Leone), 68
Witkoran (Timani), 49
Wo (Ewe), 127, 131
Wokaka or Wokuka (Bakwiri), 426, 440
Wokeku (Bakwiri), 426
Wokotelimon (Abe), 87
Womba (Bakwiri), 440
Wondo (Bakwiri), 437
Wongo (Bakundu), 431
Wonjangasanga (Bakwiri), 433; or Wonjasanga (Bakundu), 433
Wonjanja (Bakwiri), 438
Wood Oil Nut, 417
Wood, various exported, Togo, 150
Woods (exported Ivory Coast) for cabinet making, etc., 90
Woongo (Bakwiri), 431
Worolongo (Bakwiri), 437
Wotenge (Bakwiri), 426
Woto or Atrati (Ewe), 139
Wotobe Ewotobe (Mbonoi), 87
Wu (Ewe), 138
Wueti (Ewe), 141
Wulfram (Fanti), 98
Wulule (Bakwiri), 441
Wuyan damo (Hausa), 223
Wych Elm, 335, 336
Wyfongo (Bakwiri), 441
Xeropetalum Dombeya, 436
Ximenia Americana, 129, 191, 202
Xylia Evansii, 45, 75, 97, 232, 307, 449
Xylopia Æthiopica, 43, 71, 84, 96, 130, 219, 260, 262; X. sp.
Dinklagei, 43, 71; X. sp. near X. Elliotii, 43; X. Eminii, 130; X.
Parviflora, 13, 43, 84, 96, 130, 196, 204, 262, 427; X. Striata, 96
Xysmalobium, 192; X. granitiolum, 59
Ya (Hausa), 219
Yabassi District, 436
Yabonji, 35
Yafo (Kpedyi), 130
Yam, 195, 204-265, 304, 71, 491; Y. as charms, 255; Y. crushing, 132;
Yams as food, 186; Yam stick, 385, 490
Yandahun Village, 66
Yankran (Fanti), 95
Yar or Abi River, 82
Yaru (Yoruba), 259
Yawi (Mendi), 54
Ya-ya or Yar-yar (General West Coast), 113
Yayabé (Mangu), 134
Yellow Aril, 291; Y.-backed Duika, 250; Y.-flowering nutmeg, 265, 457;
Y. Plum, 222; Y. poppy, 193; Y. wood, 71, 76, 427; Hard yellow wood,
388, 404, 417
Yenagoa, 477
Yere (Yoruba), 334
Yerepe (Yoruba), 299
Yevo-Gboma (Atakpame), 137
Yewa River, 151
Yeye (Yoruba), 334
Yinrin-Yinrin of Ijaws and Ikales, 230
Yokharauku (Dagomba), 142
Yokomi (Mendi), 53
Yola, 207; Y. mosque, 217
York, 46
Yoruba, 158, 163, 164, 185, 212, 243, 253, 255, 270, 284, 298, 349,
373; Yoruba Market, 313; Yorubas, The, 170, 246, 247, 250, 252, 260,
267, 283, 295, 301, 303, 318, 331, 338, 349, 359, 389, 394
Yoruba Blackwood, 298; Y. Blue Dye, 303; Y. Charcoal Wood, 305; Y.
Chewstick, 373; Y. Coffinwood, 333; Y. Ebony, 384; Y. Indigo, 303; Y.
Ironwood, 276, 335, 384; Y. Soft Cane, 246
Yotsa or Yo, 141
Yowi or Togba (Atakpame), 145
Yrewo (Ewe), 134
Yukugo (Bondoukou), 83
Yumba (Mangu), 137
Zacoba (Agni) (Attie), 86
Zaki banza, 195
Záklu (Misahöhe), 132
Zamarke (Hausa), 219
Zaminguila, 422, 423
Zanha golungensis, 137
Zanthoxylum, 309, 310, 419; Z. macrophyllum, 30, 67, 74; Z.
parvifolium, 85; Z. rubescens, 49; Z. Senegalensis, 30, 100, 196, 204,
221, 232, 309, 310; Z. sp., 49, 74, 311
Zaria, 185, 189, 190, 200, 206, 207, 216, 489
Zech, Graf (late Governor of Togo), 120
Zeronga (Bambara), 89
Zimingela, 445, 446
Zinder, 198, 210, 211
Zindi (Katagum, Kanuri), 223
Zini River, 82
Zizyphus Jujuba, 137, 198, 213, 222, 343; Z. mucronata, 104, 137, 198,
222, 343; Z. Spina-Christi, 104, 198, 213, 222
Zogalagandi, 219; Z., _syn._ Bagarumar makka (Sok.), 219
Zone Guinéenne of Chevalier, 189
Zone Sahélienne, 189; By Chevalier, 198
Zungeru, 189, 241
Zuwo, 216
Zygophyllaceæ (Togo), 134
_Printed in Great Britain by_
UNWIN BROTHERS, LIMITED
WOKING AND LONDON
FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 1: _Trees, Shrubs, Herbs and Climbers of Sierra Leone._ See
Lane Poole.]
[Footnote 2: Pre-war rates.]
[Footnote 3: Reprinted by kind permission of the Editor of _United
Empire_.]
[Footnote 4: 4th class in Northern Provinces.]
[Footnote 5: 6th class in Southern Provinces.]
[Footnote 6: 4th class in Northern Provinces.]
[Footnote 7: 5th class in Southern Provinces.]
[Footnote 8: 4th class in Southern Provinces.]
[Footnote 9: 3rd class in Southern Provinces.]
[Footnote 10: 7th class in Southern Provinces.]
[Footnote 11: 3rd class in Northern Provinces.]
[Footnote 12: 3 feet minimum girth in Northern Provinces.]
[Footnote 13: 2nd class in Northern Provinces.]
[Footnote 14: 3 feet minimum girth in Northern Provinces.]
[Footnote 15: 6 feet minimum girth in Southern Provinces.]
[Footnote 16: 4 feet minimum girth in Southern Provinces.]
[Footnote 17: _Colonial Report_, 88, Oil Seeds, Fats and Waxes, Imperial
Institute, 1914.]
[Footnote 18: _Colonial Report_, 88, Oil Seeds, Fats and Waxes, Imperial
Institute, 1914.]
[Footnote 19: _Colonial Report_, 88, Oil Seeds, Fats and Waxes, Imperial
Institute, 1914.]
[Footnote 20: _Colonial Report_, 88, Oil Seeds, Fats and Waxes, Imperial
Institute, 1914.]
[Footnote 21: _Colonial Report_, 88, Oil Seeds, Fats and Waxes, Imperial
Institute, 1914.]
[Footnote 22: _Colonial Report_, 88, Oil Seeds, Fats and Waxes, Imperial
Institute, 1914.]
[Footnote 23: _Colonial Report_, 88, Oil Seeds, Fats and Waxes, Imperial
Institute, 1914.]
[Footnote 24: _Colonial Report_, 88, Oil Seeds, Fats and Waxes, Imperial
Institute, 1914.]
[Footnote 25: _Colonial Report_, 88, Oil Seeds, Fats and Waxes, Imperial
Institute, 1914.]
[Footnote 26: _Official Report_, Oil Seeds, Fats and Waxes, Imperial
Institute, 1914.]
Transcriber's note:
+--------+-----------------------------+-----------------------------+
| Page | Printed as | Changed to |
+--------+-----------------------------+-----------------------------+
|multiple|[Albizzia] fastigata |fastigiata |
| pages| | |
| | | |
|multiple|Tschandjo |Tschaudjo |
| pages| | |
| | | |
| 13|near Oniloku Road, Olokemji |Olokemeji |
| |Reserve | |
| | | |
| 14|Oshun River, looking |downstream |
| |downstrean | |
| | | |
| 19|_Ugenia Owariensis_ |_Eugenia_ |
| | | |
| 33|_Ansophyllea laurina_ |_Anisophyllea_ |
| | | |
| 36|squares, which occude only |occlude |
| |very gradually. | |
| | | |
| 46|probably Petophorum sp. |Peltophorum |
| | | |
| 46|_Cassia Siberiana_ |_Sieberiana_ |
| | | |
| 51|_Fluggea microcarpa_ |_Flueggea_ |
| | | |
| 51|_Antidesma lacinatum_ |_laciniatum_ |
| | | |
| 54|_Cola augustifolia_ |_angustifolia_ |
| | | |
| 55|_Visinia leonensis_ |_Vismia_ |
| | | |
| 58|_Polydoa Elliotii_ |_Polyadoa_ |
| | | |
| 62|near _R. candata_ |_caudata_ |
| | | |
| 68|_Elæsis Guineensis_ |_Elæis_ |
| | | |
| 70|_Elæsis Guineensis_ |_Elæis_ |
| | | |
| 77|_Tetracera ærocarpa_ |_leiocarpa_ |
| | | |
| 81|natives cut a ew trees at a |a few |
| |time | |
| | | |
| 83|_Treculia africana_. |Izaquente |
| |Izaqueute Portugais | |
| | | |
| 84|_Stenanthera Laniate_ |_hamata_ |
| | | |
| 85|Heudje, Heugué (Agni) |Hendje, Hengué (Agni) |
| | | |
| 86|_Charia Indiensis_ |_Indeniensis_ |
| | | |
| 86|_Macaranga Hendelotii_ |_Heudelotii_ |
| | | |
| 87|=Syctopetalaceæ= |=Scytopetalaceæ= |
| | | |
| 87|_Rhaptopetalum Sieghemi_ |_Tieghemi_ |
| | | |
| 88|_Combretum vivoflora_ |_Combretodendron viridiflora_|
| | | |
| 88|_Memycylon polyanthemos_ |_Memecylon_ |
| | | |
| 98|_Cynometra Alzelii_ |_Afzelii_ |
| | | |
| 99|Flowers more brilliant then |than |
| |_C. fistula_ | |
| | | |
| 100|_Distemonanthus Benthamiam_ |_Benthamianus_ |
| | | |
| 100|_Hugonia playsepala_ |_platysepala_ |
| | | |
| 100|_Harrisonia Abyssinia_ |_Abyssinica_ |
| | | |
| 100|=Bursuraceæ= |=Burseraceæ= |
| | | |
| 102|=Malphigeaceæ= |=Malpigheaceæ= |
| | | |
| 104|=Celastiaceæ= |=Celastraceæ= |
| | | |
| 105|_Thespesia populuea_ |_populnea_ |
| | | |
| 106|_Nansonia altissima_ |_Mansonia_ |
| | | |
| 108|_Anopyxis ealænis_ |_ealænsis_ |
| | | |
| 110|_Vincentella ampressa_ |_impressa_ |
| | | |
| 110|_Diospyros xanthoxplamys_ |_xanthochlamys_ |
| | | |
| 116|the nonal dry-zone vegetation|normal |
| | | |
| 122|_Terminalia catalpa_ |_catappa_ |
| | | |
| 122|_Manihot Glaziovii_ and |_dichotoma_ |
| |_Manihot dichotama_ | |
| | | |
| 123|_Manihot dichotama_ |_dichotoma_ |
| | | |
| 125|overlooking the Volto Valley |Volta |
| | | |
| 125|Ceara Rubber, and Ramboug |Rambong |
| |Rubber | |
| | | |
| 127|_Oxytenanthera Abyssinia_ |_Abyssinica_ |
| | | |
| 127|_Hyphæne corioceæ_ |_coriaceæ_ |
| | | |
| 128|_Agava Sisalana_ |_Agave_ |
| | | |
| 129|_Myrianthus seratus_ |_serratus_ |
| | | |
| 129|_Ficus vallis chondæ_ |_choudæ_ |
| | | |
| 129|_Ficus toliifolia_ |_tiliifolia_ |
| | | |
| 129|_Ficus dusenwides_ |_dusenoides_ |
| | | |
| 129|_Faures speciosa_ |_Faurea_ |
| | | |
| 130|_Hexalobus morepetalus_ |_monopetalus_ |
| | | |
| 131|_Entanda scandens_ |_Entada_ |
| | | |
| 131|_Entanda Abyssinia_ |_Entada Abyssinica_ |
| | | |
| 133|_Berlinia accuminata_ |_acuminata_ |
| | | |
| 133|_Cassia Siberiana_ |_Sieberiana_ |
| | | |
| 134|_Fagara xanthoxyloides_ |_zanthoxyloides_ |
| | | |
| 137|_Thespesia populuea_ |_populnea_ |
| | | |
| 141|_Pachystela cinera_ |_cinerea_ |
| | | |
| 141|the Butyspermum in colour |Butyrospermum |
| | | |
| 142|_Anothocleista Kerstingii_ |_Anthocleista_ |
| | | |
| 148|Terminalia catalpa |catappa |
| | | |
| 148|Poinciana repanophylla |drepanophylla |
| | | |
| 148|Manihot dichotama |dichotoma |
| | | |
| 148|Ficus Sclechteri |Schlechteri |
| | | |
| 174|Lagostræmia (_Lagostræmia |Lagerstrœmia |
| |flos Reginæ_) | |
| | | |
| 176|_Berrya Ommomilla_ |_Ammomilla_ |
| | | |
| 176|_Copaifera salicikounda_ |_salikounda_ |
| | | |
| 177|_Entandrophragma Condollei_ |_Candollei_ |
| | | |
| 178|_Diospyros mespeliformis_ |_mespiliformis_ |
| | | |
| 191|two species of _Anasphrenium_|_Anaphrenium_ |
| | | |
| 192|_Moralia Senegalensis_ |_Morelia_ |
| | | |
| 192|_Tœcazea Barteri_ |_Tacazzea_ |
| | | |
| 194|_Giesekia pharnaceoides_ |_Gisekia_ |
| | | |
| 194|a few of _Merrimia_ |_Merremia_ |
| | | |
| 194|SCROPHULARACEÆ |SCROPHULARIACEÆ |
| | | |
| 194|_Blepharis_, _Monechma_, |_Justicia_ |
| |_Justocoa_ | |
| | | |
| 195|_Hyphæna Thebaica_ |_Hyphæne_ |
| | | |
| 196|_Sorghum vulgare_, var. |_saccharatum_ |
| |_saccharantum_ | |
| | | |
| 196|_Agelæa_ and _Cnestic_ |_Cnestis_ |
| | | |
| 197|_Plenisceras Barteri_ |_Pleioceras_ |
| | | |
| 197|_Alchornea cordate_ |_cordata_ |
| | | |
| 199|CURCURBITACEÆ |CUCURBITACEÆ |
| | | |
| 201|_Vetweria zizanoides_ |_Vetiveria_ |
| | | |
| 201|_Sterospermum Kunthianum_ |_Stereospermum_ |
| | | |
| 202|_Pseudrocedrela Kotschyi_ |_Pseudocedrela_ |
| | | |
| 203|_Erythrophlocum Guineense_ |_Erythrophlœum_ |
| | | |
| 204|mixed deciduous and |xerophilous |
| |xerophilus habit | |
| | | |
| 207|_Parkia filicoidia_ |_filicoidea_ |
| | | |
| 213|_Z. lujuba_, Lam. |_jujuba_ |
| | | |
| 214|_Diospyros mespeliformis_ |_mespiliformis_ |
| | | |
| 218|Elæsis Guineensis |Elæis |
| | | |
| 218|Kano and Katugum |Katagum |
| | | |
| 219|Uwar yara (Kano, Katagum), |Haguguwa |
| |syn. Kaguguwa | |
| | | |
| 221|Toruba Wild Indigo |Yoruba |
| | | |
| 221|Boswellia Dalzielli |Dalzielii |
| | | |
| 222|[Zizyphus jujuba] Margariya |Magariya |
| | | |
| 222|[Zizyphus mucronata] |Magariyar |
| |Margariyar kura | |
| | | |
| 224|Diospyrus mespiliformis |Diospyros |
| | | |
| 225|[Adina microcephala] |Kadanyar |
| |Hadanyar rafi | |
| | | |
| fc. 228|Cedrela odrata (Cigar-box |odorata |
| (fig.|Cedar) | |
| 47)| | |
| | | |
| 231|_Oromosia monophylla_ |_Ormosia_ |
| | | |
| 232|_Xanthoxylon Senegalensis_ |_Zanthoxylon_ |
| | | |
| 233|_Garoinia conrauana_ |_Garcinia_ |
| | | |
| 240|_Calamus dearatus_ |_deerratus_ |
| | | |
| 241|_Elæsis Guineensis_. The Oil |_Elæis_ |
| |Palm | |
| | | |
| 242|_Elæsis Guineensis_ |_Elæis_ |
| | | |
|243 (x3)|_Elæsis_ |_Elæis_ |
| | | |
| 246|_Dracæna Perottetii_ |_Perrottetii_ |
| | | |
| 246|_Clinogyne_, syn. _Donax |_cuspidata_ |
| |cusputata_ | |
| | | |
|250 (x2)|_Antiarus_ |_Antiaris_ |
| | | |
| 256|_Treculia Africana_ (Dene) |Decne |
| | | |
| 259|_Loranthus leptolopus_ |_leptolobus_ |
| | | |
| 259|_Cissampelos Pariera_ |_Pareira_ |
| | | |
| 266|_Cratæva Adansonii_ (Guill. |Guill. et Perr. |
| |et Pierre) | |
| | | |
| 266|_Cappiaris Thonningii_ |_Capparis_ |
| | | |
| 270|_Cassia toro_ |_tora_ |
| | | |
| 284|FIG. 62.—=Base of Bilinga= |FIG. 61. |
| (plate| | |
| facing)| | |
| | | |
| 301|_Distemanthus Benthaniami_ |_Distemonanthus Benthamianus_|
| | | |
| 312|_Clausena Amsata_ |_Anisata_ |
| | | |
| 307|_Druosia laxiflora_ |_Ormosia_ |
| | | |
| 334|_Uapaca Guineensis_ (Much. |Muell. Arg. |
| |and Arg.) | |
| | | |
| 337|may be the same as _Uafaca |_Uapaca_ |
| |Heudelotii_ | |
| | | |
| 343|_Deinbollia primata_ |_pinnata_ |
| | | |
| 343|_Zisyphus mucronata_ |_Zizyphus_ |
| | | |
| 344|_Hibiscus quinquilobus_ (C. |G. Don |
| |Don) | |
| | | |
| 359|_Gomphia glabriana_ |_glaberrima_ |
| | | |
| 359|_Gomphia_ nr. _offinium_ |_affinis_ |
| | | |
| 361|it it probable that the nuts |it is |
| | | |
| 366|_Flacourtia flabescens_ |_flavescens_ |
| | | |
| 381|_Diosypros mespiliformis_. |_Diospyros_ |
| |Monkey Guava | |
| | | |
| 382|having brown tomatose hairs |tomentose |
| | | |
| 388|_Diospyros xanthoxyplamys_ |_xanthochlamys_ |
| | | |
| 392|_Landolphia Thompsonii_ |Chev. |
| |(Ches.) | |
| | | |
| 394|_Polyodoa umbellata_ |_Polyadoa_ |
| | | |
| 394|_Lophia procera_ |_Lophira_ |
| | | |
| 395|_Strophanthus bispidus_ |_hispidus_ |
| | | |
| 395|one much smallar than the |smaller |
| |other | |
| | | |
| 399|_Clerodendron volubulu_ |_volubile_ |
| | | |
| 400|_Stereospermum |_acuminatissimum_ |
| |accuminatissimum_ | |
| | | |
| 407|_Randia malliefera_ |_malleifera_ |
| | | |
| 407|_Randia cladanthra_ |_cladantha_ |
| | | |
| 407|_Randia cordata_ |_caudata_ |
| | | |
| 407|_Mussænda termiflora_ |_tenuiflora_ |
| | | |
| 410|_Lycopodium phyllamaria_ |_phlegmaria_ |
| | | |
| 410|_Eucalyptus tessitaris_ |_tesselaris_ |
| | | |
|416 (x2)|_Entandrophragma Condollei_ |_Candollei_ |
| | | |
| 416|Terminalia, Scutifera |_Terminalia scutifera_ |
| | | |
| 417|_Dialium Standtii_ |_Staudtii_ |
| | | |
| 417|_Triplochiton schleroxylon_ |_scleroxylon_ |
| | | |
| 420|_Elæsis Guineensis_ |_Elæis_ |
| | | |
| 422|_Sarcocephalus Pobegundii_ |_Pobeguinii_ |
| | | |
| 425|_Elæsis Guineensis_ |_Elæis_ |
| | | |
| 430|_Distemonanthus Benthamiasus_|_Benthamianus_ |
| | | |
| 430|_Indigofera Africeps_ |_Atriceps_ |
| | | |
| 431|_Daniella caudata_ |_Daniellia_ |
| | | |
| 432|_Pachylobus edulis_ (G. Dom) |G. Don |
| | | |
| 433|_Turracanthus Zenkeri_ |_Turraeanthus_ |
| | | |
| 433|_Ricinodrendron Africanum_ |_Ricinodendron_ |
| | | |
| 434|_Antidesma lacimiatum_ |_laciniatum_ |
| | | |
| 434|_Trichoxypha Bipindensis_ |_Trichoscypha_ |
| | | |
| 436|_Cold acuminata_ |_Cola_ |
| | | |
| 436|_Cola suleata_ |_sulcata_ |
| | | |
| 436|_Triplochiton sceleroxylon_ |_scleroxylon_ |
| | | |
| 436|=Syctopetalaceæ= |=Scytopetalaceæ= |
| | | |
| 437|_Flacourtia Ramintilii_ |_Ramontchii_ |
| | | |
| 438|_Alangium hegonifolium_ |_begonifolium_ |
| | | |
| 439|_Diospyros sauveolens_ |_suaveolens_ |
| | | |
| 439|_Diospyros Gilgiano_ |_Gilgiana_ |
| | | |
| 439|_Diospyros mespeliformis_ |_mespiliformis_ |
| | | |
| 440|_Ranwolfia macrophylla_ |_Rauwolfia_ |
| | | |
| 440|_Rauwolfia vomitosia_ |_vomitoria_ |
| | | |
| 440|_Ipomæa involvucrata_ |_involucrata_ |
| | | |
| 441|_Canthium glabriforum_ |_glabriflorum_ |
| | | |
| 450|_Phyostigma venenosum_ |_Physostigma_ |
| | | |
| 459|_Chrysobalamus sp._ |_Chrysobalanus_ |
| | | |
| 462|_Garcinia conrauna_ |_conrauana_ |
| | | |
| 466|[_Elæis Guineensis_ Var.] |_Macrocarya_ |
| |_Marcrocarya_ | |
| | | |
| 469|going along th Akpaboyo Road |the |
| | | |
| 488|on to neighbouring |agricultural |
| |agrcultural land | |
+--------+-----------------------------+-----------------------------+
Other than the changes above, taxon names haven't been standardized.
Most of the changes above affecting taxon names have also been made
in the INDEX, as well as several other spelling changes for
consistency with the main text.
Index entries with changed spelling have been moved or merged when
necessary.
Additionally, some changes in punctuation have been done silently.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WEST AFRICAN FORESTS AND FORESTRY ***
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.
Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following
the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use
of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation
of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project
Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may
do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected
by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark
license, especially commercial redistribution.
START: FULL LICENSE
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG™ LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person
or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg License when
you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country other than the United States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other
immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg work (any work
on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the
phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg™ License included with this eBook or online
at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws
of the country where you are located before using this eBook.
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg electronic work is
derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg work in a format
other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg electronic works
provided that:
• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg works calculated using the method
you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
to the owner of the Project Gutenberg trademark, but he has
agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation.”
• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™
works.
• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of
any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
receipt of the work.
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right
of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg
Project Gutenberg is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.
The Foundation’s business office is located at 41 Watchung Plaza #516,
Montclair NJ 07042, USA, +1 (862) 621-9288. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread
public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state
visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.
This website includes information about Project Gutenberg,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
